For official use only

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
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MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
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Study Report
on
Ground Improvement Techniques
Study Report No. RDSO/2013/GE:SR-0038
March-2013

Geotechnical Engineering Directorate

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Research Designs & Standards Organisation
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Lucknow – 226011
y[kuÅ & 226011

0
 INDEX

S.No. Content Page

No.
Preface 2

1.0 Introduction 3

2.0 Selection of appropriate Ground Improvement Techniques 3

3.0 Ground Improvement Techniques 6

3.1 Densification 6

3.2 Consolidation 10

3.3 Weight reduction 14

3.4 Reinforcement 15

3.5 Chemical treatment 18

3.6 Thermal stabilization 21

3.7 Electro treatment 23

3.8 Biotechnical stabilization 25

4.0 Conclusions 29

5.0 References 29

1
 PREFACE

This report is based on Literature survey. The views expressed are

subject to modification from time to time in the light of future
developments on the subject. The views do not represent the views
of the Ministry of Railways (Railway Board), Government of India.

This report is the property of RDSO and is meant essentially

for official use. It may not be loaned, reproduced in part or in full or
quoted as an authority without the permission of Director General,
RDSO.

2
 STUDY REPORT ON GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Rapid urban and industrial growth demands more land for further development. In
order to meet this demand, land reclamation and utilization of unsuitable and
environmentally affected lands have been taken up. These, hither to useless lands for
construction have been converted to be useful ones by adopting one or more ground
improvement techniques. The mostly available lands are given as follow:-
• Best buildable lands not available for construction
• Available sites are having low strength because :
 Filled up sites,
 Low lying water logged,
 Waste lands,
 Creek lands with deep deposits of soft saturated marine clays
• Another problem: Design loads are high and the site is situated in seismic zones
The ground improvement techniques applied in the geotechnical engineering practice are
tools used by the geotechnical engineer for “fixing” the problems of poor ground. When
a poor ground existed at the project site, for instance, the early builder was faced with
the following questions:-
• Should the poor ground be removed and replaced with a more suitable material?
• Should the weak ground be bypassed laterally by changing the project’s location or
vertically by the use of deep foundations? or
• Should the design of the facility (height, configuration, etc) be changed to reflect
the ground’s limitations?
Ground improvement construction methods are used to improve poor/unsuitable
subsurface soils and/or to improve the performance of embankments or structures.
These methods are used when replacement of the in-situ soils is impractical because of
physical limitations, environmental concerns, or is too costly. Ground improvement
methodologies have the primary functions to:-
• Increase bearing capacity, shear, or frictional strength
• Increase density,
• Control deformations and Accelerate consolidation
• Decrease settlement,
• Provide/increase lateral stability,
• Form seepage cutoffs or fill voids,
• To improve the drainage conditions and environment control
• Increase resistance to liquefaction, and
• Transfer embankment and/or ERS loads to more competent layers.
2. 0 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUE:
The selection of a ground improvement method is a function usually provided by the
design engineer. Owing to the proliferation of the available techniques on the market,
the many benefits associated with each method and the rapidly developing nature of the
ground improvement field, selecting the method most appropriate for a specific project
is not an easy task. This selection can best be done by thorough evaluation of many
factors, and with extensive reliance on intuition and experience.
Factors affecting selection of ground improvement method are:-
The key factors affecting the selection of a ground improvement method are:
(a) The ground
(b) The groundwater

3
 (c) Construction considerations including schedule, materials, accessibility, right-of-
way equipment and labour
(d) Environmental concerns
(e) Durability, maintenance and operational requirements
(f) Contracting, politics and tradition, and
(g) Cost.
The Ground: the characteristics of the soil have a major impact on the effectiveness of
the ground improvement technique adopted. The densification and reinforcement
techniques, for instance, rely heavily on the internal friction between the soil particles,
or the friction along the soil-reinforcement interface. These methods are, therefore,
suitable for use with frictional soils such as sands and gravels.
Some reinforcement methods, however, such as stone columns, are suitable for use with
fine cohesive soils, and so are the consolidation methods such as preloading and vacuum
consolidation. Strain compatibility is another factor affecting the design.
When the ground is reinforced with extensible elements such as geotextiles, the strain
required to mobilize the full strength of the reinforcing elements is much larger than that
needed to mobilize the full strength of the soil. Therefore, large internal deformations
usually occur and the soil design parameters are measured at large strains (residual
strength). Obviously, these systems are less compatible with soils of relatively low
residual strength. Chemical stabilization applies to a variety of soils.
While permeation grouting is not suitable for fine grained clayey soils, lime stabilization
is suitable only in clayey soils that have enough silica and alumina constituents to induce
the pozzolanic reaction.
In jet grouting, the specific soil type is not as important as with other methods since the
in situ structure of the soil is broken down by the improvement process. The
effectiveness of the method, however, is influenced by some soil elements such as
boulders and organic materials.
In electro treatment, soils with high levels of electric conductance produce better
results. When biotechnical stabilization is used, fertile soils are preferred.
The Groundwater: The level of the groundwater and the degree of saturation of the
soil affect many techniques. In the densification method, micro-liquefaction is induced in
saturated soils below the groundwater table. Groundwater is also needed for ground
freezing, or biotechnical stabilization, to be effective. On the other hand, a high
groundwater level may have a damaging effect on certain methods of ground
improvement, such as soil nailing and the use of foam for weight reduction.
Construction Considerations: Schedule, materials availability, site accessibility,
equipment and labour considerations are important factors affecting the selection.
In preloading and wick drains work, and to a lesser degree in lime stabilization, time is
of paramount importance. When the site is inaccessible to heavy equipment, such as in
rough mountainous terrain, a method that can be implemented with a minimum of
equipment, such as geotextile reinforcement, is preferred.
On the other hand, labor-intensive systems, such as vacuum consolidation and
biotechnical stabilization, are usually not cost-effective in areas with labor shortage or
strong labor union requirements. When low headroom does not allow the use of certain
equipment, such as those required for deep soil mixing or stone columns installation,
methods that can be implemented from remote areas, such as the various grouting
techniques, are preferred. Right-of-way and easement requirements may affect the
feasibility of certain methods such as mechanical stabilization and soil nailing.
The impact of construction on nearby facilities is an important factor in the selection.
The use of the economical method of dynamic compaction, for instance, is precluded
quite often because of its potential impact on existing structures and utilities.

