Ess Math SK DT de

Essential Maths Skills
for AS/A-level
Design and
Technology
Design engineering
Peter Warne and Chris Walker
1863530 Ess Maths series TD_.indd 1 23/03/2018 11:41

417069_FM_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_001-002.indd 1 01/06/18 3:52 PM
Contents
1 Using numbers and percentages
1.3 Equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Scientific and engineering formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Ratios and percentages

2.2 Ratios and mechanisms (design
engineering/engineering design) �� 13
4 Use of trigonometry
4.4 Direction of movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Resolving force vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 Use and analysis of data, charts and

graphs
5.7 Graphs of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.8 Engineering graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.9 Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers
417069_FM_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_001-002.indd 2 01/06/18 3:52 PM

1.3 Equations of motion

Is movement a scalar or a vector quantity?
Scalars and vectors are discussed in Chapter 6. A scalar quantity has magnitude
(size) only, while a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. When
discussing movement, you should be clear whether you are dealing with scalars or
vectors. For example:
■ ‘A ball is thrown at 3 m s−1’ is describing the speed of a ball, with no mention of
direction, as speed is a scalar quantity.
■■ ‘A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 3 m s−1’ is describing both the speed and
direction (vertically upwards). This is called velocity and velocity is a vector quantity.
Table 1.9 summarises the scalar and vector quantities associated with movement.
Table 1.9 Scalar and vector quantities associated with movement
Scalar Vector
Distance Displacement (distance in a specific direction)
Measured in m Measured in m, e.g. ‘The robot travels 5.6 m in
e.g. ‘The robot travels 5.6 m’ a forward direction’
Speed Velocity (speed in a specific direction)
Measured in m s−1 Measured in m s−1
e.g. ‘The robot moves at 0.7 m s−1’ e.g. ‘The robot moves at 0.7 m s−1 up the
inclined ramp’
Time Acceleration (rate at which velocity changes)
Measured in s Measured in m s−2
e.g. ‘The robot takes 8.0 s to complete the course’ e.g. ‘The robot accelerates forwards at 0.5 m s−2’
Force
Measured in N
e.g. ‘There is a friction force of 2.0 N acting
against the direction of travel’
TIP
Deceleration is just acceleration in the opposite direction (remember, acceleration is a
vector, so it has direction). In many calculations, deceleration is just negative acceleration.
For example, a deceleration of 4 m s−2 is the same as an acceleration of −4 m s−2.
1 Using numbers and percentages 3
417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 3 01/06/18 3:38 PM

Velocity or speed
The velocity of an object is the displacement (the distance it moves in a specified

direction) in one second:
displacement
velocity =
time taken
s
v=
t
(Most textbooks use the symbol s to represent displacement — don’t confuse this symbol
with speed, or with the symbol used to represent time in seconds.)
Displacement is measured in metres (m), time in seconds (s), so velocity is measured in
‘metres per second’ (m s−1).
TIP
If there is no need to specify the direction of motion (which is often the case), then
you can replace velocity with speed, which is more familiar to most people.
distance travelled
speed =
time taken
d
s =
t
(To avoid doubt, s in this equation is speed, not displacement!)
This equation assumes that the speed stays constant during the time over which it is
measured. If the speed changes, then the equation will give the average speed over
the time it is being measured.
Equations of motion
There are three equations of motion which you need to know. These equations are
extremely useful as they allow design engineers to predict how fast objects will be
moving and where they will be at a specific time, even if the object is accelerating or
decelerating. They can be used only if the acceleration stays constant over time.
The equations of motion are:
v = u + at
s = ut + 12 at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
You must learn these equations.
In all these equations:
■■ u = start velocity (m s−1) ■ t = time (s)
■■ v = end velocity (m s−1) ■ s = displacement (m)
■■ a = acceleration (m s−2)
Deciding which equation to use to solve a particular problem depends on what you need
to calculate and what you already know.
4 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

A Worked example

During tests, a prototype electric bike accelerates from a standstill to a speed of 5.3 m s−1 in 3.0 s.
Calculate the acceleration of the bike and how far it will have travelled 7.0 s after it started if the
bike continues to accelerate at the same rate.
Step 1: Calculate the acceleration:
v = u + at
v−u
a=
t
5.3 − 0
a=
3
a = 1.77 m s−2
Step 2: Decide which equation of motion to use. To do this, write down all the parameters you know:
u=0
a = 1.77 m s−2
t = 7s
We need to calculate s.
The equation of motion to use because it contains the parameters listed above is:
s = ut + 12 at2
So for this problem:
s = (0 × 7.0) + (12 × 1.77 × 7.02)
s = 0 + 43.4
s = 43.4 m (to 1 d.p.)
The bike accelerates at 1.77 m s−2 and will have travelled 43.4 m after 7.0 s.
Freefalling objects
Objects falling under gravity are said to be in ‘freefall’. For the purposes of A-level
design and technology, we ignore the effects of air resistance.
On earth, objects in freefall will accelerate at 9.81 m s−2. This value is often labelled g.
g = 9.81 m s−2
Note that all freefalling objects accelerate at this value, irrespective of their mass.

TIP
The acceleration due to gravity (g) always acts vertically downwards. It is easy to
make mistakes when using g in calculations if you become confused about the vector
directions of acceleration, velocity and displacement. There are two ‘conventions’
that can be used:
■ Freefall motion downwards only: for this situation, it is easiest to consider the
downwards direction as positive, i.e. g is positive, downwards velocity is positive,
downwards displacement is positive.
■ Freefall motion upwards (and downwards): take the upwards direction as positive
and downwards as negative. Therefore, g is always negative (−9.81 m s−2), upwards
velocity is positive and upwards displacement is positive. Negative values for
velocity and displacement indicate a downwards direction.
A Worked example
Part of a design engineering project involves dropping a ball from a height of 2.0 m above the
ground. To develop an electronic timing system, the designer needs to know how long it will take
the ball to hit the ground and the speed it will be travelling as it hits the ground.
Step 1: Write down all the parameters you know, in order to decide which equation of motion to
use. This situation involves only downwards freefall motion, so we will use the convention that the
downwards direction is positive:
u=0
a = g = 9.81 m s−2
s = 2.0 m
We need to calculate t and v.
There are two calculation routes we could follow:
Route A:
Use s = ut + 12at2 to find t, then use v = u + at to find v.
Route B:
Use v2 = u2 + 2as to find v, then use v = u + at to find t.
Both routes are equally valid. For this example, we will use Route B.
Step 2: Calculate v:
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = 0 + (2 × 9.81 × 2.0)
v2 = 39.24
v= 39.24 = 6.26 m s−1 (to 2 d.p.)

