Ancient History 22 June by Rahul Sengar Sir

ANCIENT HISTORY
(A COMPREHENSIVE YET CRISP COVERAGE)
RAHUL SENGAR SIR

FACULTY, NEXT IAS
ANCIENT HISTORY NOTES BY RAHUL SENGAR SIR 1
Dear students!!!
These notes of Ancient History have been compiled to ease your journey in this exam, as most of the students find
it difficult to cover this portions and end up either over-preparing it ( absolutely not required given the cost
benefit ratio) or ignoring it altogether (which might prove to be deal-breaker for you).
Keeping these things in mind, I have tried making these notes exhaustive so that they become your one-stop
solution for Ancient History. The language has been avoided at large, to make them short, crisp and succinct.
The period of ancient history is usually considered spanning from Stone age to Harsha era (7th century), but I
have included dynasties till early mediaeval period (12th century) to ease your preparation.
For the early mediaeval period, I would advise you to focus only on the dynasties, their founders and important
rulers and not delve deep into it, even though I have given you some extra information. Just focussing on the
pointers given above would take you through the requirements of the exams.
For the Art and Culture part, kindly supplement these notes with my Art & Culture notes, as I have avoided the
repetition. You will find the notes to be more helpful if you have attended the lectures too.
Hoping that these may prove to be your one-stop solution for all your exams and see you through the same.
Wishing you all the very best.
Regards
Rahul Sengar
CONTENTS
 PREHISTORIC AGE  GUPTA AGE -POST GUPTA DYNASTIES
 STONE AGE  NORTH
 PALAEOLITHIC  GUPTA
 LOWER PALAEOLITHIC  EAST
 MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC  LATER GUPTA OF MAGADHA
 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC  GAUDA OF BENGAL
 MESOLITHIC  KAMARUPA OF ASSAM
 NEOLITHIC  SOUTH
 CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD  KALBHRAS
 PROTO HISTORY  WESTERN GANGA DYNASTY
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION  KADAMBAS
 HISTORICAL AGE  HARSHVARDHANA ERA
 IRON AGE  EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES
 VEDIC AGE  SOUTH INDIA
 EARLY VEDIC AGE (RIGVEDIC  CHALUKYA
PERIOD)  HOYASLA
 LATER VEDIC AGE  YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI
 MAHAJANAPADAS  PALLAVA
 BUDDHISM AND JAINISM  IMPERIAL CHOLA
 MAGADHA EMPIRE  RASHTRAKUTA
 MAURYAN AGE  NORTH INDIA
 POST MAURYAN PERIOD  YAHOVARMANA OF KANNAUJ
 NORTH INDIA  KASHMIR DYNASTY
 SHUNGA DYNASTY  EASTERN GANGA DYNASTY
 KANAV DYNASTY  PALA DYNASTY
 NORTH WESTERN REGION  SENA DYNASTY
 INDO-GREEKS  KALCHURI DYNASTY
 INDO SCYNTHEINS  CHANDELA DYNASTY
 INDO –PARTHIENS  PARMARA DYNASTY
 KUSHANAS  SOLANKI DYNASTY
 SOUTH INDIA  TOMARA OF DELHI
 SATVAHANAS  GAHADAVALAS OF KANNAUJ
 SANGAM AGE  HINDU SHAHI DYNASTY
 CHOLA  DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
 CHERA TECHNOLOGY IN ANCEINT INDIA
 PANDYAS  SCHOOLS OF HINDU LAW
 SATYAPUTRAS
 EASTERN INDIA

HISTORY
History is derived from Greek word – Historia (inquiry) is the study of the past.
DIVISION OF HISTORY
Pre-history Proto-history History
Events that Period between pre-history and invention of writing
occurred before the history.Writing can be there but script and the study of literate
invention of writing is still undeciphered and we get societies based on
Ex: Stone Age ,Early information from other Civilisation written records and
Chalcolithic Period Ex : Indus valley Civilisation archaeological sources
In India, the research on Stone Age Civilisation was started in 1863. Chopper chopping
pebbels pieces of tools were at first obtained from Sohan River valley, Punjab
(Pakistan).At first handaxe pieces of equipments were found in Vadanadurai and
Attirapkkam near Madras. Robert Bruce Foote was a British geologist and
archaeology. Robert Bruce Foote picked up a stone tool on the Parade Ground at
Pallavaram cantonment, near Chennai. It turned out to be an epochal discovery.It was
a hand-axe made of a hard rock called quartzite. Prehistoric man had crafted it to dig
out tubers and roots from the soil, butcher animals he had hunted and take out the
eat, and so on.
Note: In India, Mesolithic can start from 10000 BC and can go upto 6000BC. And
Neolithoic can start from 8000 to 6000 and can go upto 1000BC in south India. In our
notes, we are considering a rough division of time period and majorly a chronology is
important from exam perspective rather than exact time lines as it will vary from area
to area.

