Production

Enhancement
Day: 1
PREPARED BY: ENG. MOHAMED OMAR
 Mohamed Omar Badran
Reservoir Engineer
Mohamed Omar is a reservoir engineer at Amal Petroleum Company with experience exceeding 9 years in reservoir engineering.

Currently, he is occupying reservoir engineer team lead in South Abu-Zenima Petroleum Company.

He holds Masters of science degree in petroleum engineering from London South Bank University. His master’s thesis is Petro-

Physical Analysis of Shale Gas Cores using NMR.

He is currently a Ph. D student in Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University. His Ph. D study is involved in formulating new Model for

Sand Production Prediction.

His experience covers oil, gas condensate and wet gas reservoirs. He also has the ability to combine both conventional reservoir

management and reservoir simulation work where he uses both skills empowered by his knowledge to use the different reservoir

software in different integrated reservoir studies in order to put the different development plans.

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General Overview
The need to maximize hydrocarbon production accompanied with lack of new discoveries of
conventional hydrocarbons has pushed towards to enhancing the productivity of the wells.
The explosion in the technologies has allowed the production of the unconventional reservoirs.
Several operations can be carried out to allow the production from these types of reservoirs:
◦ Horizontal Drilling
◦ Hydraulic Fracturing
◦ Acidizing
◦ Radial Drilling

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Expected Out-Comes
Knowledge of unconventional reservoirs
Overview Formation Damage Sources
Knowledge of Skin Factor
Overview of Geo-Mechanics
Understand Hydraulic Fracture operations
Understand Acidizing Operations
Overview of Radial Drilling Technology

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 Unconventional Reservoirs
Day: 1 Formation Damage

Horizontal Drilling
Contents Map Day: 2 Geo-Mechanics
Hydraulic Fracturing Operation

Acidizing Operations
Day: 3 Radial Drilling

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Tip of the Day

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Day: 1 Contents
Rock Cycle Formation Damage
Formation of Hydrocarbon Skin Factor
Rock’s Petrophysical Properties Inflow Performance Relationship
Porosity Vertical Lift Performance
Permeability
Unconventional Reservoirs
◦ Shale Gas Reservoir
◦ Shale Oil Reservoir

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Rock Cycle

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Rock Cycle
Rocks Disintegrate slowly as a result of:
Mechanical Weathering: the breakdown of rock into particles without producing
changes in the chemical composition of the minerals in the rock.
Chemical Weather: the breakdown of the rock by chemical reaction.

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Rock Cycle

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Rock Cycle
Rock is a solid substance composed of minerals, of which can consist in particulate form (Soil
Particle) or in large form (Mountains, Tectonic Plates, planets).
All Rocks are composed of minerals; a few rocks are composed by single mineral but most of
them are composed by a group of minerals.
Minerals have different properties, crystal structure and hardness.
As rocks are composed of minerals, the properties of minerals become part of the properties of
rocks.

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Rock Cycle

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Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks cover 75% of the earth’s surface. But count for only 5% the rock in the earth
crust.
Sedimentary rocks are made up of particles of different sizes, shapes, and compositions held
together by a matrix material of cement or other finer particles.
The nature of the particles and the matrix determines many of the important behaviors of the
rock, such as strength, durability, and susceptibility to moisture.

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Sedimentary Rocks
Grain Size or Texture: Particle sizes range from clays (which are micron scale and visible as
individual grains only under a microscope) to millimeter-scale sand grains (which can be seen
with the eye) to centimeter-scale pebbles.
Mineral Composition: The general composition of sand-sized and larger grains can be directly
observed. The particles may be composed of common sedimentary minerals or other kinds of
rock fragments.
Color: The most obvious property of rocks, color is closely related to particle composition.
Sedimentary Bedding and Structures: Most rocks included in the Ferm classification were
deposited in water bodies such as streams, bays, lakes, or oceans. Currents responsible for
transporting the grains result in a variety of structures that are diagnostic of the flow regime at
the time of deposition. Bedding structures include commonly described rock laminations and
bedding, such as ripples and cross-beds. Bedding structures are used in descriptions of both
clastic rocks and carbonate rocks.