4
Material availability is an important factor in the selection. When fill material is
abundant, preloading is a very cost-effective method of ground improvement. If the
required amount of surcharge material is not available within a short hauling distance,
an alternative preloading scheme, such as vacuum consolidation, can be used. If
industrial by-products, such as fly ash, kiln dust or slag, are available in large quantities,
their use for enhancing lime stabilization or for weight reduction may be cost-effective,
as may be the use of waste materials such as shredded tires or wood chips.
Environmental Concerns: The sensitivity to environmental impacts is a key factor in
the selection process. In contaminated sites, the methods, which involve discharge of
large quantities of water, such as Vibro replacement stone columns, vacuum
consolidation and wick drains, are avoided. On the other hand, methods which preserve
the environment, such as geotextile reinforcement and biotechnical stabilization, are
welcome in environmentally sensitive areas such as parkland. Methods which allow
construction of embankments with vertical faces (mechanical stabilization) are preferred
at or near wetland. When a site is underlain by contaminated plumes, and if the
contaminated site is to be cleaned and re-used instead of being contained, electro
treatment or thermal consolidation techniques may be selected.
Durability, Maintenance, and Operational Requirements: The durability of
materials used in ground improvement is a strong governing factor, particularly where
the ground is exposed to heavy weathering elements. The use of metal reinforcements,
for instance, is avoided near stray currents or in highly corrosive soils. The effects of
wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles are particularly important in chemical stabilization.
When geosynthetics are used, they require protection from the effects of heat, chemicals
and exposure to ultraviolet light. Although all geosynthetic materials degrade upon
exposure to ultraviolet radiation, their reaction to other durability effects differ from one
to another, which should be taken into account in the selection process. For instance,
although polyester is susceptible to hydrolysis and loss of strength when in contact with
water, polyethylene and polypropylene are not affected. On the other hand, they tend to
break down upon thermal oxidation in the presence of heat and oxygen, contrary to the
behavior of polyester.
Extreme weather conditions such as dry heat or ice may have damaging consequences
on biotechnical stabilization. Thus, this technique should not be selected in areas with
arid or frigid climates, and where there is a shortage of maintenance staff that can take
care of the foliage.
The selection process is also influenced by the operational requirements of the facility.
For instance, if there is ample time before the facility is operational, a rolling surcharge
can be used. If the available time is relatively short, vertical drains and/or vacuum
consolidation may be selected. To further reduce the ground improvement time, stone
columns can be used, but at a relative cost penalty.
Contracting, Politics, and Tradition: Contractual requirements play a role in the
selection process. Sometimes a method preferred by the design engineer cannot be
specified because it is patented by a specialty contractor. National politics, trade
barriers, labour union requirements and political influences sometimes affect the
selection, as does tradition. Sometimes, certain methods of construction are not
recommended, simply because they cannot be done by local contractors or because they
require certain labor skills unavailable locally.
Cost: This is probably the most important factor in the selection process. If all other
factors are satisfied, cost becomes the governing parameter. When analyzing the cost,
however, the long-term behavior of the system and the required maintenance cost
should be considered. A scheme with the lowest construction cost, for instance, is not
necessarily the most economical if it will require substantial maintenance and repair
costs in the future. When different schemes are close to each other in cost, alternative
ground improvement methods may be specified.

5
 3.0 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES: The various ground improvement techniques
for soil stabilization are given below:-
(i) Densification
(ii) Consolidation
(iii) Weight reduction
(iv) Reinforcement
(v) Chemical treatment
(vi) Thermal stabilization
(vii) Electro treatment
(viii) Biotechnical Stabilization
3.1. GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY DENSIFICATION:
For loose granular soils at the surface, stabilization and densification is achieved by
compaction with conventional rollers. The Key Issues affecting densification are:-
(a) Percent of fines in the soil,
(b) Ability of the soil to dissipate excess pore water pressure,
(c) Energy felt by the soil,
(d) Presence of boulders, utilities and adjacent structures, and
(e) Mysterious phenomenon of ageing.
Densification at depth is accomplished using the following methods:-
• Vibro Compaction
• Dynamic Compaction
• Blasting
• Compaction Grouting.
3.1.1 Vibro-compaction:
By this method, loose granular soils are densified at depth by insertion of vibrating
probes into the ground. Compaction is achieved by impact and vibration, with or without
the use of a water jet or compressed air, and with or without the addition of granular
material. Densification can be achieved up to 30m in depth. With vibro-compaction, the
angle of internal friction is increased on average 5 to 10 degrees, resulting in much
higher shear resistance. The vibration and water imparted to the soils transforms the
loose soils to a more dense state. Generally, vibro-compaction can be used to achieve
the following results:-
• Increased soil bearing capacity
• Reduced foundation settlements
• Increased resistance to liquefaction
 Compaction to stabilize pile foundations driven through loose
granular materials
 Densification for abutments, piers and approach embankment
foundations
• Increased shear strength
• Reduced permeability
• Filling of voids in treated areas
The combined action of vibration and water saturation by jetting rearranges loose sand
grains into a more compact state. Vibro compaction is performed with specially-
designed vibrating probes. Both horizontal and vertical modes of vibration are used. The
vibrators consist of torpedo-shaped probes 12 to 16 inches in diameter which vibrates at
frequencies typically in the range of 30 to 50 Hz. Probe is made of steel or concrete
block and weighs 6 to 35 tons. Drop height ranges from 10 to 20 meters or more.
Probes inserted in grid pattern at a spacing of 1.5 to 3 m.

6
 The primary purpose of vibro-compaction is to increase the in-situ density of granular
soils. The increased relative density results in increased bearing capacity of soil and
resistance to liquefaction and reduced settlement.
Advantages of Vibro-compaction:
 Economical and time saving alternative to removal and replacement of poor load-
bearing soils
 Increases bearing capacity
 Reduces settlement
 Mitigates liquefaction
 Well suited to deep sand layers, without limitation on the depth
 Applicable to offshore, sea bed densification works
Disadvantages/Limitations of Vibro-compaction:
 Vibro-compaction is effective only in granular, cohesionless soils.
 The realignment of the sand grains and, therefore, proper densification generally
cannot be achieved when the granular soil contains more than 12 to 15 percent
silt OR more than 2 percent clay.
 The maximum depth of 165 feet may be considered a disadvantage,
 Wet vibro-compaction requires the use of water to jet the vibrator into the
ground. The effluent from the jetting process requires at least temporary
containment to allow any fine soil particles to settle out.
 This method of ground improvement may not be acceptable if the existing
subsurface environment, either soil or water is contaminated.

Figs-1 & 2: Densification of ground by Vibro-compaction equipment

3.1.2 Dynamic compaction:
The Dynamic Compaction technique achieves deep ground densification using the
dynamic effects of high energy impacts resulting from the drop of large pounders. In this
method, large weights are dropped repeatedly on the ground surface at a predetermined
grid pattern. The high-energy impacts cause densification of the soil mass to depths
from 3 to 8 m. The drop heights are usually 12 to 24 m and the drop points are several
meters apart in a grid pattern. The basic principle behind the technique consists in the
transmission of high energy waves through a compressible soil layer in order to improve
at depth its geotechnical properties.
Dynamic Compaction is applicable in any type of granular soils. This technique is
particularly well-adapted to non-organic heterogeneous fill, made ground and
reclamation areas with variable characteristics, even with the presence of large blocks.
Dynamic Compaction is effective in both unsaturated and saturated soils below the
water table.

Advantages of Dynamic Compaction:

 High bearing capacity and settlement performance;

7
  Mitigate soil liquefaction;
 Suitable for granular soils (sand and gravel), garbage dumps, etc...;
 Effective in heterogeneous soil conditions;
 Allows more fines content in the soil than vibro techniques.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Compaction:

 The process is expensive and relatively time consuming; due to the development
of the pore pressure in the fine grained soil its applicability is reduced.
 This method is not valid for populated or fully developed areas because the shock
waves generated by this method may affect other underground utilities or the
adjoining structures.
 The treatments may be complicated when GWT is about 2 m below the ground
level, for the success of the treatment the level of whole site is to be raised up by
the use of imported materials.
 It causes environmental pollution by making noise, gusts of air, vibrations and
permanent deformation of the soil.

Figs-3 & 4: Densification of ground by Dynamic Compaction

3.1.3 Densification by blasting:
Blasting densification involves the detonation of multiple explosive charges vertically
spaced at 10 to 20 ft apart in drilled or jetted bore holes. The bore holes are usually
spaced between 15 to 50 ft apart and back filled prior to detonation. The efficiency of
densification process can be increased by detonating the charges at different elevations
at small time delays. Immediately after detonation, the ground surface rises and gas &
water are expelled from fractures. The ground surface then settles as the excess gas &
water pressure dissipates. Two or three rounds of blasting are often used to achieve the
desired degree of densification. Blasting is most effective for:-
 Loose sands that contain less than 20% silt and less than 5% clay.
 Although blasting is quite economical, it is limited by several considerations, as it
produces strong vibrations that may damage nearby structures or produce
significant ground movements
Advantages of densification by blasting:
 Blasting technique involves less time, labour and expense.
 No special equipment is required and useful for densifying at great depths upto
20m
 Useful for densifying in small areas where other methods are not applicable
 Useful for densifying large volumes

8
 Disadvantages of densification by blasting:
 It suffers the disadvantage of non uniformity, potential effects of adjacent
structures and the danger associated with use of explosives in populated areas
 Fine grained soils cannot be compacted by this method
 Less compaction is achieved in saturated soils due to capillary action

