CHAPTER I

FORMAL WRITING

1.1. Technical Writing What is Technical Writing?

Technical writing is a style of writing used in delivering technical information

regarding a particular subject Here, the intended audience should have a certain knowledge
about the subject in order to understand the technical jargon and the meaning of the text.
Technical writing is the style of writing that is mostly observed in Non-fiction. '

1.2. Difference Between Technical and Literary Style

 Technical writing: Technical writing is a process of managing technical information

in a way that allow people to take actions.

 Literary writing: Literary writing is a creating innovative, creative work, such as

poems or novels, and compilations or volumes of creative work.

Purpose

 Technical Writing: Written to inform, instruct readers about ‘a certain thing.

 Literary Writing: Written to entertain, amuse readers.

Language

 Technical Writing: The language used in technical writing is direct, factual, and
straight forward

 Literary Writing: The language used in literary writing is creative, imaginative and
uses literary techniques like hyperbole, personification, smiles, metaphors, etc.

Appeal
 Technical Writing: Technical Writing appeals to the mind

 Literary Writing: Literary Writing appeals to emotions.

Structure
 Technical Writing: Technical writing has technical vocabulary, simple sentences,
impersonal, objective tone.

 Literary Writing: Literary writing might have complex sentence structure and
linguistic aspects like dialects, ambiguity, etc…

Audience

 Technical Writing: Technical writing is written for those who are knowledgeable
about that particular subject area.

 Literary Writing: Literary writing is written for general readers.

The difference between technical and literary writing lies heavily on its use of
language and style of presenting information as required for specific formats. While literary
writing can be informal and personal, technical writing is strict to being formal and impersonal
in tone and voice. Literary writing would be prosaic or verbose, but technical writing will use
the language in a straight forward manner and present the ideas with conciseness or brevity.

1.3. Letter Writing (Formal, Informal and Semi Formal)

1.3.1. Formal Letters

A formal letter is any letter written in the professional language, with a prescribed
format for a formal purpose, i.e., it can be a recommendation letter, enquiry letter, complaint
letter, cover letter and so on. All business letters are formal, but vice versa is not possible. Such
letters are used for a variety of reasons like a formal invitation, proposal, reference, making a
complaint or inquiry, applying for a job.

While writing a formal letter one should keep in mind the following things.
 It should be in specified format
 It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.
 It should be straight to the point.
 It should he relevant and objective.
 It should be complex and thorough.
 It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.
 It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.
 1.3.2. Informal Letters.

An informal letter is a letter written to someone we know fairly well. The letter can
be used for some reasons like conveying message, news, giving advice, congratulate recipient,
request information, asking questions, etc. It is a personal letter, written to ' whom you are
familiar with, like friends, siblings, parents or any other closed one. There is no specific format
prescribed for writing this letter. While writing an informal letter, one can afford to be friendly,
and make use personal or emotional tone.

1.3.3. Semi Formal

Semi-formal letter is usually sent to people you do not know very well, or to people /
situations which require more sensitive approach. Typical examples are letters parents send to
school principal, to teachers, to your landlord, boss, etc. Thus, these letters are written in a
more polite tone than informal letters. Here are some tips of what a semiformal letter should
consist of. The main features of semi -formal letters are as follows:

✓ Salutation
Like in formal letter, you should greet the person with Dear [Title] Last name. Title
varies depending on the status of the person. So unmarried girl holds a Miss title, marries
women Mrs. Title, man should be saluted with Mr. while women which marriage stains is
unknown Ms. If the person is holding an academic or royal title, you should place it before his/
her last name: Dear Dr Jones.

✓ Address and date.

Address and date are placed on the top right of the page. Date should be written in
DD, Month, YYYY format. ' '

✓ The body
Each paragraph should be indented at the beginning. Usual practice is to divide body
of the letter in up to 3 paragraphs: introduction, main body and conclusion.

✓ The style used

This is the main feature that distinguishes formal form semi-formal letters. In semi
formal letters language used is similar to ordinary speech. Therefore, you may use even
exclamation marks.
✓ Conclusion-Ending
Ending of the letter should round off the letter and suggest the action that will follow.
For example: See you soon, looking forward to your call, See you on next Monday, Call me if
you need anything, etc.

For complementary close you should use Your sincerely, followed with the signature,
because It is reassumed that you already know the person.