Step 3: Calculate t:

v = u + at
v−u
t=
a
6.26 − 0
t= = 0.64 s (to 2 d.p.)
9.81
The ball will take 0.64 s to hit the ground and will be travelling at a speed of 6.26 m s−1.
B Guided question
1 A design engineering team are entering a downhill cart race. Their vehicle
passes two speed sensors placed 75 m apart. The two speed sensors record
3.5 m s−1 and 14.2 m s−1 respectively. Calculate the acceleration of their vehicle.
Step 1: Write down all the parameters you know (u, v and s).
Step 2: You need to find a, so choose the equation of motion containing u, v, s and a.
Step 3: Rearrange the equation and substitute the values to find a.
1.4 Scientific and engineering formulae

In this section you will learn about the formulae that are compulsory science content for
design and technology. If you are studying a design engineering A-level you are likely
to use most of these formulae. However, if you are a product design or fashion and
textiles student you will only need to learn the formulae that are relevant to your course.
Your teacher will advise you exactly which formulae you must learn for the course you
are taking.
The engineer’s toolbox

Engineering is the practical application of scientific principles to solve real problems.
An engineer has a ‘toolbox’ of scientific formulae which they select and use to solve all
sorts of numeric problems. In the same way that a craftsman selects the best hand tool
for cutting metal or shaping wood, an engineer will analyse a problem, take appropriate
measurements, then select the best formula to calculate the quantity they need to know.
As an A-level student, you have already studied GCSE science and mathematics, so you will
have built up an impressive toolbox of engineering formulae, probably without realising it.
Table 1.10 summarises the scientific and engineering formulae that you may already have
learned from GCSE science and mathematics.

Table 1.10 Scientific and engineering formulae learned at GCSE
Formula in
Formula in words symbols Notes
mass (kg) m
density (kg m−3) = 3
d=
volume (m ) V
force (N) F
pressure (N m−2) = P=
area ( m 2 ) A
kinetic energy (J) = 12 × mass (kg) × (speed (m s−1))2 E = 12 mv2
force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m s−2) F = ma Newton’s second

law of motion
work done (energy) (J) = force (N) × distance (m) W = Fd
work done (energy) (J) E

power (W) = P=
time (s) t
momentum (kg m s−1) = mass (kg) × velocity (m s−1) p = mv
spring force (N) = spring constant (N m−1) × extension (m) F = ke Hooke’s law
weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field W = mg g = 9.81 N kg−1

strength, g (N kg−1)
gravitational potential energy (J) = mass (kg) × PE = mgh g = 9.81 N kg−1

gravitational field strength, g (N kg−1) × height (m)
charge (C) = current (A) × time (s) Q = It
potential difference (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω) V = IR Ohm’s law
energy transferred (J) = charge (C) × potential difference E = QV

(V)
power (W) = current (A) × potential difference (V) P = IV
power (W) = (current (A))2 × resistance (Ω) P = I 2R
wave speed (m s−1) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m) v = fλ
useful output energy (J) Eout

efficiency (%) = eff =
useful input energy (J) Ein
energy (J) = mass (kg) × specific heat capacity (J kg−1 °C−1) E = mcΔT
× temperature change (°C)
SI units
Scientific and engineering formulae are a mathematician’s way of showing relationships
between physical quantities. Most quantities are measured in SI units. The physical
quantities associated with scientific and engineering formulae, with their units and
symbols, are listed in Table 1.11.

Table 1.11 Summary of SI units and symbols

Physical quantity SI unit SI unit symbol
mass kilogram kg
length metre m
time second s
force newton N
weight newton N
energy joule J
power watt W (note: 1 W =
1 J s−1)
charge coulomb C
current amp A
potential difference volt V
resistance ohm Ω
frequency hertz Hz
temperature degrees Celsius °C
pressure pascal Pa (note: 1 Pa =
1 N m−2)
area m2
volume m3
density kg m−3
speed (velocity) m s−1
acceleration m s−2
momentum kg m s−1
TIP
Whenever you use a formula, be careful to put all the quantities into their proper SI
units, otherwise the result may be incorrect. For example:
A pneumatic system uses air at a pressure 2 × 105 N m−2. Calculate the force
exerted on a piston of area 7 cm2.
The pressure is in SI units (N m−2), but the area is not (cm2 is not an SI unit). The area
must be converted to m2 before it is used in the formula:
7cm 2
= 7 × 10−4 m2
(100 × 100)
F
Use the formula P =
A
F=P×A
F = (2 × 105) × (7 × 10−4)
F = 140 N

A Worked example
In an electronic project, a 39 Ω resistor is getting very hot, so a student decides to calculate the
power dissipated in the resistor. He measures the potential difference across the resistor as 9.2 V.
Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor.
Step 1: Write down the physical quantities that are known:
R = 39 Ω
V = 9.2 V
We need to calculate power (P).
Step 2: Decide which of the engineering formulae will help solve the problem:
Use V = IR to calculate the current (I) through the resistor.
Then use P = IV to calculate the power.
Step 3: Substitute the values and calculate the result:
V = IR
V
I=
R
9.2
I=
39
I = 0.236 A (to 3 d.p.)
P = IV
P = 0.236 × 9.2
P = 2.17 W (to 2 d.p.)
The resistor is dissipating 2.17 W.
Engineering and Table 1.12 Engineering and science

prefixes
science prefixes Prefix Symbol Multiple
Engineers and scientists frequently use prefixes tera T ×1012
before units as a shorthand way of writing very
giga G ×109
large or very small quantities (see Table 1.12).
Writing numbers in standard form (Section 1.1) mega M ×106
is another way of doing this, but using prefixes kilo k ×103
is quicker. Engineering prefixes all relate to milli m ×10−3
powers of ten in multiples of 3 (103, 106, 109 etc.).
micro µ ×10−6
nano n ×10−9
pico p ×10−12