Figs-5 & 6: Densification of ground by blasting

3.1.4 Compaction grouting:
Compaction grouting, also known as Low Mobility Grouting, is a grouting technique that
displaces and densifies loose granular soils, reinforces fine grained soils and stabilizes
subsurface voids or sinkholes by the staged injection of low-slump, low mobility
aggregate grout.
Typically, an injection pipe is first advanced to the maximum treatment depth. The low
mobility grout is then injected as the pipe is slowly extracted in lifts, creating a column
of overlapping grout bulbs. The expansion of the low mobility grout bulbs displaces
surrounding soils.
When performed in granular soil, compaction grouting increases the surrounding soils
density, friction angle and stiffness. In all soils, the high modulus grout column
reinforces the soils within the treatment zone. By sequencing the compaction grouting
work from primary to secondary to tertiary locations, the densification process can be
performed to achieve significant improvement. Compaction grouting has been used to
increase bearing capacity, and decrease settlement and liquefaction potential for
planned and existing structures. The method is best suitable for stabilization of:-
 Fine grained soils with sufficient permeability to allow excess water to dissipate
best suits for compaction grouting.
 Wide variety of soils and fills

Fig-7: Densification of ground by Compaction grouting

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 Advantages of Compaction Grouting:
 Compaction Grouting is used to stabilize and improve compressible soils,
including for liquefaction mitigation;
 It is not necessary to improve the whole length of the columns. A selective
treatment limited to compressible layers can be achieved.
 Deep treatment can be achieved;
 The technique is vibration free, creates no apparent damage to surface layers
and can thus be performed in close vicinity of sensitive structures;
 Compaction grout columns can also be used as vertical reinforcement elements
similar to Rigid Inclusions.
Disadvantages of compaction grouting:
 Relative ineffectiveness in stabilizing near surface soils where the overlying
strength is small
 Grouting adjacent to unsupported slopes may be ineffective
 Difficulty in analyzing results,
 Not valid in decomposable material
 Danger of filling underground pipes with groutes
 Limited application at very shallow depth or where lateral restraint is lacking and,
 In some cases, cost for deep work.
3.2. GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY CONSOLIDATION:
In Consolidation both the strength and unit weight of the soil are increased and its
hydraulic conductivity is reduced when it is consolidated. Unfortunately, this
improvement is accompanied by a volume decrease and ground deformations for which
the soils are pre consolidated under loads more than design loads. There are basically
three methods of ground improvement. Preloading with or without Vertical drains,
Electro-osmosis· and Vacuum consolidation. The various methods of consolidation are:-
• Consolidation by Preloading
• Vacuum Consolidation and
• Electro-osmotic Consolidation
3.2.1 Consolidation by Preloading :
Preloading or pre-compression is the process of placing additional vertical stress on a
compressible soil to remove pore water over time. The pore water dissipation reduces
the total volume causing settlement. The soils treated are organic silt, varved silts and
clays, soft clay, dredged material. The design considerations which should include
bearing capacity, slope stability and degree of consolidation of the soil.
Before starting the proposed construction, the weak soils are improved by
applying preloading technique. The magnitude of the preload pressure usually ranges
from 1.2 to 1.3 times of the actual structural pressure or is slightly greater than the
maximum pressure that is generated by the proposed structural load. Earth fills, water
lowering, vacuum under impervious membrane are some of the techniques used for
applying pre-load. Once the settlement under the preload is completed, the preload is
removed and the construction of the structure is started.
By the use of vertical sand drains, the consolidation process can be increased
which reduces the time of preloading. Vertical drains are artificially-created drainage
paths which are inserted into the soft clay subsoil. Thus, the pore water squeezed out
during consolidation of the clay due to the hydraulic gradients created by the preloading
can flow faster in the horizontal direction towards the vertical drains.
Therefore, the vertical drain installation reduces the length of the drainage path
and consequently, accelerates the consolidation process and allows the clay to gain rapid
strength increase to carry the new load by its own. The installation of prefabricated
vertical drains is also done by a mandrel and it is a displacement installation.
10
 Advantages of preloading:
• This treatment is very effective for the soils having high moisture contents, high
compressibility and low shearing strength.
• It removes the settlements that should otherwise occur after the completion of the
construction.
• It improves bearing capacity.
• For the general grading of the site, the pre-load fills are usually used. They usually
reduce the considerable cost of the preloading process.
• One of the best merits of this technique is that it is almost free of noise and
vibration problems that are faced in other technique. Therefore, it is preferable in
those places where environmental restrictions are involved.
Disadvantages of preloading:
• Usually preloading processes are quite expensive and time consuming.
• There could be an unexpected cost increment.
• Further improvement in the project requires the consideration of the preloading
programme.
• There may be a unexpected time delay due to slow consolidation process.

Fig-8: Consolidation by Preloading

3.2.2 Vacuum Consolidation :
Vacuum Consolidation is an effective means for improvement of saturated soft soils. The
soil site is covered with an airtight membrane and vacuum is created underneath it by
using dual venture and vacuum pump. The technology can provide an equivalent pre-
loading of about 4.5 m high conventional surcharge fill. Vacuum-assisted consolidation
preloads the soil by reducing the pore pressure while maintaining a constant total stress.
Vacuum Consolidation generates rapid consolidation as well as increased stability, when
concurrent with surcharging and significantly reduces the period required for the
consolidation. Vacuum consolidation process is used to achieve the following results:-
 Replace standard pre-loading techniques eliminating the risk of failure.
 Combine with a water pre-loading in scare fill area. The method is used to build
large developments on thick compressible soil.
 Combine with embankment pre-load using the increased stability
While under vacuum consolidation (consolidation period usually ranges between 4 and 6
months), no activity that could result in puncture of the membrane is allowed on the
vacuum area without proper protection. However, heavy equipment traffic and fill
operations can usually proceed and work is usually not restricted in any way in the areas
surrounding the vacuum zones.
A monitoring and instrumentation system is usually installed and monitored for the
duration of the consolidation. The critical geotechnical parameters are surveyed on a
regular basis (settlement, excess pore water pressure, horizontal displacements…) to
check the on-going consolidation process as well as the global stability of the
11
 embankments. By comparing the actual data with the predictions of the design, this
monitoring data is also used to back-calculate critical geotechnical parameters used in
the design and validate the settlement targets and consolidation objectives.

Fig-9: Vacuum Consolidation arrangement

Advantages of Vacuum Consolidation:
 Significant time savings over other consolidation methods
 Loading and construction can proceed as early as two weeks after process has
started
 Significant time savings over other classical consolidation methods with
surcharge and wick drains;
 Elimination or reduction of importing and transporting large quantities of
surcharge fill material (a load of 70% of the atmospheric pressure is equivalent
to a 3.5 m high embankment);
 Elimination of the risk of slope failure during the placement of the surcharge
embankment;
 Isotropic consolidation allows the subsequent phases of construction to proceed
quickly, without any requirement to observe a surcharge consolidation period to
occur and to gain enough shear strength to proceed with construction of the
embankment or structure.
Disadvantages of Vacuum Consolidation:
 Vacuum Consolidation Method costs relatively more than traditional methods
such as surcharge combined with PVDs or sand drains;
 Quality control is highly required;
 It’s quite hard to utilize this method for deep soft soil layers.

3.2.3 Electro-osmotic Consolidation:

Electro osmosis was originally developed as a means of dewatering fine grained soils for
the consolidation and strengthening of soft saturated clayey soils. Electro osmotic
dewatering essentially involves applying a small electric potential across the sediment
layer. It is inherent that fine grained clay particles with large interfacial surface will
consolidate and generate significant settlement when loaded. The settlement creates
problem in the foundation engineering.

