G.H.

RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Online Lectures Session 2021-22

Semester- Ist

On
“GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES”
Lecture 1 - Introduction
By
Sujesh D. Ghodmare
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
G. H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur

Scheme & Syllabus

SUJESH D GHODMARE, GHRCE, Nagpur
1
Need for Engineered Ground Improvement &
Concerns
Mechanical properties are not adequate
Swelling and shrinkage
Collapsible soils
Soft soils
Organic soils and peaty soils
Sands and gravelly deposits, loose deposits with sinkhole Soft Clay
formations
Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
Handling dredged materials
Handling hazardous materials in contact with soils
Use of old mine pits Liquefaction and sinkhole formation
Continue….
• Scarcity of suitable construction sites
• Problem soils
 Collapsible soils
 Liquefiable soils
 Waste materials
 Expansive and shrinkage
 Marshy and soft soils
 Karst deposits
• Wide application
 Economy
Unexpected Results

Collapsible soils

Leaning tower of Pisa Kandla Port Building after Effects of liquefaction

2001 earthquake
Strategies- When a project encounters difficult foundation
conditions, possible alternative solutions are
 Avoid the particular site

 Design the planned structure (flexible/rigid) accordingly

 Remove and replace unsuitable soils

 Attempt to modify existing ground

 Enable cost effective foundation design

 Reduce the effects of contaminated soils

 Ensure sustainability in construction projects using ground improvement techniques

 G.H.RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Session 2020-21
Online Lectures Semester- Ist

On
“GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES”
Lecture 2 - Introduction
By
Sujesh D. Ghodmare
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
G. H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur

SUJESH D GHODMARE, GHRCE, Nagpur

6
Ground Improvement Techniques
for different soil types
Ground improvement can Dewatering
be done through various •This is a technique similar to compaction.
mechanisms •It is mostly adopted to clayey soils.
Compaction Reinforcement
•This method improves the soil response by interaction between soil and
Dewatering
inclusion.
Reinforcement • The improving period depends on the life of inclusion.
• In this technique there is no change in the state of soil.
Admixtures or grouting •It is a widely used technique as it can be done for many types of soils.

Compaction Admixtures or Grouting

•The state of soil is improved in this technique due to high
densification.
•This is a long term improvement technique.
•There is a change in soil state after adopting it.
•This technique can be adopted for silty , sandy and gravely
soils.
•Cementation plays a major role in improving
the soil response.
• Short term/long term improvement techniques
are possible.
•There is a change in soil state after adopting it.
Type of Soil & Suitability of Ground Improvement
Technique
Sr.No. Type of Soil Reinforcement Admixtures Compaction Dewatering

1 Organic Soil

2 Volcanic Clay Soil

3 High Plasticity Clay

4 Low Plasticity Clay

5 Silty Soil

6 Sandy Soil

7 Gravel Soil

Suitable Method Method not Suitable

 G.H.RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Session 2020-21
Online Lectures Semester- Ist

On
“GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES”
Lecture 3 - Introduction
By
Sujesh D. Ghodmare
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
G. H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur

SUJESH D GHODMARE, GHRCE, Nagpur

9
Classification of Ground Improvement
Technique
Mechanical modification

Hydraulic modification

Physical and chemical modification

Modification by inclusion and confinement

Combination of the above

Methods for Soil Improvement
Ground Ground Ground
Reinforcement Improvement Treatment

1) Stone Columns 1) Surface Compaction 1) Soil Cement

2) Soil Nails 2) Drainage/Surcharge 2) Lime Admixtures
3) Micro-piles 3) Electro-osmosis 3) Fly-ash
4) Jet Grouting 4) Compaction grouting 4) Dewatering
5) Ground Anchors 5) Blasting 5) Heating/Freezing
6) Geosynthetics 6) Dynamic Compaction 6) Vitrification
7) Fibers
8) Lime Columns
9) Vibro-Concrete Column
10) Mechanically Stabilized Earth
11) Biotechnical
 Factors affecting the selection of Ground
Improvement Technique
 Type and degree of improvement required
Bearing capacity improvement, settlement reduction, permeability enhancement/decrease,
long term/short term, liquefaction resistance.

 Type of soil, geological structure, seepage conditions

Type of clay/sand and foundation, role of pore pressure and seepage, presence of difficult geological condition.

 Costs, equipment, specifications

Size of the project, availability of equipment, transportation costs, experienced contractors, Specification of work,
guidance documents.