STONE AGE (600000 B.C. - 4000B.C.)
Dimensions Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age
(600000 B.C.-10000 B.C.) (10000 B.C.-8000 (8000B.C.-
B.C.) 4000B.C)
Lower Middle Upper
Climate Ice Age Ice Age Ice Age Holocene Era Holocene
Human Homo-Erectus Neanderthals Emergences Homo Sapiens Homo Sapiens

Species of Homo
Sapiens
Occupations Hunting and Hunting and Hunting and Hunting and Hunting and
Gathering Gathering Gathering Gathering Gathering
Domestication NO NO NO YES(1st animal YES
Of Animal was Dog )
Common : Sheep
and Goat
Agriculture NO NO NO NO YES
1st - Barley
Technology - Flakes Flints Microliths Polished Tools
Types Hand Axe Use of hand Bone tools Composite tools, Use of Celts for
of Tools Choppers axe declined Needles spearheads, ground
Cleavers Blades Harpoons arrowheads, and Bone tools i.e.
Pointers Parallel-sided sickles after needles, scrapers,
Scrapers blades hafting them on borers,
Borers Fishing and wooden or bone arrowheads
Burin tools handles
Geometrical and
Non-Geometrical
shapes
Stone used Limestone Quartzite Chert , Jasper Agate Dyke, Basalt,
Quartzite(Qua Dolomite
rtzite Men)
Cloths NO NO NO YES- Animal skin Yes
Houses Caves and Caves and Caves and Semi-permanent Rectangular or

rock shelters. rock shelters. rock shelters. settlements circular houses ,
Caves and made of mud and
open grounds. reeds
Burials NO NO NO Yes Yes
Pottery NO No No Some references Grey ware, Black-
Langhnaj burnished ware,
Mirzapur (U.P) & Mat-impressed
ware
Art (Paintings) NO No 1st evidence Themes: social life, sexual activity,
(Rock child birth, rearing of children and
Paintings): burial ceremony, dancing and food
Animals , collection ,family life , women in cloth
hunter,

dancers Reflects: Religious practices &
images Gender based labour division
Major Sites UP :Belan UP :Belan MP: Rajasthan:Bagor Kashmir:Burzaho

Valley Valley Bhimbetka M.P-Adamgarh, m ,Gufrakal
MP : MP : UP: Belan Bhimbetka,Khar Pakistan
Bhimbetka Bhimbetka Son war, Jaora and :Mehargarg
Rajasthan Rajasthan Bihar : Chota Kathotia UP: Lahuradev
:Sites in Thar :Sites near Nagpur Gujarat-Langhnaj MP: Bhimbhetka
Cauvery river Luni etc plateau Odisha -
etc Sundargarh and
Sambalpur
Important Sites And Its Relevance From Exam Perspective
Age Site Name Evidence of
PALAE Kurnool and Muchchatla Bone tools
LITHIC Chintamani Gavi (AP)
MESO Bagor(Rajasthan) Best Documented Site (Kothari River) , Earliest domestication of
L Animal
I Adamgarh(M.P) Earliest evidence of domestication of Animal
T
H Damdama(Pratapgarh,UP ) 41 human graves including 5 Double & 1 Triple Burial,
I Ornaments and pointed objects of bone
C Mahadaha (Pratapgarh) A large no. of implements made of bones and horns
SaraiNahar Rai (Pratapgarh) 4 Skelton in a grave ,Bone Ornaments and pointed Bone Objects
Langhnaj(Gujrat) Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.), Pottery
NEO Koldihwa & Mahagara Circular huts along with crude handmade pottery
L (Allahabad) One of the oldest evidence of rice
I Lahuradev(Kabir Nagar ) Earliest Evidence of Rice /agriculture as per New research
T
Mehrgarh (Pakistan) Use of Sun-dried bricks , One of the earliest evidence of
H
I Wheat ,One of Earliest evidence of Agriculture and Animal
C Domestication , Earliest Evidence of Settled Life
Burzahom (Kashmir) Domestic dogs with masters in graves , Pit dwelling
Gufkral (Kashmir) Pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses
Chirand (Bihar ) Neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones
SanganaKallu(Karnataka) Ash Mounds of burnt relics of seasonal herdsmen camps
 Lohanda Nala(Belan Valley ) : Bone Made Mother Goddess
 Lekhahiya (Vindhyan): 27 Human skelton in one rock shelters
 Belan Valley : All 3 phases palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic are found in sequence
 Evidence of grains : Barley (1st ) , Wheat (2nd) ,Rice ( 3rd)
 Note : Earliest eveidence of Agriculture in Indian Subcontinent will be Lahuradev if it is in
Options if not then Mehargarh will be the option