12
 When electrodes are placed across saturated clay mass and direct current is applied,
water in the clay pore space is transported towards cathode by electro osmosis. In this
process, positively charged ions move from anode to cathode. i.e. water moves from
anode to cathode where it can be collected and pumped out of soil. Electro osmotic flow
depends on soil nature, water content, pH and on ionic type concentration in the pore
water.
The clay particles have a –ve charge. These –ve charge produce an electrostatic surface
property known as the double layer which creates a net abundance of cations in pore
space. Electro osmotic transfer of water through clay is a result of diffuse double layer
cations in the clay pores being attracted to a negatively charged electrode or cathode.
When electrodes are placed across saturated clay mass and direct current is applied,
water in the clay pore space is transported towards cathode by electro osmosis. In
addition frictional drag is created by the motion of ions as they move through the clay
pores helping to transport additional water. The flow generated by the electric gradient
is called electro osmotic flow.
The consolidation settlement caused by electro-osmosis is assumed to continue until the
hydraulic force that drives water back towards the anode exactly balances the electro-
osmotic force driving water towards the cathode. The amount of consolidation that will
take place depends upon the soil compressibility as well as the change in effective
stress.
Advantages of Electro-osmotic consolidation:
 The consolidation period can be reduced by electro osmotic consolidation
technique.
 The process is very efficient in low permeability clays in which the electro
osmotic permeability is greater than the hydraulic permeability.
 This method is suitable for local application on small volumes or for
impermeable barrier construction.
 After treatment water content decreases and shear strength increases and it was
more than what was expected just from dewatering.
Disadvantages of Electro-osmotic consolidation:
 The pH of soil will increase to as high as 11 or 12 at the cathode and decrease
to almost 2 at the cathode.
 Metal anodes will corrode.
 The applied voltage and electric current generates heating.
 The heating effect increases power consumption.

Fig-10: Electro-osmotic consolidation arrangement

13
 3.3 GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY WEIGHT REDUCTION:
Lightweight fill materials are used to limit settlement and increase stability through the
use of materials with lower densities than conventional fill materials. This method of
ground improvement involves reduction of the weight applied to a soft compressible soil
by the use of lightweight fill material like Wood fibers, Sawed lumber waste, Shredded
tire, Clam shells and geofoam etc. The amount of settlement reduction is directly
proportional to the reduction in the load.
Conventional fill materials (i.e., sand, silt and gravel) have densities that range from
1840 to 2240 kg/m3 where as Lightweight fill materials can have densities ranging from
12 kg/m3 for geofoam to 1040 kg/m3 for expanded clays and shales. The overall
benefits gained from the use of lightweight fill materials include reduced settlement,
increase slope stability and increased resistance to earthquake effect by reducing the
seismic inertial forces.
The light weight fill materials are used for load reduction, improving drainage, increasing
shear strength, reducing compressibility and lateral earth pressure and low unit weight
of the material results in lower inertial forces under seismic loading.
The lightweight materials are placed over the native soil in one of three ways as given
below:
• spread in a loose form, then compacted
• cut in block forms, then stacked according to a certain arrangement, or
• pumped in a flowable liquid form

3.3.1 Light Weight Fill Materials:

Geofoam
Geofoam is a generic term used to describe any foam material used in a geotechnical
application. Geofoam includes Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), Extruded Polystyrene (XPS),
and glassfoam (cellular glass). Geofoam materials have the advantage of being not only
lightweight, but also may be cut to any size of shape to fit the requirements of the
project. Geofoam is a lightweight fill material that has a specific compressive strength.
Foamed Concrete
Foamed concrete is created by introducing preformed foam into cement water slurry.
The preformed foam is designed for concrete and creates a network of discrete air cells
within the cement matrix. Sand and fly ash may be added to the mixture with the fly
ash partially replacing a portion of the cement. After blending these materials to the
specified density, the resulting slurry is pumped into place. Foamed concrete is unique
for each application and is normally mixed on site. The quality of foamed concrete is
monitored through the cast density. The compressive strength is directly related to the
cast density of the mixture. Like geofoam, foamed concrete has a specific shear strength
that is used in design.
Expanded Shale, Clay & Slate (ESCS)
Expanded shale, clay and slate (ESCS) is a granular lightweight fill material. In other
words, the strength of these materials is based on the interlock between individual
particles, similar to sands and gravels. ESCS is a synthetic aggregate created from
heating certain shales, clays and slates in a rotary kiln to temperatures in excess of
1,800°F. During this process the clay minerals montmorillonite, illite, and kaolinite
become completely dehydrated and expand. Once completely dehydrated, these
materials will not re-hydrate under atmospheric conditions; therefore, retaining the
expanded shape. The materials are graded through a screening process and may have
rounded, cubical or sub-angular particle shapes. These particles are durable, chemically
inert and relatively insensitive to moisture; however, the particles will absorb and retain

14
 some water. ESCS materials can be expensive to manufacture, which has led to the use
of these materials primarily as lightweight aggregate in structural concrete.
Table-1: Light weight materials used for ground improvement:

Fill material Source/Process Dry Unit Weight

(Kg/m3)
Wood fibers Sawed lumber waste 550 – 960
Shredded tire Mechanically cut tire chips 600 – 900
Clam shells Dredged underwater deposits 1100 – 1200
Expanded shale Vitrified shale or clay 600 – 1040
Fly ash Residue of burned coal 1120 – 1400
Air-cooled slag Blast furnace material 1100 – 1500
Flowable fill Foaming agent in a concrete 335 – 770
matrix
Geofoam Block molded expanded 12 – 32
polystyrene

Advantages of light weight fill materials:

 Lower density of light weight fills (LWFs) reduces vertical stress and leads to
reduction of driving forces for bearing capacity, slope stability and settlement.
 LWFs have compressibility similar to natural soils
 Granular LWFs are relatively pervious and drain rapidly which is favourable for
subgrade support
 Some LWFs can be placed in wet or cold weather that would restrict conventional
earthwork operations
 LWFs are beneficial in seismic areas because the seismic forces are directly related to
fill density.
Disadvantages of light weight fill materials:
 Unless the LWF is available locally, the transportation costs raise the price
considerably, and make these materials non-competitive.
 LWFs involve some special procedures with regard to handling, transportation,
placement, and compaction and require the use of specialized equipment at the site.
 Some LWFs (e.g., geofoam) must be protected to ensure longevity. Because
geofoam is subject to deterioration.
 Some LWFs generate leachate as water passes through these deposits.
 Most LWFs possess geothermal properties which can lead to accelerated deterioration
of flexible pavements.
3.4 GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY REINFORCEMENT:
Ground reinforcement consists of creating in-situ a composite reinforced soil system by
inserting inclusions in predetermined directions to improve the shear strength
characteristics and bearing capacity of the existing ground. Ground reinforcement
technologies include a constantly increasing diversity of installation techniques and
reinforcing materials which, pending upon the target engineering applications, are
designed to withstand the required resisting forces (e.g. tension, compression, bending
moments or their combinations) over the expected life service of the structure.
Reinforcing the soil is usually accomplished by one of the following methods:-
• Mechanical stabilization
• Soil nailing
• Soil anchoring
• Micro piles
• Stone columns
• Fibre reinforcement

15
Mechanical Stabilization: Mechanical stabilization is accomplished by mixing or
blending soils of two or more gradations to obtain a material meeting the required
specification. The soil blending may take place at the construction site, at a central
plant, or at a borrow area. The blended material is then spread and compacted to
required densities by conventional means.
In mechanical stabilization, the reinforcing elements are placed between layers of
compacted soil. Different materials (metals, polymers, geotextiles, etc) and shapes
(strips, grids, sheets, rods, etc.) are used for reinforcement. When used for
construction of retaining walls or embankment slopes, the reinforcing elements are
usually attached to facings that retain the compacted soil at the face and protect the
reinforcing elements from weathering effects. The types of facing used include precast
concrete panels, cast-in-place concrete, metallic plates or baskets, geosynthetic grids or
sheets, timber, modular blocks and rubber tires. The backfill material usually consists of
granular soil with high frictional resistance.