A Worked example

Calculate the wavelength of radio waves which have a frequency of 20 GHz and a speed of
3 × 108 m s−1.
Step 1: Understand the relevance of the prefixes on the units:
20 GHz = 20 × 109 Hz
Step 2: Use the formula v = fλ to calculate wavelength:
8
λ = v = 3 × 10
f 20 × 109
λ = 0.015 m
The wavelength of the radio waves is 0.015 m.
TIP
The ENG button on a scientific calculator is a handy way of putting a calculated
answer back into an engineering unit.
For example, after calculating the answer 0.015 m in the above problem, press ENG
and the calculator will display 15 × 10−3 m, which is 15 mm (as × 10−3 is the prefix
‘milli’).
A-level engineering formulae

During your A-level Design Engineering course you will also learn the extra engineering
formulae summarised in Table 1.13.
Table 1.13 Extra engineering formulae you will learn for A-level Design Engineering
Formula in words Formula in symbols
force (N) F
stress (Pa) = stress =
cross − sectional area (m 2 ) A
extension (m) e
strain = strain =
original length (m) l
stress (Pa) Fl
E=
Young’s modulus (Pa) = Ae
strain
1 1
frequency (Hz) = f=
period (s) T
torque (or moment) (N m) = force (N) × τ = Fd

perpendicular distance to pivot (m)

B Guided questions
1 An 18 W heater is clamped to an aluminium block of mass 200 g. Calculate the

temperature rise of the block 10 minutes after the heater is switched on. The
specific heat capacity of aluminium is 910 J kg−1 °C−1.
E
Use the formula P = to calculate the energy E (in J) put into the aluminium block
t
over 10 minutes (remember, time must be in SI units of s).
Step 1: Rearrange the formula in terms of energy (E).
Step 2: Use the formula E = mcΔT to calculate the temperature rise ΔT (in °C) of the
aluminium block (remember, mass must be in SI units of kg).
2 A steel wire is being used to lift a 5.0 kg mass. The wire is 1.8 m long and has
a diameter of 1.0 mm. Calculate the extension of the wire when the mass is
lifted off the ground. Young’s modulus for steel is 200 GPa. Gravitational field
strength g = 9.81 N kg−1.
Step 1: Calculate the weight (in N) of the 5.0 kg mass. This will be the tensile force
that is applied to the steel wire.
Step 2: Calculate the cross-sectional area (in m2) of the 1.0 mm diameter wire. (Hint:
convert the diameter into m before calculating the area.)
Use the formula for the area of a circle. Notice that, in engineering, we will always
measure the diameter of circular objects (we can’t measure radius directly), therefore
the formula A = πd2/4 is usually more convenient than A = πr2, although you will get
the same end result whichever formula is used.
Step 3: Calculate the stress in the steel wire.
Step 4: Use the Young’s modulus formula to calculate the strain in the steel wire.
Step 5: Once you know the strain, you can calculate the extension in the steel wire.
C Practice questions
3 At launch, an accelerometer in a model rocket records an acceleration of 120 m s−2 for
a period of 0.6 s. Calculate the velocity of the rocket after 0.6 s.
4 A prototype drone drops a small package which then parachutes to the ground. At
least 2 s of freefall must be allowed (for the parachute to safely deploy) before the
package hits the ground. Calculate the minimum altitude from which the package
must be dropped. g = 9.81 m s−2.
5 A motorbike has a mass of 200 kg and travels at a speed of 13 m s−1.
a Calculate the kinetic energy of the motorbike.
b Calculate the average braking force needed to stop the motorbike over a distance
of 20 m.
6 A prototype weighing scale uses a spring with a spring constant of 300 N m−1.
Calculate the extension of the spring in mm when a mass of 100 g is hung from it.
g = 9.81 N kg−1.

2.2 Ratios and mechanisms (design

engineering/engineering design)
A mechanism is a system designed to control forces and motion. Mechanisms have an
input and an output. They can be used to:
■■ increase or decrease forces
■■ change the direction in which a force acts
■■ increase or decrease distances moved (or speeds of motion)
■■ change the direction or type of motion.
When transferring forces and motion from input to output, a simple mechanism can either:
■■ reduce the distance moved but increase the force, or
■■ increase the distance moved but reduce the force
but it cannot do both these things at the same time. There is always a trade-off.
Mathematically, this trade-off can be written as an equation:
(input force × distance moved by input) = (output force × distance moved by output)
(This equation assumes that there is no friction present in the machine and that all the
energy put into the machine is transferred to the output.)
The equation can be rearranged into ratio form, to give this:
output force distance moved by input

=
input force distance moved by output
Mechanical advantage
The mechanical advantage (MA) of a mechanism is the ratio by which the mechanism
increases the input force.
output force
MA =
input force
Mechanical advantage is normally written as a decimal number.
Velocity ratio
The velocity ratio (VR) of a mechanism is the ratio by which the mechanism reduces
the distance (or speed) that the input moves.
distance moved by input
VR =
distance moved by output
Velocity ratio is normally written as a decimal number.
2 Ratios and percentages 13

Levers
The simplest example of a mechanism that controls and changes motion is a lever, which
consists of a rigid bar that turns on a fulcrum. The input force is often called the effort
and the output force is called the load.
The distance between the fulcrum and the force is called the arm length. The larger the
arm length, the larger the distance the force must move.
Figure 2.6 shows that because the output arm length is smaller than the input arm length,
the load moves through a smaller distance than the effort. Therefore, between the input
and the output, this mechanism has the effect of reducing the distance moved, which
means it must increase the force.
Big load Load moves through
small distance
Small
output
arm length Fulcrum
Big input
arm length
Small effort
Effort moves
through big
distance
Figure 2.6 A brake pedal is a lever
The ratio of the distances moved by the effort and the load are determined by the ratio of
the arm lengths:
distance moved by effort input arm length

=
distance moved by load output arm length
Therefore, for a lever, we can bring together the three ratios that relate to mechanisms:
load distance moved by effort input arm length

MA = = =
effort distance moved by load output arm length
A Worked example
Refer to the brake pedal in Figure 2.6. The input arm length is 240 mm and the output arm length
is 40 mm. Calculate the effort force needed to produce a load of 180 N.
Step 1: Calculate the mechanical advantage of the brake pedal lever:
input arm length 240
MA = = =6
output arm length 40