1.4. Job Applications

A letter of Job application is a document sent with your resume to provide additional
information about your skills and experience. The letter of application is intended to provide
detailed information on why are you are a qualified candidate for the job you are applying for.
Effective application letters explain the reasons for your interest in the specific organization
and identify your most relevant skills or experiences. Your application letter should let the
employer know what position you are applying for, what makes you a strong candidate, why
they should select you for an interview, and how you will follow up.

What to Include in Your Letter?

The body of this job application letter is divided into three sections:
(i) Introduction: which should include why the application is being written

(ii) Body: which discusses relevant qualifications

(iii) Closing: which thanks the reader and provides contact information and follow-up details.

1.5. Minute Preparation

Meeting minutes, or mom (for minutes of meeting) can be defined as the written
record of everything that's happened during a meeting. They're used to inform people who
didn't attend the meeting about what happened, or to keep track of what was decided during
the meeting so that you can revisit it and use it to inform future decisions. Minutes are a tangible
record of the meeting for its participants and a source of information for members who were
unable to attend. In some Cases, meeting minutes can act as a reference point, For Example:
 ❖ When a meeting’s outcomes impact other collaborative activities or projects within the
organization.

❖ Minutes can serve to notify (or remind) individuals of tasks assigned to them and/ or
timelines.

Minutes are not a detailed report on your board or committee meeting. Here are the
Do’s and Don’ts of Meeting Minutes:

Do’s
The minutes should include the title of the group that is meeting; the date, time, and
venue; the names of those in attendance (including staff) and the person recording the minutes;
and the agenda. The minutes should follow the order of the agenda, with a basic, almost vague,
summary sentence or two for each item, along with the name of the person who presented it.

Votes taken should appear in their place of order in the agenda. Generally, don’t
include names. Instead, record what happened: “Action: Motion made, seconded, and carried”
There is one exception: When the board approves executive compensation or a transaction with
a board member, that action should be recorded-along with the names of those who voted for
and against, the information provided on which they based their decision, and the outcome.
This additional detail can help establish a rebuttable presumption that the action was reasonable
and can help avoid IRS sanctions.

Don’ts
Since minutes are public documents that members may ask to review, be clear on what
to exclude. Avoid direct quotations; even without a name, the speaker may be identifiable.
Don’t report details of discussions, especially who said what When items not on the agenda are
discussed, note simply that “time was provided for members to discuss items not on the
agenda." And remember that minutes are not the place for future action items or to-do lists.

Finally, once the minutes are approved, destroy any notes and audio or Video
recordings of the meeting. The final approved minutes should be the only record of the meeting
that you distribute and keep.
1.6. C.V. Preparation

(Differences between Biodata, C.V. & Resume) & Reports

(i) Biodata: A Biodata is also called a "Biographical Data'

A Biodata is a document which mainly contains the personal facts about a person.
Sometimes, with the personal facts, it also contains the educational background, professional
background, skills, hobbies, interest, strengths, potential, and achievements of a person. The
personal facts a Biodata includes: a person’s height, weight, father's name, Mother’s name,
gender, complexion, caste, religion, marital status, nationality, permanent address, date of birth
etc.
The length of a Biodata: One page of a Biodata with personal facts is sufficient for
marriage purpose, but if you want to Consider it to showcase your personal & professional
detail, it may go upto two three pages. -

(ii) CV - CURRICULUM VITAE: Curriculum Vitae is a Latin word

meaning “course of life”.

It is more detailed than a resume, generally 2 to 3 pages, or even longer as per the
requirement CV lists out every skill, all the jobs and positions held, degrees, professional
affiliations the applicant has acquired, and in chronological order. C.V. is used to highlight the
general talent of the candidate rather than specific skills for a specific position.

The length of a CV: There is no page limit for Curriculum Vitae, the only thing is it
is always being considered as larger in length as compared to Resume.

(iii) Resume [Pronunciation of a Resume: re-su-me]

A Resume is a short summary of your skills, education, experiences,

accomplishments, ability and talent that plays a Vital role when you like to become a top
businessman, like to do non-profitable job, profitable job, or government job. A standard
polished Resume can resolve the purpose of getting the interview calls quickly.
 The Length of a Resume: Can reach up-to three pages depends on your industrial
experiences and your needs.

(iv) Reports

Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a

particular purpose and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem,
often making recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and
well structured. Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between
organisation and departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as well as
between subjects, so it’s worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you start.

Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:

❖ A description of a sequence of events or a situation;

❖ Always carefully referenced.