Fig-11: Mechanical stabilization Fig-12: Soil Nailing

Soil Nailing: Used primarily for support of excavations and reinforcement of slopes, the
concept of soil nailing is to place closely spaced reinforcing elements in situ to increase
the shear strength of the soil and to restrain its displacements during and after
excavation. Construction is accomplished using a top-down process that involves three
repetitive stages:-
(i) excavation of a limited depth,
(ii) installation of nails and drainage and
(iii) placement of a facing. The reinforcing elements (soil nails) are in the form of
metal bars, tubes or rods.
They are installed by driving, drilling and grouting, jet grouting, or firing
(launched nails). The facing can either be built on site (shortcrete or cast-in-place
concrete) or consist of prefabricated steel or concrete panels. When excavating below
the groundwater table, an appropriate vertical and/or horizontal drainage system is
installed behind the permanent facing.
Soil Anchoring: In the soil anchoring, prestressed soil anchors are installed in the
ground to reinforce the soil and support vertical or inclined excavations. The anchors
are attached at the surface to concrete panels or “elements” forming what is sometimes
called an element wall. As with soil nailing, the reinforcements and the soil form a
coherent body that resists the applied loads, to accomplish this, the anchors are placed
closer than in a typical anchored wall and the wall’s most structural elements are not
necessary.

16
 Fig-13: Soil Anchorage Fig-14: Micropiles
Micropiles: When micropiles are used for soil reinforcement, these small-diameter
(usually less than 300 mm in diameter) piles are installed vertically, or in a reticulated
fashion, to support excavations, slopes or foundations. For these applications, the piles
are spaced closer than in conventional pile foundations and the loads are supported by a
complex soil-pile structure analogous to reinforced concrete, where the ground
represents the concrete and the micropiles correspond to the steel reinforcements. The
micropiles are installed by drilling and grouting, displacement or jet grouting.
Stone Columns: Although constructed using the same equipment and procedure as
Vibro-compaction, stone columns function as reinforcement rather than densification.
They are applied to soft cohesive soils in order to (1) increase bearing capacity, (2)
reduce settlement and accelerate consolidation, (3) improve slope stability and (4)
control liquefaction. The presence of stone columns transforms the ground into a
composite mass of granular cylinders with intervening native soil, providing a lower
compressibility and higher shear strength than those of the native soil alone. The stone
columns are installed in a variety of methods (Vibro replacement, Vibro displacement,
dynamic impaction, rammed columns, Vibro concreted columns, etc).

Fig-15: Stone Columns Fig-16: Geosynthetics Reinforcement

Fibre/Geosynthetics Reinforcement: The newest concept of earth reinforcement is a
three-dimensional technique involving mixing of continuous polymer fibres (yarn) with
granular soil to form a composite material capable of resisting tensile forces. Individual
fibres can also be mixed with the soil to improve its strength and deformation
characteristics. Although polyester fibres have generally been used in actual
applications, other materials such as wood and rubber tire chips can be mixed with the
soil to provide reinforcement. In one method, the soil is mixed with yarn, seeds,
fertilizers and a coagulation agent, then sprayed over the surface area of the fibre
reinforced embankment to provide a vegetated-reinforced facing.

17
 The key issues affecting soil reinforcement are:-
(a) the load transfer to the reinforcing elements,
(b) the failure surface of the reinforced soil mass,
(c) the strain compatibility between the soil and the reinforcement,
(d) the arrangement of the reinforcing elements, and
(e) the durability and long-term behavior of the reinforcements.
In mechanical stabilization design, the maximum tension in the reinforcing element is
compared to the tensional capacity of the reinforcement and the bond between soil and
reinforcement (pull-out capacity). The tension in the reinforcement is determined from
the lateral earth pressure in the reinforced soil layer which is calculated by multiplying
the vertical earth pressure by a coefficient K ranging from at-rest to active depending on
the degree of restraint imposed on the soil by the reinforcing elements. When extensible
reinforcing systems are used, such as those made by polymers or geotextiles, a
substantial yield of the soil is allowed resulting in lateral pressures closer to the active
case. In fully restrained systems using rigid reinforcing elements (metal strips, grids or
bars), the soil yield is restricted and the developed earth pressures are closer to the at-
rest condition at the surface, but are gradually reduced with depth to values closer to
the active case.
Advantages of Reinforcement:
 Use simple and rapid construction which does not require large equipment.
 Do not require experienced craftsmen with special skills for construction.
 Require little site preparation.
 Need little space in front of the structure for construction operations.
 Reduce right-of-way acquisition by constructing or excavating steeper slopes.
 Do not need rigid, unyielding foundation support, because reinforced or
multianchored structures are tolerant to deformations.
 Offer a cost advantage when using the soil nailing method for excavation
stabilization over conventional systems such as ground anchors and bracing
systems, because the structural elements (nails and shotcrete facing) are
relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages of Reinforcement:
 Require a relatively large space behind the wall face to obtain enough wall
width for internal and external stability.
 Require granular fill at the present time for many of the reinforcement
soil systems. (At sites where there is a lack of granular soils, the cost of
importing suitable fill material may render the system uneconomical).
 May require permanent underground easements for soil nailing.
 Corrosion of steel reinforcing elements, deterioration of certain types of
exposed facing elements such as fabrics or plastics by ultra violet rays,
and degradation of plastic reinforcement in the ground must be addressed
in each project by means of suitable design criteria.
3.5 GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY CHEMICAL TREATMENT:
Ground Improvement by Chemical Treatment Cement, lime, fly-ash, asphalt, silicate and
others are used to stabilize weak soils. They generally bind the soil particles together,
resulting in higher strength and lower compressibility. In lime stabilization, an ion
exchange reduces the soil’s plasticity and improves its workability. The chemical
treatment methods include:
 Permeation grouting
 Jet grouting
 Deep soil mixing
 Lime columns
 Fracture grouting

18
Permeation Grouting:. In permeation grouting, sandy soil is densified by injecting it
with a special liquid material. This material permeates the space between the granular
soils and thus locking them together. In some cases, certain depth zones of the strata
are targeted.
In permeating grouting, cement, lime, bentonite or chemical grouts (silicates, etc.),
organic compounds or resins are used for filling the voids in the soil, resulting in
increased strength and cohesion and reduced permeability, with no change in the
volume or structure of the original ground.
Grout additives may be used to enhance penetrability and strength, and to control
setting time. Grouting is performed by drilling holes in the ground and injecting slurry
grouts through the end of a casing, or through specialized equipment such as a tube-a-
manchette. The method uses cement or chemical-based grouts and has the advantage
that it produces no spoil. Typical uses of permeation grouting include:-
 Adding bearing capacity to soils to achieve higher loads
 Earth retention during excavation along a structure or pit
 Obstructing water movement through soil

Fig-17: Permeation grouting Fig-18: Jet grouting

Jet Grouting: Jet grouting is effective in all categories of soil unlike classical grouting
techniques which rely on penetration via voids in the soil mass. Jet grouting is a ground
improvement system used to create insitu cemented soils to depths of over 40m,
without the need to treat all the way to surface.
Jet Grouting is a technique where grout, usually cement based, is delivered under very
high pressure through a small aperture nozzle that converts the energy to a high
velocity jet of grout. This simultaneously disintegrates the existing soil structure and
mixes the in-situ soil with the grout.
Jet grouting uses high-pressure fluids, applied through a nozzle at the base of a drill
pipe, to erode the soil particles and mix them with cement grout as the drill bit is rotated
and withdrawn, forming hard, impervious columns. Excess soil cuttings are carried to
the surface in the form of waste slurry. The grouted columns can be formed vertically,
horizontally or at an angle from vertical to 45°. A row of overlapping columns forms a
wall.
Jet Grouting has multiple applications, such as retaining systems, cut-off barriers, plugs
for the bases of shaft excavations, in transition zones in tunneling, in underpinning and
to create rigid soil inclusions. It can also be used to form blocks of improved loose or
permeable soils at depth for tunnel projects. The essential merits of Jet Grouting are to
increase strength and/or impermeability in soils.