Step 2: Use the mechanical advantage to calculate the effort force:

load
MA =
effort
load 180
effort = = = 30 N
MA 6
The effort force needed is 30 N.
Gear ratios
In rotational mechanisms, gears are often used to change
rotational speeds and torques (torque is a turning force). Driver gear
15 teeth
The most common form of gears are spur gears, which
are effectively wheels with teeth around the perimeter.
A simple gear train consists of two gears which rotate
together, as shown in Figure 2.7.
The input gear is called the driver gear, the output gear is
called the driven gear.
number of teeth on driven gear Driven gear
gear ratio = 60 teeth
number of teeth on driver gear
Figure 2.7 A simple gear train
For the gears in Figure 2.7:
60
gear ratio = =4
15
The number of teeth on the gears determines how fast they rotate relative to each other.
Gears with more teeth rotate slower than gears with fewer teeth.
The ratio of the rotational speeds of the driven gear and the driver gear is determined by
the ratio of the number of teeth on the gears:
driver gear rotational speed number of teeth on driven gear

= = gear ratio
driven gear rotational speed number of teeth on driver gear
TIP
It may be easier to remember:
teeth on output gear
gear ratio =
teeth on input gear
input speed
gear ratio =
output speed
Rotational speed is often measured in rpm, or revolutions per minute.

A Worked example
A simple gear train consists of a driver gear with 15 teeth and a driven gear with 48 teeth. The
driver gear rotates at 400 rpm. Calculate the rotational speed of the driven gear.
Step 1: Calculate the gear ratio:
teeth on driven gear 48
gear ratio = = = 3.2
teeth on driver gear 15
Step 2: Use the gear ratio to calculate the speed of the driven gear:
driver gear speed
gear ratio =
driven gear speed
driver gear speed 400
driven gear speed = = = 125 rpm
gear ratio 3.2
B Guided question
1 A compound gear train consists of First stage Second stage
two stages of simple gear trains, Driver gear 36 teeth 40 teeth
connected such that the output Driven gear 12 teeth 10 teeth
from the first stage becomes the
input to the second stage. The gears used in this system are shown in the table.
a Calculate the overall gear ratio.
Step 1: Calculate the gear ratio of the first stage.
Step 2: Calculate the gear ratio of the second stage.
Step 3: The overall gear ratio is found by multiplying the gear ratios for each
stage. Note that, in this system, the overall gear ratio is less than 1.
b Calculate the output speed if the input speed is 100 rpm.
Use the overall gear ratio to work out the speed of the output. Note that this
system results in a speed increase.
2 Figure 2.8 shows a pair of pliers.
a Use the dimensions on Figure 2.8 to
Effort
calculate the mechanical advantage of 120 mm 40 mm
the pliers.
b Calculate the load force generated Fulcrum
when an effort of 75 N is applied.

Load
3 A lever-operated cutting tool needs to
generate a load force of 1000 N. The user
applies an effort force of 50 N. If the Effort
output arm length of the lever is 30 mm,
calculate the input arm length required. Figure 2.8 Pair of pliers

4 A simple gear train is being designed to reduce the speed of an electric motor from

3000 rpm to 600 rpm.
a Calculate the gear ratio required.
b Calculate the size of the driven gear required if the gear on the motor has
nine teeth.
5 A gear system is required to increase the speed of a wind turbine from 90 rpm to
270 rpm. The gear connected to the wind turbine has 48 teeth. Calculate the number
of teeth needed on the other gear.
6 A compound gear train is made from two identical simple gear trains. The overall
gear ratio is 20.25. Calculate the gear ratio of each simple gear train.

4.4 Direction of movement

(OCR Design Engineering only)
Vectors in two dimensions

We live in a three-dimensional world: Vertical
(up–down)
■■ horizontal (forward–backward)
■■ horizontal (left–right)
■■ vertical (up–down). Horizontal
(forward–backward)
Mathematically, we sometimes draw these three
directions as ‘axes’, as shown in Figure 4.36.
Dealing with movement in three dimensions is
complicated. For the purposes of A-level Design Horizontal
and Technology, you may need to solve problems (left–right)
involving movement in two dimensions; you will Figure 4.36 Three dimensions as
not need to cope with three-dimensional movement axes
at this level. This section explains how to split
a two-dimensional motion vector into two one-
dimensional vectors, which are much easier to deal
with and use in calculations. Then we will see how
to combine the two one-dimensional vectors back
into a single two-dimensional vector.
When motion is represented by a two-dimensional diagram, you need to be clear whether
you are looking at a vertical plane (a sideways view of the motion) or a horizontal plane
(a top view). This matters because, in a sideways view, the motion may be affected by the
force of gravity acting downwards, while, in a top view, gravity has no particular effect.
Resolving a vector
See Section 1.3 for information about vector and scalar quantities.
A vector is drawn graphically as an arrow which points in the specified direction and the
length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector.
Every vector can be represented by two other vectors acting at right angles to each other.
Therefore, it is possible to split a single vector into two perpendicular vectors, which can
be very useful. This process is called resolving a vector into two components.

(Vx)
Vy V (Vy)
is the same as Vy
V these two vectors q
q added together Vx Vx
Figure 4.37 Resolving a vector into two components
In Figure 4.37 the single velocity vector V can be represented by the two perpendicular
component vectors Vx and Vy. These component vectors graphically form a rectangle with
a height Vy and a length Vx. The diagonal of this rectangle is the original vector V, which
forms an angle θ with the horizontal. Notice how the magnitude of either component is
always less than or equal to the original vector.
You should be able to see that the vectors in Figure 4.37 form a triangle. Consequently,
trigonometry and Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to calculate the magnitudes of the
components.
Using trigonometry to find the Vx component:
TIP
V
cos θ = x You may find it useful to remember:
V
■■ to find the component that is adjacent to the
Vx = V cosθ
angle, use cos
and to find the Vy component: ■■ to find the component that is opposite the angle,
Vy use sin.
sin θ = This is similar to the SOHCAHTOA rule, so it
V
should be easy to remember.
V y = V sin θ
A Worked examples
a A model rocket is launched at an angle of 15° to V
the vertical. If it leaves the launch pad at a speed of
30 m s−1, calculate the horizontal component of the 15° 15°
Vy
rocket’s velocity.
Figure 4.38 shows the rocket’s velocity vector V and
its horizontal and vertical components. We need the
Vx = V sin 15°
horizontal component Vx, which is opposite the 15°
angle, so:
Vx = V sin θ = 30 sin 15°
Vx = 7.76 m s−1 (to 2 d.p.) Figure 4.38 Model rocket launch