CHALCOLITHIC AGE (4000 B.C. – 1500 B.C.)
1st Use of Metal i.e. Copper
Dimensions Characteristics
Agriculture & cattle Domesticated Animals: Cow, Sheep, Goat, etc.
rearing Cultivated Food Grains: Wheat , Rice , Bajra , Pulses, Cotton
Pottery Black and Red pottery , Ochre-coloured pottery(Hastinapur and
Atranjikhera )
Settlements Not acquainted with burnt bricks so Rural Settlements
(Ref. of social difference Rectangular houses : Chiefs
seen in Houses) Round huts: Commoners
Economy Village economy , Barter system
Art and Craft Art of Copper smelting ,Good stone workers , Knew spinning and
weaving , Art of manufacturing cloth but Unaware of Art of writing
Worship Small clay images of earth goddesses
Malwa and Rajasthan: Bull terracotta , served as a religious cult
Infant mortality High - Children’s burial in large number found in West Maharashtra
Jewellery Fond of ornaments and decoration
Women Ornaments : Shell and bone & carried combs in their hair
Manufactured beads of semi-precious stones i.e. carnelian ,steatite etc.
Paintigs Battle Scenes , Men riding horses , art of tanning ,complex geo Pattern
IMPORTANT CHALCOLITHIC SITES
Ahar -Banas (Rajasthan) Smelting & metallurgy, Supplied copper tools to contemporary
communities , Rice evidence , Black red Pottery with White designs
Gilund (Rajasthan) Stone blade industry was discovered here
Navdatoli (MP) Narmada River,Cultivated almost all food grains ,Round and
Rectangular residential structures
Malwa (MP) Narmada River, Richest chalcolithic ceramics, and spindle whorls
Kayatha (MP) Chambal River, Houses had mud-plastered floors, Pre-Harappan
elements in pottery and copper objects with sharp cutting edges.
Daimabad Southern extension of IVC , largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari
(Maharashtra) valley, Famous for recovery of bronze goods i.e. bronze rhinoceros,
elephant, 2-wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo
Songaon, Inamgaon & Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses
Nasik (Maharashtra) Dead under the floor of houses in North and South direction
Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (MP): Known for Non-Harappan culture.
MEGALITHIC AGE(2000 BC To 200 AD Approx )
Big Stones used above burials or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials. Actual Burials are
like dolmenoid cists (box-shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined
peripheries) and capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in
Kerala. Non-sepulchral megaliths include memorial sites such as menhirs.
Regions: All over india but mainly penisulatr india like Maharshtra, Karnataka, TN, AP etc.

INDUS – SARASWATI VALLEY CIVILISATION(IVC)
Or HARAPPAN CULTURE (3300 B.C. – 1300 B.C.)
IVC (Bronze Age) is the earliest known urbanization of the Indian subcontinent flourished
around Indus, Ravi, and seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River etc. IVC Extension : Manda( North) ,
Alamgirpur(East) Daimabad (South) and Sutkagendor (West)
PHASES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Early Harappan Phase Mature Harappan Phase Late Harappan Phase
(3300 to 2600 BCE) (2600 to 1900 BCE) (1900 to 1300 BCE)
Earliest Indus script Large urban centres Gradual decline of the
A centralized authority Ex: Pakistan : Harappa, Ganeriwala, and IVC
Urban quality of life Mohenjo-Daro
Trade networks India : Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi,
Cultivation of crops Rupar, and Lothal
FEATURES OF IVC
Town City City Divided into two Parts i.e.
Planning structure Citadel (Upper City ) : Fortified and Vital Private Buildings
Lower Town : Situated on east and separated by ground
Building By Side of Road , Terraced House , Double Stories building ,Inner Court
yard ,Public and Private Wells , Bathroom and Kitchen Locate diagonally
inside house is a symbol of Hygiene (Compare to of Swatch Bharat
Mission ) ; No Temples and No Palace
Material Mostly Burnt(Baked Bricks ) + Unburnt + Stones in Dholavira (Guj)
Drainage Brick Laid Channels , Each house has its own drainage , Covered
system manholes and underground drainage ,
Granary Large Dimension of 45-15 meter ,Brick platforms and wooden Structure
done to be safer from Moisture and Pests
Streets 13-34 feet Wide, Grid plan (cutting each other in North- South and East-
West direction ,Block/sectoral division , Lamp posts and dustbins on
regular interval is a sign of municipality (Comparable-Smart city Mission)
Great Looks like a Central swimming pool along with array of galleries and
Bath rooms and may be used for Ritualistic Cleaning
AGRICUTUR Earliest to produce Cotton and known as Sindon – Mesopotamians ; Hindon - Greece
E Wheat , Barley , Ragi ,Millet + evidences of Rice from Lothal and Rangpur
Animal Rearing(No horse) and OX used for Ploughing
Traces of Canal like Nala in Shortughai ( Afghanistan )
ECONOMY Exploitation of Natural Resources , Animal husbandry ,Barter System ( No Coins)
MANU- Use of Gold , Silver Bronze ; Terracotta ;Beads making workshops in Chanhudaro and
FACTURING Lothal , Ornaments made of gold , bones , steatite and precious stones like lazuli
POTTERY Wheel made , Red and black painted and Burial pottery (detailed discussion in A& C
Notes)
TRADE Mesopotamia (Sumeria) ,Central Asia, Afghanistan, Makan(Oman) ,Dilmun (Bahrain )
Export : Teak( Guj) and Lead ( Kashmir and South India )
Import : Jade (Asia ), Turquoise (Khurson ) Lazuli ,Tin (Afghanistan) , Gold will be
coming from Iran and South India )
SEALS Square , Elephant Rhino Tiger ,deer ,sheep but No Cow and No Horse on seals
Weight & Standardization and Binary System based on ratio of 16
Measurement Material like Chert , Limestone, Steatite and Cubical shape
Religion Nature Worship and both male and female Deity , Sculpture of reproductive human
organs i.e. Phallus ; Pashupati seal , Pipal tree and terracotta of Mother Goddess