Dry Soil Mixing:

Dry soil mixing is a cost-effective method of improving soft wet silty and clayey soils and
mud deposits, including dredged material, by mechanically blending a dry cement or

19
lime powder binder with the soil. The moisture of the soil is used to hydrate the binder,
which means less binder is needed and columns can be installed faster by the
lightweight plant that requires little in the way of working platforms. The method can be
used over water and on land and produces virtually no spoil.
Dry soil mixing can be used to stabilize and control settlement of soft soils beneath road
and rail embankments, residential developments, warehouses and storage tanks and to
create working platforms. The method can also be used to strengthen soils before
excavation and to stabilize excavation bases within cofferdams.
Lime Columns:
The lime columns method is a variation of deep soil mixing, in which unslaked quicklime
is used in lieu of, or mixed with, the cement. The lime columns are suitable at best for
stabilization of deep soft clay deposits. A pozzolanic reaction takes place between the
lime and the clay minerals resulting in substantial increase in the strength and reduction
in the plasticity of the native material. The heat generated by hydration of the quicklime
also reduces the water content of the clayey soils, resulting in accelerated consolidation
and strength gain.
Lime columns can be used for load support, stabilization of natural and cut slopes, and
as an excavation support system.
Soil fracture grouting:
Fracture grouting is used to increase the shear strength of soils so that the resultant
bearing capacity could act as resistance of soils and to raise structures.
Fracture grouting, is also known as Compensation Grouting. It is the injection and hydro
fracturing with grout slurry of the soil between the foundation to be controlled and the
process causing the settlement. Grout slurry is forced into soil fractures, hence causing
an expansion to take place counteracting the settlement that occurs or producing a
controlled heave of the foundation. Multiple injections and multiple levels of fractures
create a complementary reinforcement of the area.
The method allows buildings, structures and services to be protected from shallow
tunneling or nearby excavations, as well as lifting structures affected by settlement back
to original levels. The fracture grouting applications are:-
 Elimination/Prevention of the settlement of buildings
 Reduction or reversal of total settlement
 Prevention of the settlement of tunnels
 Reduction or reversal of differential settlement

Figs-19 & 20: Fracture grouting

Advantages of Chemical Stabilization:
 Increases shear strength and permeability of the soil
 Can achieve mass treatment
 Creates cut off wall for dikes or dams projects
20
  Contains the pollution propagation when soils are contaminated
 Eliminates secondary settlement in clayey and organic soils
 Can be stabilized in a relatively short time period
 Can be performed both in-situ or ex-situ
 Stabilized soil can be reused for construction applications or disposed of in a landfill
for inert wastes
 This method has much greater cost certainty than the most other remediation
options
Disadvantages of Chemical Stabilization:
 The method does not destroy or remove the contaminants
 May be difficult to predict long-term behaviour
 May require long-term maintenance of protection systems and/or long-term
monitoring.
 Consumption of natural resources
 Potentially significant final volume increase
3.6 THERMAL STABILISATION: Although both heating and freezing can be used for
ground improvement, soil heating is still in the experimental stage and has seen little
application. Ground freezing, on the other hand, has been receiving wider acceptance
as a temporary measure for excavation support in urban areas.
Thermal treatments offer quick cleanup times but are typically the most costly treatment
group. This difference, however, is higher in in-situ than in ex-situ applications. Cost is
driven by energy and equipment costs and is both capital and Operation & Maintenance
(O & M) intensive.
Thermal processes use heat to increase the volatility, to burn, decompose, destroy or
melt the contaminants.
Cleaning soil with thermal methods may take only a few months or several years. The
time it takes depends on three major factors that vary from site to site: type and
amounts of chemicals present; size and depth of the polluted area; type of soil and
conditions present.
Thermal stabilization of ground is divided in two categories given as below:-
(i) Ground Heating or Vitrification
(ii)Ground Freezing
3.6.1 Ground Heating:
Heating or vitrification breaks the soil particle down to form a crystalline or glass
product. It uses electrical current to heat the soil and modify the physical
characteristics of the soil. Heating soils permanently alters the properties of the soil. The
impact on adjacent structures and utilities should be considered when heating is used.
This technique is effective for the soils contaminated with organic, inorganic and
radioactive or contaminated compounds, densification and stabilization of soil.
Even at the ordinary temperature under the sun shine, properties of fine-grained soils
are improved by desiccation. This is often found as a dry crust formed at the surface of
reclaimed sludge. When the reclamation process is very slow, the thickness of
desiccated layer becomes several meters.
The artificial heating is naturally much more effective and the application of heating
between 3000C to 1,0000C temperatures has been reported. Heating the soil at
moderate temperature assists the vapour extraction of volatile organic compounds. Soil
vapour extraction performance can be enhanced or improved by injecting heated air or
steam into the contaminated soil through the injection wells. Heating the soil to
extremely high temperature is the in situ vitrification by which electrical current is used
to heat and melt the soil in place.

21
The effectiveness of thermal stabilization is influenced by the following issues: (a) the
degree of saturation of the soil, (b) the rate of groundwater movement, (c) the creep
potential of the frozen ground, (d) the post thawing behavior, (e) the heat transfer in
the melted soil and (f) the impact of heat on utilities and adjacent structures. These
issues have been further detailed as below:-
Degree of Saturation: Since the formed ice lense binds the soil’s particles to increase
strength, partially saturated soils are weaker when frozen than fully saturated soils
because less ice lenses are formed. Water (or slurry) is sometimes added to certain soils
above the groundwater table to improve their frozen properties.
Groundwater Movement: Moving groundwater presents a potential major problem for
ground freezing. When the groundwater velocity is less than 600 mm per day, the
ground freezing process is not affected. In faster-moving ground waters, such as those
affected by tidal or river fluctuations, the freezing process is affected, but can be dealt
with in the design. When the water velocity reaches 2 m per day, ground freezing
becomes essentially ineffective.
Creep of Frozen Ground: When stressed for a long time, the frozen ground may
experience deformations and loss in the initial strength developed upon freezing. Clayey
soils, for instance, encountered on a shaft freezing project, exhibited a radial inward
creep of the order of 38 mm per month under the load. Granular soils at similar depths
showed negligible deformations. One reason for the creep is that the water adsorbed on
the clay mineral’s surface, which does not freeze at 0°C, freezes gradually as the
temperature is lowered substantially below 0°C.
Post-thawing Behaviour: Post thawing behavior of the frozen ground is still not well-
understood, with conflicting opinions voiced regarding the potential post thawing ground
settlement. Through a laboratory testing program performed on samples of the Boston
Blue Clay, before and after one cycle of freezing, illustrate signs of disturbance of the
initial structure of the soil due to micro cracks caused by the formation of the ice lenses,
accompanied by reduction in the undrained shear strength of the soil.. The post-thawing
soil behaviour is influenced by the freezing rate, surcharge loading and drainage
characteristics of the treated soil.
Heat Transfer: The transfer of heat through the melted soil is a key issue in
vitrification. The electric conductivity of the melted soil, and the rate in which the heat
transfers through it, affect the extent and rate of advancement of the soil’s melt-down.
These issues are still in the experimental stage.
Impact on Utilities and Structures: Because of the extreme temperature used, it is
prudent that no objects made of metals, polymers, geotextiles, etc are present at the
site or in its vicinity prior to the application of the electric current. The intensity and
distance of heat transfer in the soil should be tested prior to the application of
vitrification to protect against any potential negative impact on adjacent facilities.