Answer: The horizontal component of the rocket’s velocity is 7.76 m s−1.
4 Use of trigonometry 19

b A speed-sensing project is being developed to measure the speed of a car. The car is travelling
at a velocity of 20 m s−1 at an angle of 45° to the sensor. What speed will the sensor record?
Figure 4.39 shows the vectors in this problem. The speed sensor will record the component of the
car’s velocity heading directly towards the sensor. Therefore, it is necessary to resolve the car’s
velocity and find the velocity component that is directly towards the speed sensor.
20 m s–1
V
Vy
Car
45° 45°
Sensor
Vx = V cos 45°
Figure 4.39 Speed-sensing project
Vx is the component we need and, as this is adjacent to the 45° angle:

Vx = V cos θ
Vx = 20 cos 45°
Vx = 14.1 m s−1 (to 1 d.p.)
Answer: The speed sensor will record 14.1 m s −1.
(Notice that, in this example, as the angle is 45° the other component Vy will also be 14.1 m s−1.)
Finding the resultant of two vectors

Two perpendicular vectors can be combined into a single (Vx)
resultant vector. This is the opposite process to resolving
a vector. Vy V (Vy)
q
Figure 4.40 shows the vertical and horizontal components
Vx
of velocity. The resultant velocity vector V is the
Figure 4.40 Vertical and
hypotenuse of a triangle. Pythagoras’ theorem is used to
horizontal components
find the resultant velocity vector: of velocity
V = Vx2 + V y2
The angle of the vector can be found using trigonometry:
Vy
tan θ =
Vx
See the next section on projectile motion for an example of how this is put into use.
Projectile motion
A projectile is an object thrown through the air.
■■ The only force acting on a projectile is gravity.

■■ The effect of air resistance is (usually) ignored.
■■ A projectile follows a curved path through the air.
Projectile motion is two-dimensional motion, so always resolve the motion into
horizontal and vertical components and then deal with these separately. Once you have
done this, remember these two rules:
■■ Horizontal velocity remains constant (assuming no air resistance).
■■ Vertical velocity accelerates due to gravity.
To calculate how the vertical velocity of a projectile changes in flight, apply the equations
of motion which you learned in Section 1.3.
To solve projectile motion problems, the following steps are carried out:
1 Resolve the initial velocity of the projectile into horizontal and vertical components.
Leave the horizontal component alone – remember, it stays constant.
2 Use the equations of motion on the vertical component of velocity as the projectile
travels through the air, remembering that the vertical acceleration is that of gravity
(g = 9.81 m s−2).
3 If necessary, find the resultant velocity by combining the unchanged horizontal
component and the new vertical component of velocity, and calculate the angle of the
resultant.
A Worked example
A prototype tennis ball-launching machine projects a ball at 13 m s−1 at an angle of 35° above
horizontal, as shown in Figure 4.41. Calculate:
i the maximum height of the ball
ii the range of the ball (range: the horizontal distance of travel).
i Step 1: Resolve the initial velocity of the projectile into horizontal and vertical components.
7.5 m s–1
Height
35°
Range
Figure 4.41 Prototype tennis ball-launching machine
horizontal component of velocity Vx = 13 cos 35° = 10.6 m s−1 (to 1 d.p.)

vertical component of velocity Vy = 13 sin 35° = 7.5 m s−1 (to 1 d.p.)
Step 2: Find the maximum height, using the vertical component of velocity.
Use the equation v2 = u2 + 2as:
Initial velocity u = +7.5 m s−1. This is a positive value because velocity is a vector, and we will take
upwards motion as positive, downwards as negative.
Final velocity v = 0 because the maximum height occurs when the ball has stopped moving vertically
upwards.
Acceleration a = −9.81 m s−2. The minus sign indicates that the acceleration vector acts downwards.

Displacement s — this is the height that we will calculate.
v 2 − u2 0 − 7.52
s= =
2a (
2 × −9.81 )
s = 2.87 m (to 2 d.p.)
ii To find the range it is necessary to know the flight time, that is the time for which the ball is in the
air. This can be found by calculating the time taken for the ball to reach its maximum height and
then doubling it because the ball will take the same length of time to fall back to the ground.
Step 3: Find the time taken to reach maximum height.
Use the equation v = u + at, remembering to deal with vertical motion only.
Final velocity v = 0
Initial velocity u = +7.5 m s−1
Acceleration a = −9.81 m s−2
v − u 0 − 7.5
t= =
a −9.81
t = 0.76 s
Therefore, total flight time = 2 × 0.76 = 1.52 s.
Step 4: Find the horizontal range.
The horizontal component of velocity stays constant, so if we know the flight time of the ball, then
we can calculate how far it will travel in a horizontal direction:
distance
speed =
time
distance = speed × time
distance = 10.6 × 1.52
distance = 16.1 m (to 1 d.p.)
Answer: The tennis ball will reach a maximum height of 2.87 m and its range will be 16.1 m.
B Guided question
1 A crop irrigation system uses a jet to project water horizontally at a speed
of 8 m s−1. Calculate the minimum height at which the jet must be mounted
above the ground for the water to hit the ground 4 m horizontally away from
the jet.
Step 1: Draw a side-view two-dimensional diagram of the problem, labelling the
known vectors. Mark the unknown height h of the jet on the diagram.
Step 2: Write down the initial horizontal and vertical components of the water’s
velocity.
Step 3: Calculate the time taken for the water to travel a horizontal distance of 4 m.
1
Step 4: Use the equation s = ut + at2 to calculate the vertical height s, given that you
2
know t and a.