❖ An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;

❖ Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;

❖ Your recommendations as to a course of action;

❖ Conclusions.

Not all of these elements will be essential in every report If you’re writing a report in
the workplace, check whether there are any standard guidelines or structure that you need to
use.

1.7. Elements of Style

Clarity: - The logical flow of the document will help readers understand the content.
It can be useful to ask someone who is not familiar with the topic to review your writing before
you finalise it, using headings, illustrations, graphs or tables can be useful your aim is to make
it as easy as possible for your readers to understand what you've written.
 Accuracy: - The information and the interpretation of data that you present must be
accurate; If it's not, your readers will question the credibility of the content Be careful to clearly
differentiate between fact and opinion, and to accurately cite references to other works.

Brevity: - Strive to find the balance between the amount of information presented and
the time needed to read the document Remember that you can use an appendix or link to
provide ‘supplementary or background information. Consider using an illustration, table or
graph rather than words to explain a concept ‘

Sentence Length: - Generally, complex or unfamiliar concepts are best presented in

shorter sentences. This will give readers time to digest small pieces of information before
moving on to the next While this can be difficult to achieve, try to aim for approximately 25
words per sentence.

Paragraphs: - The age-old rule about one topic per paragraph is a useful guide. That
doesn't mean that you can have only one paragraph. for each topic, but it does mean that having
only one topic in each paragraph makes for clear, logical writing.

Reader-centricity: - You are writing for your readers. Make it as easy as possible for
them to understand your work.

Keep these basic elements and other principles in mind as you undertake your
technical writing tasks.
 CHAPTER II

COMMON ERRORS IN WRITING

2.1 The Common Errors in Writing

 Avoid using the word “I” or “We" throughout the document ' The entire document
should be written in third person. Remember you are reporting, not advertising or
advocating.

 The entire document should be in past tense. Do not shift tense in the middle of the
document common mistake.

 Do not assume that the reader will understand all the jargon that you may be accustomed
to. Replace “A live circuit can kill” with “An energized circuit can kill”.

 Do not start a sentence with ‘So’.

 Do not start a sentence with ‘But’. Try ‘However'.

 ‘Do not start or end a sentence with ‘To'.

 Try to avoid beginning a sentence with a word that has an “-ing” suffix.

2.2. Describing a Process

A process is a series of actions, and fundamentally the description of a process is the

description of action. The action may be either one of two types. One type is that in which
attention is focused on the performance of a human being, or possibly a group of human beings.
A simple example is filing a workpiece by hand; in a description of this process, emphasis
would fall naturally upon the human skills required ' The other type involves action in which 3
human operator either is not directly concerned at all, or inconspicuous. An instance is the
functioning of a contactor.
In describing almost any process, regardless of types there are prob lems that usually
arises and these are:
 1. adaptation of the description to the reader
2. overall organization
3. use of illustrations

The fundamental organization of a process description is simple, consisting merely

of an introduction followed by a description of each step in the process in the order in which
they occur. But this simplicity is usually marred by the necessity of discussing the equipment
and the materials used.
There are basically two 'ways of, incorporating the discussion of equipment and
materials into the description as a whole. One is to lump it all together in a section near the
beginning; the other is to introduce each piece of equipment and each bit of material as it
happens to come up in the explanation of-the steps in the process.

A process description is organized as follows:

 Introduction.
 Equipment and Materials
 Step-by-step description of the action
 Conclusion (if necessary)

2.3 Use of Sequence Words

Sequence words are like signals or signs. They help you identify when an event or
story starts, when a new event is taking place, and when a story ends. They help organize
stories.

Beginning, Middle, & End

You've probably heard, read, and used many sequence words before. These words
look different depending on where they are in a story. If you were going to tell someone about
your day from the beginning, how would you start? You would probably say something like,
'First, I woke up' or 'Today, I went to school' 'First' and 'today' are great examples of sequence
words found at the beginning of a story. These words are signals that tells you a story is starting.

'Then', 'later', 'after' and 'suddenly' are sequence words that might be found in the
middle of a story. They signal that anew event is being described.
 What word you might use to let someone know you are about to describe the last event
of your whole day? It might be the Word 'finally.’ 'Finally, I hopped into bed and turned out
the lights’. ‘Finally’ is an example of a sequence word that marks the end of a story.

2.4. Statements of Purpose

The Statement of Purpose is your personal statement about who you are, what has
influenced your career path so far, your professional interests and where you plan to go from
here. It need not be a bald statement of facts. This is because the SoP is the only part of your
application packet over which you have full control Your academic and extra-curricular records
are in the past.