Figs-21 & 22: Stabilization of ground by Heating process

22
3.6. 2 Ground Freezing:
Ground freezing is the use of refrigeration to convert in-situ pore water to ice. The ice
then acts as a cement or glue, bonding together adjacent particles of soil or blocks
of rock to increase their combined strength and make them impervious. The technique is
currently used for the temporal increase of strength and temporal shut off of water
seepage around open cut, shaft excavation and tunneling.
Ground freezing is used for groundwater cutoff, for earth support, for temporary
underpinning, for stabilization of earth for tunnel excavation, to arrest landslides and to
stabilize abandoned mineshafts. Typically, a row of freeze pipes are placed vertically in
the soil and heat energy is removed through them, in a process remarkably analogous
to pumping groundwater from wells. When the earth temperature reaches 0°C, the
water in the soil pores turns to ice. Then further cooling proceeds. Frozen soil becomes
nearly impermeable material.
With granular soils, the groundwater in the pores freezes readily, and a saturated sand,
for example, achieves excellent strength at only a few degrees below the freezing point.
Further depression of the temperature produces only marginal increase in strength. With
clays, however, the ground water is molecularly bonded at least in part to the soil
particles.

Figs-23 & 24: Stabilization of ground by freezing

Advantages of Thermal Stabilization of ground:
 Potential for complete destruction of contaminants
 Applicable for a wide range of soil types although may be handling problems
 Established technologies with some mobile plant for selected process types
 Possible re-use of soil if process temperature is not excessive
Disadvantages of Thermal Stabilization of ground:
 High cost of some methods due to high energy requirement
 Soil may be destroyed by high temperature
 Heavy metal contaminants may not be removed and may become concentrated
in ash
 Potential for generation of harmful combustion products
 Control of atmospheric emissions required including condensing of volatile metals
 Approval by regulatory authority may be required

3.7 GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY ELECTRO TREATMENT:

Developed mainly for remediation of contaminated sites, the electro treatment methods
apply electric currents in the ground to remove contaminants in an unobtrusive fashion
23
with limited excavation and transport requirements and minimum environmental
impacts. The use of this technique provides an approach with minimum disturbance to
the surface while treating subsurface contaminants.
The key issues in electro treatment are:-
(a) the soil’s electrical conductivity,
(b) the ionic characterization of the contaminants, and
(c) the impact on buried objects and utilities.

Electrical conductivity: A major advantage of the electro kinetic process is its

effectiveness in low permeability soils since the migration of ions in the pore fluid is
governed by electro-osmotic conductivity rather than hydraulic gradient. The success of
the process, however, is influenced by the soil’s buffer capacity and its level of electric
conductance. A fluid in the soil’s pores is usually needed both to conduct the electric
field and to transport the species injected into the soil, or extracted from it. The power
consumption in electro treatment methods is directly related to the electrical
conductivity of the medium
Ionic Characterization of Contaminants: The electro treatment methods discussed
above do not work with non-ionic elemental metals. The first step in the treatment
process, therefore, is to characterize the contaminants with respect to their ionic
composition. As the electric current passes through the soil, the positively charged
cations are attracted to the negatively charged cathode, and the negatively charged ions
are transported to the positively charged anode.
Impact on Buried Objects and Utilities: The electro kinetic activity in the ground
may accelerate corrosion of buried metallic objects and non-cathodically protected utility
lines. The presence of such obstructions may affect the level and duration of the electro
treatment.
Electro treatment Methods:
The electro treatment methods used in environmental geotechnology includes:
 Electro kinetic remediation
 Electro heating
 Electro kineting fencing
 Bioelectro kinetic injection
The first method is used mainly for extraction of ionic contaminants such as heavy
metals, and the second for removal of volatile and semi volatile compounds. The last
two methods are used to stabilize the contaminants in situ.
Electrokinetic remediation: Following the principle of electro-osmosis developed for
dewatering of clayey soils, electrokinetic remediation uses a direct electric current
applied across a soil mass by a set of electrodes placed in the ground through bore
holes. Under the influence of the electric field, ions are desorbed from the soil particles
and transported electrokinetically to their respective electrodes (cations to the cathode
and anions to the anode) where they are captured and removed.
Electroheating: Electroheating of soils is used to enhance the removal of organic
compounds. Although other treatment methods, such as steam injection, have been
used for this purpose, their effectiveness has been limited as heating occurred mainly
around the injection rods only. By applying an electric current in the soil, however, the
soil and groundwater between the electrodes are heated homogeneously. In combination
with vacuum and/or groundwater extraction, the heated volatile and semi volatile
compounds can be removed effectively.
Electrokinetic fencing: When the removal of a contaminant by the electrokinetic
remediation method is not feasible, the heavy metal can be stabilized in situ by
electrokinetically injecting stabilizing agents or creating an electrokinetic “fence” that

24
 reacts with, and immobilizes, the contaminants as the contamination plume passes
through it. Electrokinetic injection can also be used to improve the engineering
properties of non-contaminated soft clays (strength, plasticity, etc) by injecting them
with ions of chemically stabilizing agents.
Bioelectrokinetic injection: When the removal of a contaminant by the electrokinetic
remediation method is not feasible, the heavy metal can be stabilized in situ by
electrokinetically injecting stabilizing agents or creating an electrokinetic “fence” that
reacts with, and immobilizes, the contaminants as the contamination plume passes
through it. Electrokinetic injection can also be used to improve the engineering
properties of non-contaminated soft clays (strength, plasticity, etc) by injecting them
with ions of chemically stabilizing agents. The bioelectrokinetic injection functions as a
nutrient transport system to enhance the biodegradation of toxic organic contaminants.
For aerobic degradation, oxygen can be electrochemically generated and then swept into
the system with the nutrients.
Advantages of Electrotreatment:
 Remediation can be conducted in situ to treat contaminants in
low permeability zones to overcome accessibility of contaminants or delivery of
treatment.
 Remediation can also occur ex situ
 This method of treatment may be very cost effective.
 It has the advantage of use in saturated or unsaturated soils because of the
insertion of pore fluid.
 Remediation can also occur despite soil stratifications or homogeneity.
 The potential profile in soils can be determined by the ionic distribution of pore
fluid.
Disadvantages of Electrotreatment:
 An external fluid is applied into the soil. If the contaminant cannot be dissolved,
it is not possible to extract the contaminant of interest.
 Electrolysis near the electrodes can alter the pH of the soil especially if the
current is induced for an extended period of time.
 Extended use of the system can also cause acidic conditions around the
electrodes sometimes reacting with contaminants.
 Large metal objects that are buried underground also pose a limitation to
electrodes because they offer a path to short circuit the system. Buried metal
objects can also change the voltage gradient and decrease or stop the flow.
 The removal of volatile organic compounds from the soils can increase the soil
vapor concentration.
 Local flattening of the electrical potential profile can also cause the difference in
migration.
3.8 BIOTECHNICAL STABILIZATION:
This new form of ground improvement uses live biological objects vegetation) as
reinforcing elements. It is used for stabilization of cut or fill slopes, or construction of
earth-retaining structures on parkland and in environmentally-sensitive areas. The
studies conclude that vegetation slows runoff velocities, increases runoff concentration
times, and decreases peak flow rates.
Vegetation reduces surface erosion because its engineering properties can:
• intercept raindrops, prevent soil compaction, and maintain infiltration;
• slow surface runoff;
• restrain soil particle detachment via shallow, dense root systems, consequently
reducing sediment transport; and
• delay soil saturation through transpiration.