For both questions, sketch a labelled diagram before attempting to solve the problem.
Take g = 9.81 m s−2.
2 A student is developing a table tennis serving machine. The machine projects a ball
horizontally at a height 0.5 m above the table. Calculate the velocity at which the ball
must be served so that it hits the table a horizontal distance of 2.0 m from the serving
machine.
3 A bicycle stunt ramp is being designed. If a rider leaves the ramp at a velocity of
6 m s−1 at an angle 10° above horizontal, calculate the horizontal distance the rider
will travel before touching the ground again (ignore the height of the stunt ramp).
4.5 Resolving force vectors

A force vector can also be resolved into two perpendicular components and this is
useful in many situations in design engineering. To learn how to resolve a vector, refer to
Section 4.4.
Equilibrium
An object (or a point in a structure) which is stationary is in
Reaction force
equilibrium, which means that the overall force acting on the object from table
is zero. There may be individual forces acting, but they will balance
each other, leaving no net force.
An object sitting at rest on a table experiences a weight force due
to gravity, but this is balanced by an upward reaction force from Table
the table, leaving no resultant force, so the object remains at rest
(see Figure 4.42). Weight
For an object in equilibrium, the overall force is zero. Figure 4.42 Equilibrium
upward forces = downward forces
forces to the left = forces to the right
forces forwards = forces backwards
TIP
Objects moving at a constant velocity are also in equilibrium as they have no net
force acting on them.

A Worked example
Part of a design engineering project requires a lamp, Wall
which weighs 20 N, to be hung from the end of a

horizontal beam, as shown in Figure 4.43. The beam is
String
free to hinge at the wall and it must be held horizontal by
a string attached at an angle of 30°. Calculate the tension
30°
in the string.
Beam Lamp
Hinge
Begin by drawing a vector diagram showing the forces
20 N
acting at the end of the beam, as illustrated in Figure 4.44.
Figure 4.43 Lamp hanging from a beam
This point is in ‘equilibrium’, which means that the net force
acting is zero. F
F sin 30°
This horizontal force

The 20 N weight of the lamp acts vertically downwards. is the reaction force
The string applies a force F, which is resolved into two 30°
from the beam
components: F cos 30°
■■ The horizontal component, F cos 30°, creates a

compression force in the beam which we are not
20 N
interested in for this problem.
■■ The vertical component, F sin 30°, is balanced by the Figure 4.44 Vector diagram showing
lamp’s weight: forces
F sin 30° = 20
Therefore:
20
F= = 40 N
sin30°
Answer: The tension in the string is 40 N.
B Guided question
1 A robotic project uses a pneumatic cylinder to 400 mm
support a robot arm in a horizontal position, Hinge 200 mm
as shown in Figure 4.45. The end of the arm Robot arm
is supporting a 5 N weight. Calculate the 50°
5N
force being exerted by the pneumatic cylinder
(ignore the weight of the arm itself).
Step 1: Draw a force diagram for the robot arm,
Figure 4.45 Robotic project
showing the 5 N load and the force F exerted by
the cylinder; F acts upwards at an angle of 50° to the vertical.
Step 2: Resolve force F into vertical and horizontal components. Ignore the horizontal
component.
Step 3: The robot arm is acting like a lever, with a load force of 5 N and an
effort force equal to the vertical component of F. Knowing this, and knowing the
distances of the load and effort forces from the pivot, you should be able calculate
the value of F.

2 An engineering student uses a construction kit to build the simple structure shown in
Figure 4.46. If the compressive force in the strut S must not exceed 50 N, calculate the
maximum weight that can be hung from the structure.
300 mm
100 mm
S
Weight
Figure 4.46 Engineering student’s construction
3 A prototype winch mechanism is being developed to pull a cart up a slope. If the

slope incline is 8° and the weight of the cart is 500 N, calculate the force needed to
pull the cart up the slope at a steady speed.

5 Use and analysis of data,
charts and graphs
5.7 Graphs of motion

Graphs recording how the motion of an object changes over time are a powerful way of
representing a large amount of information in a compact, visual way.
Displacement–time graphs
When an object moves at constant velocity, its displacement (distance travelled in a
specific direction) changes at a steady rate, so a graph of displacement plotted against
time produces a straight line, as shown in Figure 5.22.
If an object accelerates, a curve is produced on its displacement–time graph, as in Figure 5.23.
Displacement
Displacement
Time Time
Figure 5.22 Displacement–time Figure 5.23 Displacement–time

graph showing constant velocity graph showing acceleration
Figure 5.24 shows various displacement–time graphs and their associated motions.
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement
Deceleration Stationary Stationary Negative constant

velocity (returning
to starting point)
Time Time Time Time
Figure 5.24 Displacement–time graphs for different types of motion
Try to develop an understanding of why each graph is a particular shape, rather than just
memorising them, as this will allow you to analyse new y
types of motion.
Change
Gradient in y
The gradient of a line graph describes the steepness Change in x

of the line (see Figure 5.25). The gradient of a graph is
calculated using the formula:
x
change in the y quantity Figure 5.25 Gradient of a
gradient =
change in the x quantity graph

For a displacement–time graph:
5 Use and analysis of data,charts and graphs

gradient = change in displacement
time taken
which is the same as the velocity.
The gradient of a displacement–time graph is equal to the velocity of the object.

A positive gradient (upward slope) means that the object is moving away from the start point.
A negative gradient (downward slope) means that the object is moving towards the
start point.
A Worked example 1.2
Displacement (m)
1.0
The displacement–time graph for a small robot is shown in
Figure 5.26. 0.8
0.6
i Calculate the velocity of the robot at 1.0 s and at 4.0 s.
0.4
ii Describe the motion of the robot over the 7.0 s.
0.2
i o find the velocity, calculate the gradients of the graph at
T
0
1.0 s and at 4.0 s. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
At 1.0 s, the line is horizontal, which is a gradient of zero, so Time (s)
the velocity is zero (the robot is stationary).
Figure 5.26 Displacement–time
At 4.0 s, the gradient is: graph for a small robot
gradient =
(1.2 − 0.6) = 0.6
(5 − 2 ) 3
gradient = velocity = 0.2 m s−1
ii
The robot remains stationary for the first 2 s, then it moves at a constant velocity of 0.2 m s−1 for the
next 3 s, before reversing direction and increasing speed. (We know this because the gradient becomes
negative and increases in steepness.)
If an object is accelerating, its displacement–time graph is a curve. See the example in