The SoP is your chance to talk directly to the admissions committee. To make yourself
stand out from among a multitude of similarly ~ qualified candidates. To convince the
committee that you have the spark, the thirst for knowledge that could add value to. your class.
Some quick tips to prepare an SOP are:

 Your statement of purpose shouldn’t have any spelling or grammatical errors

 Use strong, clear, and concise writing

 Avoid cliches and repetitive language.

 Stay away from overly informal language

 Keep a positive and confident tone

The general format is similar to any other piece of academic writing. You should use:

 12-point Times New Roman font

 1-inch margins on all sides

 1.5 line spacing

This format will make your writing easier to read It is also the expected format. Sadly,
you probably won’t get bonus points for stand; ing out with your general visual formatting. It
is going to benefit you much more to focus on wowing your reader with your actual content
2.4. Instructions

Instructions are written or spoken directions for carrying out a procedure or

performing a task. It is also called instructive writing. Step-by-step instructions typically use
the second-person point of View [you, your, yours]. Instructions are usually conveyed in the
active voice and the imperative mood: Address your audience directly.

Instructions are often written in the form of a numbered list so that users can clearly
recognize the sequence of the tasks. Effective I instructions commonly include visual elements
(such as pictures, diagrams, and flowcharts) that illustrate and clarify the text Instructions tend
to follow a consistent step-by-step pattern, whether you are describing how to make coffee or
how to assemble an automobile engine.

Here are the basic features of instructions:

 Specific and precise title

 Introduction with background information

 List of parts, tools, and conditions required

 Sequentially ordered steps

 Graphics

 Safety information

 Conclusion that signals completion of task

 Good instruction writing requires:

 Clear, simple writing

 A thorough understanding of the procedure in all its technical detail

 Your ability to put yourself in the place of the reader, the person trying to use your

instructions

 Your ability to visualize the procedure in great detail and to capture that awareness on

paper
  Finally, your willingness to go that extra distance and test your instructions on the kind

of person you wrote them for.

2.5. Checklists

If we look up the word 'checklist' in a dictionary, we will find something like 'a to-do
list'. So, the first thing that Comes to mind is planning. And, rightfully so, the easiest way to
use a checklist in technical writing is for planning purposes.

2.5.1. Plan With Checklists

If you are following agile processes at work, you probably already have a board for
your sprints that kind of looks like a checklist. But that's not too convenient for daily planning
anyway, plus, some tasks will probably require more than one action to be finished.

A checklist is a way to break down any big task and quickly draw up a plan for the
workday. This is how you track progress, manage time, and make sure not to miss out on
anything. Crossing out all the items would mean that your job for today is done. Another way
a technical writer can take advantage of checklists is by creating a list of things to go through
when writing user manuals.

2.5.2. Proofread With Checklists

Creating lists of items to remember stuff is especially useful for novice tech writers.
This way they can control content quality and review their own work. Further down the road,
this checking process will become automatic, but at the beginning, following through such lists
helps maintain consistency and quality of the written text and kind of develop a habit of paying
attention to the right things.

You can create one big checklist or divide it into several ones that can correspond to
different tech writing stages or the scale of work like in the example below.
 2.5.3. Document Level

 The purpose is identified.

 The target audience is clear.

 Headings are on point

 The text is divided into paragraphs.

 Each paragraph carries one idea.

 Images are added where necessary.

 Spell-checking is completed

2.5.4. Sentence Level

 There are no overly complicated/long sentences.

 No 'hidden verbs' are used ('to conclude' not 'to come to a conclusion').

 Sentences have no excessive terms, jargon, abbreviations.

 All existing terms/jargon/abbreviations are explained.

This is how you can check your own writing. You can start with longer lists but then
re-write them focusing only on the parts you find challenging personally.

2.5.5. Analogue vs Digital Checklists

Technical writers are no strangers to technology. Authoring content in the modern

world implies using advanced feature-rich tools. A lot of you, we are sure, would choose a
checklist app for a smartphone or desktop. Something along the lines of Google Notes simple
and neat yet very effective. The to-do list feature can even be a part of your technical writing
software. Click Help, for example, has built-in to-do lists for reviewing. They are easy to
manage and can surely replace a third-party app.
 Others prefer analogue stuff, which is also understandable. Using a pencil to cross out
items on a piece of paper feels satisfying somehow. You might want to buy a planner and
dedicate it fully to your daily checklists.