 Construction time
Construction time available, use of accelerated construction techniques

 Possible damage to adjacent structure or pollution of ground water resources

Tolerable levels of loading and deformation, pore water contamination

 Durability of the materials involved

Short term and long term, corrosion, aggressive soil condition.
Continue….
Toxicity and corrosivity of any chemical additives
Government regulations may restrict the choice of additives

Using Vitrification of soils to limit radio active or hazardous wastes,

Ex: Remediation of chromium-contaminated soil through ex situ vitrification

Reversibility or irreversibility of the process

Ex: Lime added to expensive soil reacts in presence of sulphate

Reusability of components such as steel, plastics, concrete etc.

Reliability of methods of testing, analysis and design
Good methods of testing, proven methods of design and analysis should be used and empirical approaches
need to be avoided

Feasibility of construction control and performance measurements

Documents of quality control and performance are required in major ground improvement projects
Objectives of Ground Improvement
Technique
Increase strength

Reduce distortion under stress (Increases stress-strain modulus)

Reduce compressibility (volume decreases due to a reduction in air voids or water content
under loads)

Ex: Additives, fibers, reinforcement

Benefits/Objectives of Ground Improvement
Technique
Increase of strength

Reduce distortion under stress (Increases stress-strain modulus)

Reduce compressibility (volume decreases due to a reduction in air voids or water content under
loads)

Prevent detrimental physical or chemical changes due to environmental conditions (freezing /

thawing, wetting / drying)

Reduce susceptibility to liquefaction

Reduce natural variability of borrow materials and foundation soils

 Catalysts and accelerators
Development of new machinery, particularly for deep compaction

Availability of new construction materials such as geo-foams, geo-composites

Emergence of better guidelines for determining the suitability of specific

techniques for certain types of soils and site conditions.

Better understanding of the geotechnical processes involved and appreciation of

the significance of the construction sequence.

Refinement of methods of analysis and computer modeling techniques

Various Ground Improvement Techniques
Compaction- What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is densified through
external compactive effort (Rearrangement of Particles)
Strategies for compaction process are
•In the case of constructed fills, specify placement conditions
(water content, density, depth of layers, etc.)
•Select appropriate equipment (roller compactor, tamping)
and method of operation (number of passes, patterns of
tamping etc.).
•Set up adequate control procedures (type and number of
tests, statistical evaluation etc.).
Advantages of Compaction
Compaction 1.Increases shear strength
2.Reduces compressibility
Mechanical Modification
3.Reduces permeability
Shallow Compaction 4.Reduces liquefaction potential
5.Controls swelling and shrinking
Deep Compaction 6.Prolongs durability
Laboratory Compaction Test
Parameters Standard Modified
compaction compaction

Mould volume,cm3 1000 1000

Diameter,mm 105 105
Height,mm Rammer 115.5 115.5
Rammerdiam,mm 50 50
Drop,mm 300 450
Mass,Kg 2.7 4.9
Number Layers 3 5 1000 ml compaction
Number of blows / Layer 25 25 mould
Energy input,KJ/m3 596 2703
Density of sand before
& after compaction
Operational aspects of shallow compaction
 Operating frequency
 Number of passes
 Depth of layers.
 Compaction at Freezing temperatures
Sample Calculations
Relationship between number of passes of a
roller and the density obtained & Compaction Curve
Zero Air Void Curve & Effect of Compactive Effort
Compaction and Clay Fabric & Line of Optimum
Vibratory and impact compactors for shallow
compaction
Shallow Surface Compaction:
 Static rollers:
 Smooth steel rollers and
 pneumatic rollers.
 Sheep foot rollers.
 Grid rollers.
Impact and vibratory equipment:
 Tampers
 rammers
 plate compactors
 Vibrating rollers.
 Impact rollers.
 Field Compaction(Different types of rollers)

Smooth-wheel roller Vibratory roller Pneumatic rubber tired roller Sheepsfoot roller
Smooth-wheel roller
Compacts effectively only to 200-300 mm; therefore,
place the soil in shallow layers (lifts)
Vibratory roller
For compacting very small areas & effective for granular
soils
Sheepsfoot roller
Provides kneading action; “walks out” after compaction
Sheepsfoot Roller Very effective on clays
Impact Roller
Provides deeper (2-3m) compaction. e.g., air field Impact Roller
Different types Compacting Equipment
Different types Compacting Equipment
Different types Compacting Equipment
Different types Compacting Equipment
Typical characteristics of impact & vibratory equipment for
shallow compaction
Type & Name Mass(t) Max.speed, Vibrating Depth of Number of
(Km/hr) frequency(HZ) Lift(m) passes