Figure 5.27.
4
Displacement (m)
3 B
2
(2.6 − 0.2)
1
A (5 − 1)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
Figure 5.27 Displacement–time graph for an accelerating object
5 Use and analysis of data,charts and graphs 27

If you need to find the average velocity of this object between 1 s and 5 s:
■■ draw a straight line (A–B) between the two points on the graph at 1 s and 5 s (such a
line, joining two points on a curve, is called a chord)
■■ find the gradient of the chord and this will be the average gradient of the curve (and,
therefore, the average velocity) between 1 s and 5 s:
(2.6 − 0.2)
gradient of chord (A–B) =
(5 − 1)
gradient (average velocity) = 2.4

4
= 0.6 m s−1
B Guided questions
1 Figure 5.28 shows displacement–time graphs for four different types of motion.
Identify which graph describes:
a Linear motion at constant velocity
b Reciprocating motion (back-and-forth linear motion)
c The motion of a buggy freewheeling down a steep hill
d The motion of a ball thrown vertically upwards.
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement
Graph A Graph B Graph C Graph D
Time Time Time Time
Figure 5.28 Displacement–time graphs for four different types of motion
2 The displacement–time graph for a lift is shown in Figure 5.29.
25
Displacement (m)
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 5.29 Displacement–time graph for a lift
a Calculate the velocity of the lift at 4.0 s.

Velocity is equal to the gradient of the displacement–time graph.
b Calculate the average velocity of the lift over the first 9 s.

Velocity–time graphs

Velocity–time graphs are also a useful way of analysing the motion of objects.
change in velocity
gradient =
time taken
which is the same as the acceleration.
The gradient of a velocity–time graph is equal to the acceleration of the object.
A positive gradient (upward slope) means acceleration.
A negative gradient (downward slope) means deceleration.
The area under the line is also significant in a velocity–time graph. To calculate the area
under the line you will multiply a velocity quantity by a time quantity, which is the same
as calculating distance travelled.
The area under a velocity–time graph is equal to the distance travelled by the object.
Figure 5.30 shows various velocity–time graphs produced by different types of motion.
Velocity
Velocity
Velocity
Velocity
Acceleration Constant velocity Deceleration Changing
direction
of motion
Time
Time Time Time
Figure 5.30 Velocity–time graphs for different types of motion
A Worked example
1.0
Velocity (m s–1)
The motion of an electrically powered sliding Door opening

0.75
Time door is analysed and plotted on the velocity–
time graph shown in Figure 5.31. 0.50
0.25
a Use the graph to find:
0
i the time taken for the door to open 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–0.25
Door closing
ii the initial acceleration of the door as it
–0.50
opens Time (s)
iii the time for which the door remains Figure 5.31 Motion of an electrically-powered
fully open sliding door
iv the distance the door travels when it opens fully.

b Describe the motion of the door during the closing cycle.
a i Step 1: The opening cycle runs from t = 0 to t = 2.5 s so the time taken is 2.5 s.
ii Step 2: Initial acceleration is found by calculating the gradient of the first section of the graph:
0.75m s−1
gradient = = 0.5 m s−2
1.5s
Step 3: From the graph, the door remains fully open, and stationary, from t = 2.5 s to t = 5.0 s,
iii
which is a total of 2.5 s.

iv Step 4: Distance travelled during the opening cycle is equal to the area under the graph of the
‘opening’ section. This consists of:

total area = area of triangle + area of rectangle + area of triangle
1 1
distance travelled = ( × 1.5 × 0.75) + (0.5 × 0.75) + ( × 0.5 × 0.75)
2 2
= 0.5625 + 0.375 + 0.1875
= 1.125 m
b
Step 5: When it closes, the door moves at a steady speed of 0.2 m s−1 for most of its travel, taking 5 s
to close.
If the acceleration of an object is not constant, the line on the velocity–time graph will be
a curve. See the example in Figure 5.32.
6 B
Velocity (m s–1)
(4.6 − 1.0)
5
(5 − 2.5)
4
3
A
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s)
Figure 5.32 Velocity–time graph when the acceleration of an object is not constant
If you need to find the instantaneous acceleration at 3 s:

■■ draw a straight line at a tangent to the curved graph at the 3 s point
■■ find the gradient of this tangent and this value will be the instantaneous acceleration at 3 s:
(5.0 − 2.5)
gradient of tangent (A–B) =
(4.6 − 1.0)
2.5
gradient (instantaneous acceleration) =
3.6
= 0.69 m s−2 (to 2 d.p.)
C Practice question
3 a Sketch a velocity–time graph for an electric scooter which accelerates from rest
at 0.6 m s−2 for 4 s, then continues at a constant velocity for another 5 s.
b Use the graph from (a) to find the total distance travelled in the 9 s.

5.8 Engineering graphs

Design engineers will often need to refer to graphs which describe the behaviour of
materials or components. Two such graphs are described below.
Stress–strain graphs
In Section 1.4 you will find the engineering formula:
stress
Young’s modulus =
strain
Stress
The Young’s modulus of a material describes the
stiffness of the material. It describes the amount of
stress (similar to force) that is needed to strain (stretch)
290 MPa
the material by a certain amount.
Elastic range
It is not the purpose of this book to explain the nature of
materials as they undergo stress but, rather, to explain E = 290 MPa = 207 000 MPa
0.0014
the key mathematical conclusions that can be drawn
from graphs of stress plotted against strain. 0.0014 Strain
Figure 5.33 Stress–strain graph for mild steel

Figure 5.33 shows a stress–strain graph for mild steel:
■■ The graph in the ‘elastic range’ is a straight line (linear), which means that stress is
proportional to strain (in other words, if stress doubles, then strain also doubles).
This means that the material behaves in a predictable, ‘elastic’ way. The top of the
linear region is called the elastic limit.
■■ In the linear region, the gradient of the graph is equal to the Young’s modulus of
the material. The steeper the line, the higher the Young’s modulus and the stiffer the
material:
290 × 106
Young’s modulus of steel = gradient = = 207 GPa (to 0 d.p.)
0.0014
■■ Beyond the elastic limit the graph is non-linear,
meaning that the material no longer behaves in a simple,
100
predictable way as it undergoes stress. In this region,
Thermistor resistance (kW)
90
the material has been strained so far that it is becoming Rt
permanently damaged and will eventually snap if the 80
stress keeps increasing. 70
60
Resistance–temperature graphs 50
40
Components such as thermistors or light-dependent resistors Actual device
30
(LDRs) have ‘characteristic graphs’ which illustrate how
20
their electrical resistance changes with temperature or light
intensity. It may be necessary to refer to such graphs when 10
designing electronic systems that sense temperature or light. 0