2.5.6. Conclusion

Checklists are extremely helpful for technical writers. Under the heavy workload, it is
getting harder to track stuff which results in unmet deadlines so let checklists work their magic.
Use them as both a planner and a review instrument No tasks will be left behind and all obvious
bugs will be fixed at the earliest writing stages.
 CHAPTER III
ANALYTICAL AND ISSUE-BASED ESSAYS

AND REPORT WRITING

3.1. Basics of Report Writing

❖ Overview:
The overview is a brief summary which tells the reader quickly what the report is all
about It identifies the purpose and the most important features of the report, states the main
conclusion, and sometimes makes recommendations. It does this in as few words as possible,
condensing the report to several key sentences.

Remember: The overview may be written last, but it is always placed first in the final report.

❖ Background:
The background sets the scene for your reader. There is no need to confuse the
overview with the background if you remember that the overview provides a brief summary of
the entire report, whereas the background introduces the subject and explains the reason for the
report.

❖ Discussion:

The discussion presents your findings. You should have as much evidence (facts,
arguments, details, data, and results) as a reader will need to understand the subject. You must
develop these findings in an organized, logical manner to avoid confusing your reader.

❖ Conclusion:

Conclusions briefly state the major points that can be drawn from the discussion. If
there is more than one conclusion, state the main conclusion first, and the remaining
conclusions in decreasing order of importance.
3.2. Referencing Style (IEEE Format)

IEEE referencing is a widely used system for attributing credit to authors whose
findings, facts or theories have contributed to a new research paper.

The IEEE reference format is the standard referencing format set by The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers and is based on the widely used Chicago referencing style.

Where many styles have the author's name shown within the text, IEEE uses a
numbering system to make sure the paper is still easily readable. The number within the text
correlates to a numbered reference at the end of the research paper to make it clear which source
contributed to which section of the paper.

IEEE citation style includes in-text citations, numbered in square brackets, which refer
to the full citation listed in the reference list at the end of the paper. The reference list is
organized numerically, not alphabetically.

3.2.1. Creating a Reference List:

The Reference List appears at the end of your paper and provides the full citations for
all the references you have used. List all references numerically in the order they've been cited
within the paper, and include the bracketed number at the beginning of each reference.

 Title your list as References either centered or aligned left at the top of the page.

 Create a hanging indent for each reference with the bracketed numbers flush with the

left side of the page. The hanging indent highlights the numerical sequence of your

references.

 The author's name is listed as first initial, last name.

 Example: Adel Al Muhairy would be cited as A. Al Muhairy (NOT Al Muhairy, Adel).

 The title of an article is listed in quotation marks.

 The title of a journal or book is listed in italics.

 3.2.2. How to create IEEE citations
Each TEEE reference has a corresponding IEEE citation within the text The in-text
citation is shown as a number within square brackets and allows the reader to find the full
reference in the numbered bibliography at the end of the text.

The full IEEE reference should include all the necessary information for the reader to
be able to find the exact source of the information, theory or finding that contributed to the
paper or essay.

When referencing in IEEE style, there are different formats for each source type - for
example a book should be formatted differently to a website or academic journal in the
reference list.

A lot to think about? You can use Cite This for ME's IEEE reference generator to
create your references with a click. Simply search for the book, journal or website you want to
reference, set it to IEEE style and have the whole thing generated automatically for you.

3.4. Structure of a Report

 Title
The title page should also contain details, including:

i) Full title of the report

ii) Name(s) of the author(s)

iii) Purpose for which the report is prepared

iv) Name of the institution for which the report is prepared

v) Month and year of report

 Executive summary: Executive summary is the summary of the whole report in a

logical order. This should highlight the purpose, research methods, findings, conclusions, and
recommendations. An executive summary should be written in the past tense and should not
be longer than 1 page.
  Introduction: This is one of the most important paragraphs. An effective introduction
introduces the topic and purpose of the report or essay and outlines your approach.

 Method/Methodology: This is the section where you explain the methods used in your
research. If it is scientific research, you can describe the experimental procedures.

 Results/Findings: This section presents the results or findings of your project/research.

You can also present data using visual methods such as tables, graphs, etc. However, do not
interpret the findings here.

 Discussion: In this section, you can explain what the above results mean. You can also
analyse, interpret and evaluate data, note trends, and compare results with theory. Generally,
this is referred to as the most important part of the report.