IMPORTANT IVC SITES AND ITS FINDINGS
Large mounds were 1st reported by Charles Masson in 1826.
Country Site name State Excavator Famous For
Afghanistan Shortughai , Oxux Takhar Traces for Canal

River Province
Harappa Punjab Daya Ram Granaries, bullock carts and
1921 ,Ravi Sahani sandstone statues of Human
anatomy, 1st Artefact uncovered was
a Unicorn
Mohenjodaro Larkana R.D Seal of Pasupathi , Bronze dancing
(Mound of Dead) District Banerjee girl, Great bath, Granary, Steatite
1922 , Indus Sindh statue of Priest king , piece of woven
Pakistan cotton , Mesopotamian cylindrical
seal
Sutkagendor Stein Trade point between Harappa and
1929 , Dast Babylon
Chanhudaro N. G. Bead makers shop and footprint of a
1931 , Indus Mazumdar dog chasing a cat ,Lipsticks
,Remenants of Jhukkar and Jhangar
Culture (Pottery etc)
Amri (1935) Mazumdar Antelope evidence
Kalibangan (1961 , Rajasthan 1952:Ghose Ploughed field surface , Fire altar ,
Ghaggar) 1961: B.B Camel's bones, Mesopotamian
Discovered Lal cylindrical seal having 2 men + 1
byy Luigi Pio women throwing spears
Tessitori
Lothal –Mound of R. Rao Artificial brick dockyard, Rice husk,
Dead (1954 Fire altars & Chess playing ,bead
,Bhogawa River) making shop ,terracotta of horse and
ship ,Persian Seal and Painted Jar
Surkotda (1964) Gujrat JP Joshi Bones of horses. Pot burial
Dholavira (1985) R.S. Bisht Water harnessing system and Water
2nd Largest in India reservoir ,Rock cut great Bath , Town
divided in 3 parts
INDIA
Desalpur
Ropar (1950) B.B. Lal Dog buried with human oval pit
Sutlej Punjab burials, copper axe, first site to be
excavated after independence
Dadheri PGW culture ,arrival of Aryans
Alamgirpur Broken copper blade, ceramic items
Yamuna and impression of cloth on a trough
,Utensils with triangle ,peacock and
UP squirrel
Sanauli 1st ref of Chariot (2 wheeled)
Hulas Handmade+Wheelmade Pottery
Daimabad(1958) B.P. Bronze images (charioteer with
Pravara River Bopardikar chariot, ox, elephant and Rhino)

Maharasht
ra
Banawali (1974) R.S. Bisht Evidence of both pre-Harappan and
Harappan culture, Terracotta of
Plough , Only city with Radial streets
Rakhigarhi (1969) Haryana Surajbhan Largest Site of IVC in India ,
Ghaggar Cylindrical seal with alegator
terracotta bricks
Bhagwanpura, JP JOSHI
Saraswati River
Manda (1982) Jammu Procured wood
Chenab
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IVC and CONTEMPORARY CIVILISATIONS
Dimensions IVC Mesopotamian Egypt and Mayans
Extension Larger than combined area of Mesopotamia Mesopotamian : Iraq
and Egypt Egypt : todays Egypt
Mayans: South America
Rivers system Indus and its tributaries Mesopotamia: Tigris and Euphrates Egypt : Nile
Cities Well-structured and planned Complex cities
Drainage More organised and proper Complex , used copper pipes in Egypt
Not Clear ;believed to be Dominated by Mesopotamians, Mayans witnessed the rise of
Political Merchants.Lack of evidence of a kingdoms and Throne or property was inherited
System matriarchal system in the IVC by the daughter in Egypt
King System No Yes
Religion Nature , both male and female Deity Mayans were heavily religious
worshiped but NO TEMPLES Priests in Mesopotamia and Egypt
Bricks Burnt (baked) Egypt: Sun dries Bricks
Mesopotamia : Lesser Burnt bricks+Sundried
Mathematics Mathematics not known to IVC Mesopotamia : Sexagesimal maths system
and No evidence of prediction of celestial Mayans : exceptional at mathematics and
Astronomy movements in Indus Valley predicting celestial movements
History of No remains of timekeeping are found in Egyptians : history of timekeeping i.e. Sundials,
timekeeping data of the IVC the water clocks, and the division of the days
Writing Invented their own typical pictographic Mesopotamia: Cuneiform script and the Egyptian
System script known as Boustrophedon script: Hieroglyphics.
Both scripts have been deciphered
Weapons some weapons in sanauli ; Weapons more in number , Clear evidence of
No clear evidence of war , wars
Chariot 2 wheeled ( better technology ) 4 Wheeled
REASONS OF DECLINE of IVC
Theory Argument in Favour Argument Against
Flood Silt deposit above ground level Decline of settlement outside Indus valley can not be
Earthquake Raised level of flood plain explained as flood /earthquake can not be everywhere
River shifting River can not be dammed by tectonic effects
Drought 2000BC –less rain—increased aridity All river not dried up. for ex ghaggar is still there
Aryan Invasion Human skelton on streets ,Rigveda referes Decline of Harappas aroung 1800-1700 BC. Arival of Aryan
to dasa fortresses , Veda mention a place not early than 1500 BC. So Aryan clash seems difficult to
called hariyappa where Aryans fought battle accept.
Ecological Forest and grass depleted due to over Computation of need of Harappa population on scanty
imbalance urbanisation  more flood and drought informationmore calculation needed
Survival of Tradition : Urban setup ended but religios practices ,cult of sacred places, fire worship ,house plans ,potter
wheel,attention to bathing etc survived and planned urban setup , lierary may not survived.