–20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 5.34 shows a typical resistance temperature graph for Temperature (°C)
a thermistor. Figure 5.34 Characteristic graph for a
thermistor

Key points to notice from this graph are:
■■ the graph can be used to find the resistance at a particular temperature

■■ the resistance falls as temperature increases
■■ the relationship between resistance and temperature is non-linear (the graph is not
a straight line) so, without the graph, it is difficult to predict the resistance at a
particular temperature.
B Guided question
1 Using the stress–strain graph for mild steel in Figure 5.33, find:
a the Young’s modulus for mild steel
Young’s modulus = gradient of graph in the linear region.
b the maximum stress that can be applied to steel before it behaves in a non-
linear fashion.
This is simply the stress value (read from the graph) at the top end of the linear section.
2 Sketch two stress–strain graphs (on the same axes) to show the difference between
materials with a high and a low Young’s modulus.
3 Using the thermistor resistance–temperature graph in Figure 5.34, find:
a the resistance at a temperature of 20°C
b the temperature at which the resistance from question (a) is halved.
5.9 Waveforms
In electronic systems, signals sometimes n
Amplitude
change in a predictable, repetitive way.
Such signals are called periodic signals or
waveforms. An oscilloscope is an electronic t
Period
instrument which will measure and provide a
graphical display of voltage waveforms.
Figure 5.35 shows such a waveform. Figure 5.35 A voltage waveform
■■ T
he maximum voltage that the signal displayed on an oscilloscope
reaches is called the amplitude.
■■ The time taken for one full wave cycle to complete is called the period (measured in s).
he frequency of the waveform is the number of cycles it will complete in 1 second.
■■ T
Frequency and period are related by the formula:
1
frequency =
period
Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz).

TIP

The shape of the signal in
Square
Figure 5.35 is called a sine wave.
Not all waveforms are this shape.
Figure 5.36 shows examples of
Triangle
other periodic waves found in
electronic systems.
Sawtooth
Figure 5.36 Waveforms
Phase
When two signals of the same frequency occur in the same system, it is
sometimes useful to compare them to determine whether they are in step, or out
of step, with each other.
(a) (b)
Amplitude
Amplitude
+ +
0 0
– –
0° 90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180°
Time Time
Figure 5.37 Comparing the phase of two signals: (a) 180° out of phase, (b) 90° out
of phase
The two signals are in phase when their peaks and troughs line up. If they are out of
phase, the phase difference is measured in degrees, where one full cycle is 360°. The
waveforms in Figure 5.37(a) are 180° out of phase because the red signal is exactly half a
cycle out of step with the green signal. In Figure 5.37(b) the red signal is 90° (a quarter of
a cycle) out of phase with the green signal.

1 Sketch a labelled diagram of a sine wave with an amplitude of 2.5 V and a period of
20 ms.
2 A square wave signal with an amplitude of 5 V is used to flash an LED. The LED
flashes 30 times in 12 s.
a Calculate the frequency of the square wave.
b Sketch a diagram of the square wave, labelling values for period and amplitude.
c A second LED is flashed by another square wave of the same frequency and
amplitude, but 90° out of phase with the first signal, lagging behind it. Add this
signal onto your waveform diagram from (b).

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Essential Maths Skills

1863530 Ess Maths series TD_.indd 1 23/03/2018 11:41

1.4 Scientific and engineering formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Ratios and percentages

5 Use and analysis of data, charts and

Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_FM_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_001-002.indd 2 01/06/18 3:52 PM

1.3 Equations of motion

1 Using numbers and percentages 3

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 3 01/06/18 3:38 PM

The velocity of an object is the displacement (the distance it moves in a specified

4 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 4 01/06/18 3:38 PM

1 Using numbers and percentages

1 Using numbers and percentages 5

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 5 01/06/18 3:38 PM

6 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 6 01/06/18 3:38 PM

1 Using numbers and percentages

1.4 Scientific and engineering formulae

The engineer’s toolbox

1 Using numbers and percentages 7

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 7 01/06/18 3:38 PM

kinetic energy (J) = 12 × mass (kg) × (speed (m s−1))2 E = 12 mv2

force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m s−2) F = ma Newton’s second

work done (energy) (J) = force (N) × distance (m) W = Fd

work done (energy) (J) E

weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field W = mg g = 9.81 N kg−1

gravitational potential energy (J) = mass (kg) × PE = mgh g = 9.81 N kg−1

charge (C) = current (A) × time (s) Q = It

potential difference (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω) V = IR Ohm’s law

energy transferred (J) = charge (C) × potential difference E = QV

power (W) = current (A) × potential difference (V) P = IV

power (W) = (current (A))2 × resistance (Ω) P = I 2R

wave speed (m s−1) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m) v = fλ

useful output energy (J) Eout

8 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 8 01/06/18 3:38 PM

1 Using numbers and percentages

1 Using numbers and percentages 9

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 9 01/06/18 3:38 PM

Engineering and Table 1.12 Engineering and science

10 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 10 01/06/18 3:38 PM

1 Using numbers and percentages

A-level engineering formulae

Formula in words Formula in symbols

torque (or moment) (N m) = force (N) × τ = Fd

1 Using numbers and percentages 11

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 11 01/06/18 3:38 PM

1 An 18 W heater is clamped to an aluminium block of mass 200 g. Calculate the

12 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_C01_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_003-012.indd 12 01/06/18 3:38 PM

2.2 Ratios and mechanisms (design

output force distance moved by input

2 Ratios and percentages 13

417069_C02_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_013-017.indd 13 01/06/18 3:37 PM

Figure 2.6 A brake pedal is a lever

distance moved by effort input arm length

load distance moved by effort input arm length

14 Full worked solutions at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/essentialmathsanswers

417069_C02_Ess_Math_Sk_Online_013-017.indd 14 01/06/18 3:37 PM

2 Ratios and percentages