 Conclusions: This is a brief summary of findings. Conclusion should not be confused

with Results/Findings section as the conclusion is a simplification of the problem that can
reasonably be reduced from the findings.

 Recommendations: In recommendation section, suitable changes, solutions should be

provided.

 Appendices/Annexes: These generally contain detailed information which is not

essential in the main chapters of the report but which need to be reproduced.

 Glossary (not always necessary): explanation of any specialist terms.

 Bibliography - references to any books, journals, etc. which were used either for
background reading, or directly quoted in the report They should be arranged alphabetically by
the author's name. The reference should include: author, date of publication, title, edition, place
of publication, publisher. etc.
3.5. Types of Reports

Academic Report: These are usually detailed and, in most cases, targeting
academicians. They are of high content and the producer and the reader are at the same level
or a little different.

Professional Report: Professional reports are for informing and persuading people
as well as initiating change. They may be detailed depending on the targeted audience and taste
of the sponsor. In most cases they have a mixed audience made up of those who may understand
the in-depth of the subject content and non-technical people like the decision-makers.

Formal Report: The formal report collects and interprets data and reports
information. The formal report is complex and may even be produced in bound book volumes.
It is often a written account of a major project.

Technical and Special Reports: The technical report is a category, not by type. Many
industries and disciplines need specialized reports. Within the insurance industry and in police
work, there are needs for specialized accident or incident reports.

Feasibility report: The feasibility report defines a need or proposed idea, then
analyses, compares and recommends a course of action. When your organization is considering
a new location, expansion, or purchase of new equipment.

3.6. Reference

The reference list is the last page of your paper. References begin on a separate page from the
last page of your writing. Put the word "References" at the top centre of the page. Your
reference list is alphabetized according to the first word of each end reference. The reference
list is double spaced and formatted using a hanging indent. To put in a hanging indent, type
your references normally. When finished, highlight the reference list and click on the arrow in
the corner of the paragraph tab in Word. Under Indentation, select Hanging from the drop down
menu for Special.
Works Cited is sometimes referred to as References. These terms mean the same thing.
Each is an alphabetical list of works cited, or works to which you have made reference. Works
Cited is generally used when citing sources using MLA (Modern Language Association) style,
while the title References is used when citing sources using APA (American Psychological
Association) style.

3.7. Bibliography

A bibliography is a list containing details about sources of information on a specific

topic. In a bibliography, writers and researchers list sources such as books, newspapers,
websites, and articles from academic journals. Writers may include the author, title, publication
date and publisher of the source. Research paper writers usually place the bibliography at the
end of the paper. In certain cases, researchers refer to bibliographies as "references" or "works
cited". The title depends on the style format of the writing.

In general, a bibliography should include:

 the authors' names.

 the titles of the works.

 the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources.

 the dates your copies were published

 the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to authors whose work
you've consulted in your research.

Different Types of Bibliographies:

Enumerative Bibliography

A writer of an enumerative bibliography lists references according to some specific

arrangement Students writing research papers use this type of bibliography most often. These
academic writers arrange enumerative bibliographies by author, subject, date or some other
scheme. The items they list share a common theme, such as topic, language or time period. The
writer of the bibliography gives enough information about the source to direct readers to this
source. The writer would not include descriptive information, such as details about physical
qualities of the book, in an enumerative bibliography. A card catalogue, a list of references in
a research paper, or the works cited in the back of a history book are all examples of
enumerative bibliographies.

Analytical Bibliography

A writer of analytical bibliographies uses them to critically study books. The writer of
an analytical bibliography may include information about printers and booksellers, descriptions
of paper and binding, or discussions of issues that unfolded as the book evolved from a
manuscript to published book. Three types of analytical bibliographies include descriptive,
historical, and textual. A descriptive bibliography closely examines the physical nature of the
book.
A historical bibliography discusses the context in which the book was produced. A
textual bibliography compares the published work to the author's original manuscript.

Annotated Bibliography

In this type of bibliography, a writer creates an alphabetical list of sources. The writer
of an annotated bibliography outlines the type of research done on a certain topic. The writer
annotates, or adds notes about, the sources. Therefore, in addition to information about the
research sources, the writer comments on the source. The writer may summarize. This means
she gives information about the content of each reference. The writer may assess. This means
she will evaluate the usefulness of the source. The writer may also reflect. This means she will
give her perspective on the usefulness of the text to her particular research.