VEDIC PERIOD (1500 B.C. - 600 B.C.)
Sources Indian Foreign
Literary Vedas (Shruti ) compiled in Zend Avesta (Iranian Text )
Early Vedic Period : Rigveda(Oldest- Mandala 2 to 9)
Later Vedic Period : Rigveda ( Book 1 and 10)
,Yajurveda , Samveda ,Atharva Veda and Smritis
(Brahaman , Aranyaka , Upnishada etc)
Non- Pottery (Painted Grey Ware in Gangetic Region) Boghaz Koi (Asia Minor-Vedic Gods)
Literary Sculpture Mittani (Syria),Kassitte(Iraq)
Hittaite (Anatolia)
EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 B.C. -1000 B.C.)
Rig Veda composers describe themselves as Arya.
Meaning of Arya : Indo-European origin speech group/Cultural group /men of good family
Region : Sapta-Saindhav {land of 7 Rivers Sindhu(Indus)+ 5 Tributaries + Sarasvati (lost )}
Indus is the most mentioned and Sarasvati is the most pious river.
God Varuna uphold Rit ( natural law) and known as Ritasyagopa and Dhrama is Duty
 Tribal Society: Divided into Aryans and Non-aryans (i.e. ‘Dasas’ and ‘Dasyus’)
 Varna used as reference of complexion like Aryan’s (fair) and Dasyus (dark).
 4 –Varna System and Rigid Caste system was not there.
 Dasa and Dasyus were used as Slaves for domestic help and not agriculture.
But, Aryans were soft towards Dasa & hostile towards Dasyus.
S  Egalitarian society and social differentiates were not sharp
O  Kula( Family )  Gram ( Group of Family ) Clan( Vis)  Jana( Tribe )
C  Head of Kula : Kulapa ( a male  Patriarchal Society  Desired birth of Son )
I  Head of Gram: Gramini, also head of village fighting unit.
E  Head of Jana : Rajan (Chief – No King System ) ; Wife of Rajan : Mahishi
T  Institution of Marriage: Present and usually monogamous but some references to
Y polygamy and polyandry but no references of Child Marriage or Sati System.
 Remarriage of Widow : Niyoga ( Levirate ) Marriage to Husband’s Brother
 Two Drinks – Soma (sanctioned by religion & was drunk at sacrifices) &
Sura (disapproved by priests); Played Gambling and Chariot Race was famous.
 Good status of Women: Ghosha, Sikta, Nivavari, and Apala were female sages
contributed to the composition of Rig Veda.
 Gotra term mentioned in Rigveda for Cow Pen or Heards of Cows
 World Run as per Dharma and Rit ( Natural cosmic Order )
 Personification of Natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain i.e. anthropomorphic
R  Sacrifices performed for Praja and cattles  Materialistic and not spiritualistic
E  NO IDOL WORSHIP ; NO PREIST for household Rituals ; No Magic or Omen
L  Important Gods : Indra ( Rain) , Agni ( Fire) , Varun ( Ocean) , Yama (death) ,
I Soma ( gold of plants ) ; Rudra ( god whose arrows brings disease ) ,Ashvini { God
G of War – Gifted Prsthetic to Vishpala (Women/ Horse Warrior ) }, Savitri ( Deity of
I Gayatri mantra written by Vishwamitra in 3 rd mandala) ; Aditi ( Mother of many
O Gods ) ,Usha ( Goddess of Dawn ),Marut (God of Thunder)
N  Important Priests : Vashishtha and Vishwamitra
 Polythestic Charcater but Ekaishwarvaad (Vedic saints worship any god while
considering him/her as supreme god - एकं सदं विंपरं बहुधं िंदन्तिं of
Rigveda )