Vibrating rammer 0.3-0.1 -- 7-10 0.2-0.4 2-4

Light vibrating 0.06-0.8 1 10-80 0.15-0.5 2-4

plate

Light vibrating 0.6-2 2-4 25-70 0.3-0.5 4-6

roller

Heavy towed roller 6-15 8-10 25-30 0.3-1.5 4-6

Heavy self propelled 6-15 6-13 25-40 0.3-1.5 4-6

roller

Impact roller 7 10-14 -- 0.5-3 Up to 30

Soil Compaction Characteristics & Recommended
Compaction Equipments
Compaction Control & Compaction Control Test
• A systematic exercise where you check at regular intervals (e.g., 1 test per 1000 m3 of compacted
soil) and whether the compaction was done to specifications (Minimum dry density & Range of
water content).
• Field measurements (of ϒd) obtained using sand cone & nuclear density meter

Compaction Control Test

Properties of compacted soil
Dynamic pressures at various depths
during compaction
Dynamic pressures at different depths
obtained with different type and sizes of
compactors (Forssbland, 1981)
Strength of Cohesive Soil
Properties of Compacted Cohesive Soil
 OMC increases and MDD decreases with increase in
plasticity of soil
 Empirical relationships connecting the above to liquid
limit, plastic limit are available in literature
Properties of Compacted Cohesionless Soil
 MDD is connected to the grain size distribution
parameters
Typical Stress-Strain volume change
characteristics for a medium fine sand

Typical volume change versus axial strain curves for

fine sand (Bjerrum et al., 1961)
Approach to specifications and

quality control in compaction

 Specificationsandcontroltestsareintendedtoensure

• Adequate performance of foundation or embankment of compacted soil

according to the chosen design criteria.
• In order to comply with these objectives, control tests have to be Relevant.
• Density and water content have to be related to stability, volume change etc.
• Cost-effective. Testing expenses must be reasonable in relation to construction
costs and consequences of failure.
• Representative. Sample size should be related to the known or as per
requirement.
Suitability of soils as fills
• When high strength and low compressibility are required, but seepage and
erodability are not significant, coarse granular fills are most suitable.
• As impermeable liners for canals or as core material for dams, clayey gravels
and poorly graded gravel-sand-clay mixtures are ranked the highest.
• Silty soils and dispersive clays, even if compacted well, are vulnerable to erosion
by surface runoff or internal seepage.
• Soils containing organic matter are unsuitable for engineering fills, because of
their high compressibility under loads and large volume changes due to
environmental influences.
Compaction control tests

• Compaction control tests are essential to check whether the

objectives of compaction are achieved.

• It is difficult to check the objectives directly and properties strength

and compressibility are assessed indirectly.

• Control tests in terms of water content, density, penetration

resistance are conducted .
Compaction Control Procedures
• Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the proposed borrow materials to
define the properties required for design.
• After the earth structure is designed, the compaction specifications are written.
• Field compaction control tests are specified, and the results of these become the
standard for controlling the project.
• These specifications are expected to ensure an expected level of performance (in
terms of shear strength, compressibility, permeability which are related to
bearing capacity, settlements and drainage and seepage etc)
Types of Specifications
• (1) End-product specifications
This specification is used for most highways and building foundation, as long as
the contractor is able to obtain the specified relative compaction, how he obtains
it doesn’t matter, nor does the equipment he uses.
(2) Method specifications
• The type and weight of roller, the number of passes of that roller, as well as the
lift thickness are specified. A maximum allowable size of material may also be
specified.
• It is typically used for large compaction project.
Relative Compaction (R.C.)
• Relative compaction or percent compaction

• Correlation between relative compaction (R.C.) and the relative density Dr

• It is a statistical result based on 47 soil samples. As Dr = 0, R.C. is 80

• Dr=(emax-e)/(emax - emin)
• Typical required R.C. = 90% ~ 95%
Determination of the Relative Compaction in the Field
Where and When
• First, the test site is selected, it should be representative or typical of the compacted lift and
borrow material.
• Typical specifications call for a new field test for every 1000 to 2000m2 or so, or when the
borrow material changes significantly.
• It is also advisable to make the field test at least one or two compacted lifts below the already
compacted ground surface, especially when sheepsfoot rollers are used or in granular soils.
Experience and engineering judgment suggest the approximate minimum
numbers of field density and moisture content tests are as follows