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Sedimentary Rocks

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Sedimentary Rocks

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Formation of HydroCarbon

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Formation of HydroCarbon

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Formation of Hydro-Carbon
What is Hydrocarbon?
◦ An organic consisting entirely of Hydrogen and
Carbon
◦ Saturated Hydrogen (Alkanes) are the simplest
of the hydrogen and are composed entirely of
single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen.
◦ Saturated hydrocabons are the basis of
petroleum fuels and are either found as linear
or branched species.

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Reservoir Fluids
Black Oil
Volatile Oil
Retrograde Condensate
Wet Gas
Dry Gas

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Reservoir Fluids

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Reservoir Fluids

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Reservoir Life Cycle

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Reservoir Life Cycle

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Types of Reservoirs

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Rock’s Petro-physical Properties
Porosity
Saturation
Permeability
Wettability
Surface and Interfacial Tension
Capillary Pressure

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Porosity
Pore space is the volume of the pores that can contain the fluids in the rock.
Porosity is the fraction of void space to the bulk volume.
𝑉𝑝
Φ=
𝑉𝑏

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Porosity

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 Porosity
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Φ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Φ𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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Porosity
Primary Porosity
◦ Inter-crystalline
◦ Intergranular or Interparticle
◦ Bedding Planes
◦ Miscellaneous Sedimentary Voids

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Porosity
Secondary Porosity
◦ Solution Porosity
◦ Dolomitization
◦ Fracture Porosity
◦ Miscellaneous Secondary Voids

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Porosity
Factors affecting the porosity:
Uniformity of Grain Size: Small Particles of silt or clay are mixed with larger grains; effective porosity will
be considerably reduced.

Degree of cementation or consolidation: The highly cemented sandstones have low porosities, where
the soft, unconsolidated rocks have higher porosities.

Amount of Compaction during and after deposition: Compaction tends to lose voids and squeeze fluid
out to bring the mineral particles close together, especially the finer-grained sedimentary rocks.

Methods of Packing: With increasing overburden pressure, poorly sorted angular sand grains show a
progressive change from random packing into closer packing.

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Porosity

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 Porosity
𝑁
𝐴 ∗ ℎ ∗ ∗ Φ ∗ 𝑆𝐻.𝐶.
𝐻𝐶𝐼𝐼𝑃 = 𝐺
β𝐻.𝐶.
HCIIP: Hydro-Carbon Initial in Place
A: Area
h: Reservoir Thickness
N/G: Net to Gross thickness
Φ: Porosity
𝑆𝐻.𝐶. : Hydrocarbon Saturation
β𝐻.𝐶. : Formation Volume Factor

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Porosity
Methods of Measurement:
◦ Core Analysis
◦ Logging Measurement
◦ Density Log
◦ Neutron Log
◦ NMR

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Permeability

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Permeability
Absolute Permeability:
The ability to flow fluid through a permeable rock when only one type of fluid is in the rock pore
spaces.
Can be calculated from the steady-state flow equation (1D, Linear Flow, Darcy units)

𝐾 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ Δ𝑃
𝑞=
µ∗𝐿

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Permeability
Effective Permeability:
The ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when other
immiscible fluids are present in the reservoir.
The porous medium can have a distinct and measurable conductance to each phase
present in the medium.
Depends on: Geometry of the pores of the rock, Rock Wetting Phase and Fluid
Saturation.

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Permeability
𝐾𝑓 ∗𝐴∗Δ𝑃
𝑞𝑓 =
µ𝑓 ∗𝐿
𝑞𝑓 : Flow Rate for Specific Fluid

𝐾𝑓 : Effective Permeability for Specific Fluid

𝐴: Cross Sectional Area

Δ𝑃: Pressure Difference

µ𝑓 : Viscosity of Specific Fluid

L: Flow Length

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Permeability
Relative Permeability:
The ratio of the effective permeability of a fluid to the absolute permeability.
It is unitless.
𝐾𝑟𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜ൗ𝐾
𝐾𝑟𝑤 = 𝐾𝑤ൗ𝐾
𝐾𝑔
𝐾𝑟𝑔 = ൗ𝐾

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Permeability

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Permeability
Methods of Measurement:
◦ Core Analysis
◦ NMR Logging
◦ Pressure Transient Analysis
◦ Correlations

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Permeability
Factors affecting Relative Permeability:
◦ Fluid Saturations
◦ Geometry of the pore spaces and pore size distribution
◦ Wettability
◦ Fluid Saturation

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Viscosity
Definition: The internal resistance of the fluid to flow.
Unit: Centi-poise
Oil’s viscosity is a strong function of the temperature, pressure, specific gravity, gas solubility and
composition.
Depending on the pressure, the viscosity of crude oils can be classified into three categories:
◦ Dead Oil Viscosity: The viscosity of the crude oil at standard pressure and temperature.
◦ Saturated Oil Viscosity: The viscosity of the crude oil at any pressure less than or equal to the bubble
point pressure.
◦ Under-Saturated Oil Viscosity: viscosity of the crude oil at a pressure above the bubble-point and
reservoir temperature.