25
Biotechnical stabilization is economical and more environmentally friendly than other
forms of ground improvement. The system utilizes native indigenous materials and the
final product blends well with the landscape, providing an aesthetic advantage.
Sometimes, the vegetation is combined with structural elements (wire mesh, geogrids,
gabions, etc).
The biotechnical stabilization techniques currently used include:
(a) brush layering,
(b) contour wattling,
(c) reed-trench layering,
(d) brush matting,
(e) live staking and others.
Brush layering: Brush layering is placement of live brush perpendicular to a slope’s
contour on cut or fill benches that are then backfilled in compacted lifts. The tips of the
brush extend just past the surface of the fill slope and act as sediment filters and slope
breaks, reducing runoff velocities. Placing the brush horizontally on the constructed
bench helps reinforce the slope’s soils by creating a dense matrix of branches similar to
geotextile fabrics used in engineered fill lifts. Brush layers also act as horizontal slope
drains on saturated slopes. Rooted plants of species that do not root readily, such as
alder, Scouler and Bebb Willow can be included in the plant layer. Steep slopes and
stream banks are better stabilized when a biodegradable revegetation fabric is used to
hold the reinforced soil lifts in place between the plant layers.
Brush layering acts as a coarse sediment filter immediately after installation. With plant
establishment, surface erosion (rain drop, sheet, and rill) is prevented by vegetative
cover. Root structure mechanically reinforces the soil by increasing shear strength,
which resists shallow slides.
Use brush layering on slopes up to 1.5H:1V or in highly eroded gully areas. Plant
material should be prepared as described under contour wattling except for the length of
the collected material.

Fig-25: Brush layering Fig- 26: Contour wattling

Contour Watttling: Contour wattling is an erosion control planting method which can
also be used to stabilize very shallow soil structure against landsliding. The method
involves packing lengths of woody plant material into cables or bundles (sometimes
called live fascines) about 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The cabling effect along the slope
helps to intercept surface water runoff and route it laterally before it creates erosion
problems. The wattles help trap sediment by creating barriers (living fences) to protect
down slope areas against material falls or erosion.
Straw Wattles increase infiltration, add roughness, reduce erosion, and help retain
eroded soil on the slope. Straw Wattles should be effective for a period of one to two
years, providing short term protection on slopes where permanent vegetation will be
established to provide long term erosion control.

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Woody plants which are particularly suitable to contour wattling are willow, red-osier
dogwood, and snowberry. Wattling is generally considered good for slopes of 1.5H:1V or
less. The wattles are placed into the trenches and partially covered creating what appear
like slope terraces. Wattling installation along a slope face should progress from the
slope toe upslope to the crest until planting is complete.
Reed trench layering: Trench layering is the choice for those plants that have strong
apical dominance and do not form many shoots after an initial cutback. Propagates by
self-seeding and rhizomatous spread; seed requires stratification. Clump division in
spring or fall is the simplest and most rapid propagation technique. Prefers fertile, moist,
well-drained soil, but does well in wide range of soils and conditions, including saline or
heavily acidic soils. The reed plants are very drought-resistant once established.

Figs-27 & 28: Reed trench layering

Brush matting: A brush mattress or brush mat is a revegetation technique that
provides a protective covering to a slope or stream bank as soon as it is installed. A
brush mattress is typically constructed using live willow branches or other species that
root easily from cuttings, but can also be constructed with any brushy, woody branches
in order to provide immediate and effective slope protection.
Brush mattresses quickly stabilize a slope or stream bank by providing a dense network
of branches which prevent surficial erosion. As the live branches root and grow, the soil
is reinforced with an underground matrix of spreading roots. If used on stream banks, a
brush mat will trap sediments during high water, and eventually the plant growth on the
stabilized stream bank will provide aquatic habitat. Brush mattresses work well for
stabilizing reconstructed stream channels, as they provide immediate cover for fish and
instant bank protection, even before they become established and grow.

Figs-29 & 30: Brush matting

Live staking and others: Live staking and joint planting involves the insertion of live,
vegetative cuttings into the ground in a manner that allows the cutting (stake) to take
root and grow. Live stake cuttings can be used to repair small earth slips and slumps.
The stakes can help buttress the soil and arching. Gullies and bare gully banks can
benefit from live staking. Live stakes or poles can be inserted or driven through
interstices or openings in gabions, riprap, articulated block, or cellular confinement

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systems. Live stakes can be used to anchor and enhance the effectiveness of willow
wattles, straw rolls, coir rolls, turf reinforcement mats, coir mats, continuous berms and
other erosion control materials.
Joint planting is useful where rock riprap, log cribwalls, rock deflectors, cellular
confinement systems, gabions, or other structural practices are required. Eventually, a
living root mat grows in the soil upon which the rock or structure has been placed,
greatly reducing pull out. The root mat helps to bind the soil and to prevent sediment
loss between and below the rocks and the rooted vegetation helps anchor the structure
to the slope.

Figs-317 32: Live staking

The key issues affecting the biotechnical stabilization are:
(a) the development of artificial cohesion in the ground,
(b) the effects of evapotranspiration, and
(c) the durability of the vegetation.
Artificial Cohesion: The growth of roots in the ground along the length of the buried
stems creates an artificial cohesion similar to that generated by fiber reinforcement. The
shearing resistance of the composite soil-root material is a function of both the friction
at the contact points between the soil grains and the roots, and the interlocking of the
soil particles in the root network. As the strain in the soil increases, the roots are pulled
together tightly around groups of soil particles increasing the shearing resistance of the
soil. If the artificial cohesion component of the resistance is needed to provide the
required safety factor, temporary protection measures, such as geotextiles, wooden
stakes, metal spikes, soil nails, etc. may be used to safeguard against initial shear
failure, until the roots grow sufficiently to provide the additional resistance.
Evapotranspiration: The impact of evapotranspiration of the vegetation on the stability
of the stabilized mass can be expressed in one of two ways: (a) as a reduction in the
pore water pressure which would result in an increased strength, or (b) as another
artificial cohesion component related to suction. The value of the soil suction caused by
the vegetation may be derived by monitoring tensiometers or piezometers installed in
vegetated and bare portions of the reinforced slope.
Durability of the vegetation: The long-term performance of biotechnical stabilization
is controlled by the durability of its vegetative elements. This durability is enhanced by:-
• selecting vegetation suitable for the ground and the climate,
• planting the vegetation correctly,
• maintaining the plants regularly,
• protecting the plants from severe weathering effects and disease, and
• combining the vegetation with structural elements (wire mesh, geogrids, gabions,
etc.)
Advantages of biotechnical stabilization:–
• Soil structural reinforcement

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 • Provides for hydraulic wicking (water absorption)
• Provides barrier to sedimentation
• Produces shade – temperature control
• Provides habitat
• Aesthetics – minor site disturbance and less obtrusive
• Cost-effective for small scale projects
• Long-lasting, strengthening over time
Disadvantages of biotechnical stabilization:
• Results are not immediate – Time variant as plants establish
• Applications are difficult to engineer for precise calculations
• Large scale projects are more costly and less popular.
• High cost of labor to install
• Availability of plant material
• Soils must support plant growth
• Difficult to duplicate – each site requires specific design considerations
• Maintenance may be required
4. CONCLUSIONS:
The successful application of ground improvement in soils is influenced by many
technical issues related to the characteristics of the soil, the material added to the soil
and their interaction. Other technical issues affecting performance are subject to the
equipment and procedures used, the skills of the operator and external factors such as
weather and proximity to existing structures. The remediation measure best suited for a
site will depend on many site specific issues and external factors. Careful examination of
site conditions will be required to select the most appropriate ground improvement
method to be applied for the project.
Technical, practical, economical, contractual and political factors affect the selection of a
particular type of ground improvement for a specific site. The several factors discussed
in this paper reflect the diversity of the ground improvement techniques available on the
market and the complexity facing the design engineer in the attempt to select the most
appropriate method, or combination of methods, to be applied for the project.

5. REFERENCES:
i) www.google.com
ii) “A short term course on ground improvement for infrastructure projects” by
Prof.S.R.Gandhi.
iii) “Modern construction materials and techniques” from National institute of technical
teachers training and research.
iv) Latest Trends in Ground Improvement Techniques by K.Sudhakar & S.Muthu
Karuppasamy.
v) Ground improvement engineering-issues and Selection by George A. Munfakh and
Duncan C. Wyllie
vi) Ground Improvement, SCDOT Geotechnical Design Manual, Final, Chapter 19, June
2010
vii) Ground Improvement – State of the Art, M. Terashi and I. Juran

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