P  Rajana is head of Jana and has 2 duties i.e. Protection of Cows from Panis (one
O who hides cows) and Protection of tribes/Jana. Rajana (Gopa) assisted by :
Purohit(Guru) Sanani(Commander-in Chief of army)
L
Vrajpati (Authority over a large land ) Gramini (Head of Village Army)
I  To get cattle back, Indra was invoked and many battles such as Gavisthi (search of
T cows), Gaveshana, Goshu, and Gavyat were fought. Indra will break forts of
I Dasyus hence he has been named a Purandhara.
C  Administration through Tribal assemblies like
A Vidhata( Oldest body ), Sabha(assembly of elites,Judicial power) , Samiti
L (larger Body ) , Gana(troops) ---Women attended Sabha and Vidhata
 Sabha and Samiti are there to control autocracy of Chief
 No Standing Army and military functions were performed by Gana, Vrat , Sardha
S  No mention of Justice Officer
Y  Descended Monarchy: Rajana’s post seems hereditary but traces of election by
S Samiti is there.
T  Rig Vedic charioteers used Varma (coats of mail) and sipra/ sironastra (helmets)
E and equipped with Asi (swords), Hanas (arrows) and Ilhianus (bows).
 1st is Bharata King Divodasa (winner) and Dasa ruler Shambara
M
 Battle of 10 Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha ) on banks of Purushani(Ravi) fought
between Sudas (bharata tribe and Trutsu family ) and 10 other Tribes ( 5 Aryans
 Panchajanya (Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu ,Druhyu) + 5 Non-Aryans Tribes
 Primary Occupation : Pastoral ; Secondary Occupation : Agriculture ( Traces of
Barley i.e. YAVA)
E  Main Wealth : Cattle  Gomat : Wealthy Person having cows
C  No officer for tax collection and chief received voluntary offerings called “bali”
O  Barter system was prevalent
 ‘NISHKA Greeva ’  Gold ornamental
N  Ayas is the common name used for any metal. Gold was called Hiranya
M  Introduced spokes wheels and Horse olayed significant role in thir life In
Y  Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smelter
 Pani term used for Traders
 As per Varun Sukta: A father can sell his Child.
 Aghanya : Cown not worthy to be killed as its considered diety in Rigvedic sukta
 Ochre Coloured Pottery(OCP) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
Important Rivers Name
Ancient Modern Ancient Modern Ancient Modern
Kubha Kabul Shutudri Sutlej Gomati Gomal
Vitastata Jhelum Vipasha Beas Marudvridha Maruvarman
Akshini Chenab Sadanira Gandak Sushoma Sohan
Purushani Ravi Drishdvati Ghaghara Ganga mentioned in 10th mandala
Other Important terms in Rigvedic Age
Nivi : cloth wor below Waist Vasas : Cloth above Waist Taksha : Carpenter
Karna : Metal Worker Veknat : Money Lender Aritri : Boatmen
Many hyms of Rigveda was compiled by Women called Brhamavadini i.e. Lopamudra
(wife of Agastya ) , Vishwawara , Sikta, , Nivavari and Ghosha
Boghaz- Koi inscription : Vedic Gods like Indra and Movement of Aryan to India from Iran

LATER VEDIC AGE (1000 B.C. - 600 B.C.)
Discovery of IRON  Agriculture Economy  Reforms in Society and Religion
 As per Shatpatha Brahmana: Aryans moved towards Eastern Gangetic Plains.
 India is divided into 3 Parts Aryavrat ( North India ) Madhyadesha ( Central
P India and DaksinaPatha ( South India )
O  Larger kingdoms were formed amalgamated  Janapada / Rashtra
L  Authority of Rajana and a support staff called Ratnin 12 jewels of the king,
I  King (almost hereditary) concept developed and fight will be for territory as
T agriculture is main occupation but still, there was No Standing Army.
I  Sacrifices to control the Jana (tribe) rather than for Jana
C  Rajsuya (coronation for supreme power )
A  Ashwamedh (to become ruler of all directions  Chakravarti)
L  Vajpeya (revitalization to the aging ‘rajana’)
 Tribal Assemblies:
 Character of Sabha and Samiti changed as headed by Richer Class
 Women were not allowed to attend these assemblies.
 Vidhata completely disappeared.
 ‘Rajana’ assumed titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Sarvbhumi, and Virat.
 4-fold varna system (discussed in Purushsukta of 10th Mandala of Rigveda)
 Male of top 3 Varna’s entitled for Upnayana Sanskara (Sacred Thread ceremony)
S i.e. going to teacher and Known as DWIJA ( Twice Born)
O  Institution of Gotra appeared first time and practice of Gotra exogamy started.
C  Niyoga practice was not supported.
I  Sati and Child Marriage references are there but not dominating.
E  Women’s status degraded but Women like Gargi and Maitreyi accomplished in
T the knowledge arena; Gargi outwitted Yajnavalkya in a philosophical discourse.
Y  Rathakars Enjoyed good status and entitted to ear sacred thread.
 Untouchability appeared; example: Nishad, Chandala and Shabar.
 3 out of 4-fold ‘ashram’ (stages) for 4 Purusharthas (goals):
 Brahmacharya (Celibate Student) Dharma.
 Grihastha (Householder) artha and kama
 Vanaprastha (Partial renunciation) for spiritual wisdom.
 Sanyasa (Renunciation) for liberation  Moksha.(Developed after LVP )
 Discovery of Iron ( Krishna ayas mentioned in Yajurveda) clearing forest
+Fertile land due to Rivers  Occupation changes from Pastoral to Agriculture
E  Main Crops: Vrihi, Tandula, Sali (Rice); Godhuma (wheat); Barley (Yava),Mudga
C (Mung Bean), Ikshu : Sugarcane
O  Mandatory tax revenue : Bhaga (1/6th or 1/12th) ; Revenue officer: Samgrahitri
N  Kings and Princes do Manual Labour; Vaishya were only taxpayers.
O  Shatpatha Brahmana speakes of Plouging rituals
M  Barter system but reference of Shataman krishnala (coins used) with no
Y archaeological evidences for same
 Reference to money lending (Shatapatha Brahmana  usurer as ‘kusidin’).
 Art and craft: Smelting, smithery or carpentry, weaving, leather-working etc
 Pottery type: Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
 Earliest Iron Evidence : Ahichchatra and Atranjikheda (UP )