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Viscosity

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Mobility

𝐾
λ=
µ
𝐾
λ𝑤 ( µ )𝑤
𝑀= =
λ𝑜 (𝐾)𝑜
µ

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Types of Reservoirs

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Shale Gas Reservoir

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Shale Oil Reservoir

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Formation Damage
Formation Damage concerns the formation of
a volume of rock with a reduced permeability
in the near well-bore zone.
The permeability reduction can be due to
multitude of causes- but in all cases it will
reduce the productivity.

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Formation Damage

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Formation Damage

Completion /
Drilling Cementing Perforation
Gravel packing

Production Injection Work-Over Stimulation

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Formation Damage

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 Formation Damage
When cement is bullheaded into the annulus to displace mud, the differential pressure between
the cement and the formation fluid can lead to a significant loss of cement filtrate into the
formation.
The major constituents in the aqueous phase in contact with hydrating cement are:
❑Calcium silicates
❑Calcium aluminates
❑Calcium sulfates
❑Calcium carbonates or bicarbonates
❑Alkali sulfates

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Formation Damage

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Formation Damage

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Formation Damage
Incompatible acid leads to formation of solid sludge which can block pores.
Further form of acid / crude oil incompatibility is the formation of a highly viscous water/oil
emulsion.
The near wellbore formation wettability may be changed from oil to water wet.

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Skin
𝑆𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑆𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑆𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 + 𝑆𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑆𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 : Skin Factor due to Formation Damage

𝑆𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 : Skin Factor due to Well Geometry
𝑆𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 : Skin Factor due to Completion
𝑆𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 : Skin Factor due to Production

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Skin
Well Geometry Skin:
Limited Entry
Well Not placed in the center of the drainage boundary
The well is slanted through the formation (negative skin)

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Skin
Completion Skin:
Insufficient Perforations
Gravel Packing
Fractures (Negative Skin)

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Skin
Production Skin:
Rate dependent skin
Producing oil with flowing bottom hole pressure below bubble point pressure
Retrograde condensate fluid production
Gas Breakout

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Skin Factor

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Skin Factor

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Estimation of Skin Factor

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 Estimation of Skin Factor

−162.6 𝑞𝑜 µ𝑜 β𝑜
𝑘=
𝑚ℎ

𝑃1 ℎ𝑟 −𝑃𝑤𝑠 Δ𝑡=0 𝑘
𝑆= 1.151[ − log 2𝑐 + 3.23
𝑚 Φµ𝑟𝑤 𝑡

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Production Optimization

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Inflow Performance Relationship
Productivity Index:
A commonly used measure of the ability of the well to produce is the productivity index.
𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜
𝐽= =
𝑃𝑟 −𝑃𝑤𝑓 Δ𝑃
Unit: STBD/psi

𝐴𝑂𝐹 = 𝐽* 𝑃𝑟

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Inflow Performance Relationship
𝑉𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑙′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑞𝑜 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑃𝑤𝑓 2
= 1 − 0.2 − 0.8( )
𝑞𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃 𝑃

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Inflow Performance Relationship
𝑞 𝑃𝑤𝑓 2 𝑛
= [1 − ]
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟
n: turbulent flow exponent
◦ n=0.5 for fully turbulent flow
◦ n=1 for laminar flow

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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Vertical Lift Performance
BHFP should be able to overcome the head
pressure, friction losses.
VLP depends on Oil Rate, GLR, WHP, Tubing Size.

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Production Optimization

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Production Optimization

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Production Optimization

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Production Optimization
Revenue Expenditure

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Summary

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Summary

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Summary
Sources of Drilling
Formation Damage
Cementing
Perforation
Completion / Gravel packing
Production
Injection
Work-Over
Stimulation

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Upcoming Next

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Questions
THANKS…