Earth Volume of fill

structures per test, cum

Embankments 500-2000

Impermeable 200-1000
liners

Subgrade 500-1500

Base course 500-1000

Backfill 100-200
A few methods are as follows
Destructive methods
• Core cutting method IS 2720 (Part 29)
• Sand replacement method IS 2720 (Part 28)
• Volumenometer method
• Rubber-balloon method
• Proctor-needle method
Non- destructive methods
• Nuclear gauge method
• Impact Tester
Deep Compaction
Deep Compaction and Objectives
• Deep compaction techniques are required when in–situ soil extending to large
depths does not meet the requirements of performance criteria specified for the
expected loading and environmental conditions.
Deep soil improvement is possible by resorting to
• Ground Improvement Techniques
• Ground Reinforcement Techniques
• Ground treatment
Methods
• Dynamic Compaction
• Vibro-Compaction

• Compaction Grouting
• Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains
• Blast densification
Points to be Taken into Consideration
• Technique
• Energy transfer mechanism
• Stages of compaction
• Application – which soils are compacted?
• Types
• Ground Vibrations
• Design Considerations
Dynamic Compaction
• Technique involves repeatedly dropping a large weight from a crane
• Weight may range from 6 to 172 tons
• Drop height typically varies from 10 m to 40 m
• Degree of densification achieved is a function of the energy input (weight and
drop height) as well as the saturation level, fines content and permeability of the
material
• 6 – 30 ton weight can densify the loose sands to a depth of 3 m to 12 m
• Done systematically in a rectangular or triangular pattern in phases
• Each phase can have number of phases; primary,secondary, tertiary, etc.
Process
Results

 Deep craters are formed by tamping

 Craters may be filled with sand after
each pass
 Heave around craters is generally small

1-Primary, 2-Secondary
Results
• Spacing between impact points depend upon:
• Depth of compressible layer, Permeability of soil, Location of ground water level
• Deeper layers are compacted at wider grid spacing, upper layers are compacted with closer grid
spacing
Energy Transfer Mechanism
• Energy transferred by propagation of
Rayleigh (surface)waves and volumetric
(shear and compression) waves
• Rayleigh 67 %
• Shear 26 %
• Compression 7%
Densification Process
• Compressibility of saturated soil due to presence
of micro bubbles
• Gradual transition to liquefaction under repeated
impacts
• Rapid dissipation of pore pressures due to high
permeability after soil fissuring Thixotropic
recovery
 Zone 1 : Best
Application Zone 3 : Worst (consider alternate methods)
Zone 2 : Must apply multiple phases to allow for
• Applicable to wide variety of soils pore pressure dissipation

• Grouping of soils on the basis of grain sizes

Mainly used to compact
granular fills
 Particularly useful for
compacting rock-fills below
water and for boulders soils
where other methods can
not be applied or are
difficult
 Waste dumps, sanitary
landfills, and mine wastes
Dynamic Compaction
• Dynamic compaction is a ground improvement technique that densifies soils and fills by using a drop
weight typically hardened steel plates lifted by a crane and repeatedly dropped on the ground surface.
• The drop locations are typically located on a grid pattern, the spacing of which is determined by the
subsurface conditions and foundation loading and geometry.
• Treated granular soils and fills have increased density, friction angle and stiffness. The technique has been
used to increase bearing capacity, and decrease settlement and liquefaction potential for planned structures.
• It can be used to collapse voids prior to construction, thereby reducing sinkhole potential.
• Can be used to compact landfills prior to construction of a parking lots, roadways, and to stabilize large area
of embankment works.
• Dynamic compaction is most beneficial on soil known as granular materials.
• Granular materials enable excess pore water pressures that develop during the densification process to
dissipate
• rapidly.
• Dynamic compaction will be effective in silts, clayey silts and sandy silts.
Deep Dynamic Compaction
• In sanitary fills, settlements are caused either by compression of voids or
decaying of the trash material over time, DDC is effective in reducing the void
ratio, and therefore reducing the immediate and long term settlement.
• DDC is also effective in reducing the decaying problem, since collapse means
less available oxygen for decaying process.
• For recent fills where organic decomposition is still underway, DDC increases
the unit weight of the soil mass by collapsing voids and decreasing the void ratio.
• For older fills where biological decomposition is complete, DDC has greatest
effects by increasing unit weight and reducing long term ground subsidence.