R  Status of Indra Agni and Varuna and other other Rig Vedic god degraded
E  Prajapati or Adipurush became the Supreme God and as per Atharvaveda
L Sabha and Samiti are his Daughter
I  Rudra was merged into Shiva who appeared for the first time.
G  Rituals and sacrifices at household level with help of Priest  Status of brahmana
I increased and made religious life complex.
O  Reference of idol worship are reported but not dominating
N  Magic and Omen entered the socio-religious life
 Pushan became god of Shudra’s , Brihispati was Devaguru (Priest of Gods)
VEDIC LITERATURE
Vedic literature has transferred from one generation to other through Shurti (product of
divine revelation) and Smiriti (remembered by ordinary human beings). Later, compiled and
written down, and the earliest surviving manuscript is from the 11th century. Each of 4
Veda generally has 4 parts that is divided into two section i.e. Karma Kanda (Vedic
Samhita, Brahmana) and Gyana Kanda ( Aranyaka, Upanishads)
Rigveda Reciter : Hotr/Hotar ; Oldest Veda ; Upveda : Ayurveda Script : Brahmi
Consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) and 10552 Mantras divided into 10 Mandalas
Mandalas 2 – 7: Oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita and are called “family books”
compiled by families of seers/rishis.
Mandala 8 – Dedicated to various gods and mostly composed by the Kanva clan.
Mandala 9 – Dedicated entirely to Soma.
Mandala 1 – Dedicated to Indra and Agni. Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra, and
Vishnu have also been mentioned. Compiled in Later Vedic Period
Mandala 10 – Compiled in Later Vedic Period and contains
Nadi Stuti Sukta  Praising the rivers(Most Pious SarasvatiNaditama
,Devitama, Mahetama ) ; Purush Sukta : 4-fold Varna system
Only surviving recension of Rig Veda is the Shakala Shakha.
1st mention of Stupa word in RIGVEDA (Tree Stem) raised by King Varuna)
Samveda Shortest Veda ,Contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Mian Tansen
Veda of Recensions are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya (Talavakara).
Chants Upveda : Gandharva Veda ; Reciter : Udgatar
Yajurved Reciter :Adhavaryu ; Yajurveda divided into-
a Shukla (White) Yajur Veda/Vajasaneya –Contains only the mantras. It contains
Worship the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions.
or ritual Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda – Includes mantras +Prose explanations. It contains
knowled Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions.
ge Upveda : DhanurVeda by Vishwamitra
Atharva  Magic spells to ward off evil spirits or dangers
Veda  Considered to be a non-Aryan work ; 1st reference of Anga and Magadha
 Recensions : Shaunaka and Paippalada ; Upveda : Shilpa Veda
Brahman  Explanation of Vedic hymns, its applications and origin stories.
as  Rigveda : Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas
 Samveda: Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas.
 Yajurveda: Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas
 Atharva Veda: Only Gopath Brahmana

Aranyak Written by hermits residing in the forests for their students.
as Emphasis: on Meditation and not on sacrifices. Opposed to sacrifices and
(Forest Concluding portion of the Brahmanas. (kind of bridge between karma and
book ) knowledge
Upanisha  Literal meaning: “sit near someone”. Introduces the concept of Atman
ds and Brahman. 108 Upanishads are source of absolute knowledge.
 Mundaka Upnishada: Source of Satymev Jayate
 Chhandogya Upnishada :
 First 3 ashrams and discusses the (mainly two) types of marriage:
Anuloma Marriage –Man marrying in his own varna or below
Pratiloma marriage – Woman Marrying in a lower varna not
sanctioned by the Vedas.
 Legend of Satyakam Jabal(stigma of being an unmarried mother)
 Brihidarnayaka Upnishada : Tamsoma Jyotirgamaya
 Shevetashvatara ( Yajurveda ) : literal meaning is carried on White Horse
 Kathopanishada : Discussion between Yama and Nachiketa(12 years Boy)
6  Supportive in the study of the Vedas and the Vedic traditions
Vedanga 1. Shiksha (Phonetics) 2. Jyotisha (Astronomy) 3.Vyakaran (grammar)
4. Nirukta (Etymology) 5.Chhanda (Metrics) 6. Kalpa (Ceremonies)
Limbs of  Kalpa Sutra is further divided into:
the Vedas Shrauta Sutra: Rules for the performance of different types of sacrifices, Rituals.
Grihya Sutra : Domestic sacrifices i.e. Upanayana , marriage, funerary practices
Dharmasutra: pertaining to the rituals Dharma.
18  Post /Vedic text and believed to be composed by Ved Vyasa
Puranas  Puranas are sectarian i.e devoted to Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma
literally  Discusses 5 subjects in the of 4 Yugas (Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali):
means  Sarga – Primary creation of the universe.
‘ancient’  Pratisarga – Recreation after annihilation.
or ‘old’  Manvantaras – the reigns of the various Manus.
 Vamsha – the genealogy of gods and rishis.
 Vamshanucharita : History of Suryavanshis and Chandravanshis
 4 Yuga = Mahayuga  1000 Mahayuga = 1 Kalpa (divided into 14
Manvantaras each led by Manu , 1st Manu (Mind Son of Brahma) is
Swaymbhu
Dharma  Sanskrit texts about morality , duty and divided into Dharmasutras
Shastra  Refers to Purusharthas (life goals) i.e. Dharma (right
conduct), Artha (material wellbeing), Kama (desires, sensual pleasures)
and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death)
 Person’s dharma was dependent on gender, marital status, Varna and
ashram
Epics Mahabharata(war in Dvapara): Composed by Vedvyasa ,18 Parvas -1 lakh verses
i.e. Shatashahshri (Jayasanhita) and name of Dwija shreshtha (Kuninda King )
Ramayana(War in Treta): Composed by Valmiki and consists of seven
Kandas (books) having 24,000 verses More idealistic
Shatpatha Brahamana: Purush Medha and Story of Videgha madhav (King of Videha) and
his guru Rishi Gautama Raghugana.

BUDDHISM & JAINISM
Causes Complex Vedic rituals confused the people.
of Rise of Clash of Supremacy between Kshatriya and brahma
Unorthodox / Practice of killing animals  Problem in Agri Economy  Shudras
Nastika unhappy
Philosophy : Upanishads were highly philosophical  Not understood by all.
Opposed Increasing rigidity in Jati system  disturbance in society.
Authority of Veda Tarde and Economic Prosperity  Vaishya desired a improved social status
BUDDHISM
Symbols and Meaning in Buddha’s Life 5 Teaching Triratna(3 Jewels )
(Panchasila)
Elephant: Avakranti (descent) 1. No killing 1. Buddha : Founder
Lotus and Bull : Birth Respect for life 2. Dhamma: Doctrine
Horse: Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation) 2. Abstention 3. Sangha : Order
Bodhi Tree: Nirvana from theft. (Monks and nuns
Wheel: Dharmachakra Pravartana( First Sermon ) 3. Abstention Upasakas)
Buddha is Tathagata(whose truth is knowleage ) from sexual Pathimokshas 64 types
EIGHT FOLD PATH (Theme of 1st Sermon) misconduct. of prohibited crimes
4. Abstention Women were also
1.Right view 2.Right effort
from falsehood. allowed to join Sangha
3.Right intention 4.Right speech
5.Abstention
5. Right action 6.Right mindfulness
from intoxication
7.Right livelihood 8.Right concentration
GAUTAMA BUDDHA(563 BC-483 BC) 4 Noble Truths (ARYA SATYA)
Known as Siddharta, Sakyamuni & Tathagata
1. World is full of misery (Sabbam
Belong to Sakya Clan ; Birth Place: Lumbini
Dukkam)
Father: Suddhodana ; Mother: Mayadevi
2. Desire is root cause of sorrow (Pratitya
Teachers: Alarakamam and Rudrak Ramputta Samputpada-Dwadash Nidan)
Enlightenment: Under Pipal tree at Uruvella 3. Desire can be conquered
(Bodhgaya) on banks of river Niranjana (Falgu). (DukhaNirodha)
1st Sermon : Sarnath (Deer park) to 5 disciples 4. Desire can be conquered by following
including Mahakasyapa (first disciple) Astangika marga.
Mahaparinirvana: At Kushinagar at age of 80
IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SCHOLARS AND WORK
Mahakasyapa : Chairman 1st Council Vasubandhu : Abhidharmakosa
Sabbakami : chariman of 2 nd Council Encyclopedia of Buddhism and Yogacharya
Mogaliputta Tissa : Chairman of 3rd Council /Vigyanvaad school
Nagarjuna : Madhyamika Shunyavaad (Theory of Ashvaghosa : Buddhacharita in Sanskrit and
relativity) and work Madhimikakarika Sanskrit drama Sariputra Prakrana (disciple
Aryadeva :Popularised Mahayana of Buddha )
Dharmkirti : Kant of India Buddhaghosa: Book Visuddhimagga
Vasumitra : Credited with Mahavibhshashahtra ,Samanta Pasadika (Ashoka won Awanti)
and Chairman of 4th Council Dinnaga: founder of the Buddhist logic
Asanga: Yogacharya /Vigyanvaad school Nagarjuna is known as Indian Einstein

IMPORTANT BUDDHIST LITERATURE
CANONICAL TEXT NON-CANONICAL TEXT
(Believed to be Actual Word of Buddha) (Commentaries /Observations
on canonical texts)
TRIPITAKAS Mahavastu (Sanskrit-Prakrit
Sutta-Pitaka Vinayapitaka Abhidhamma mixed) – Hagiography of the
(Ethical Principle of (Monastic Rules Pitaka Buddha.
Buddha’s Teachings) and Regulations ) (Philosophy Nidanakatha – 1st connected life
of Buddha ) story of Buddha.
1.Digha-Nikaya 1.Sutta Vibhanga 1.Dhamma- Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa
2.Majjhima Nikaya Maha-Vibhanga sangani (Srilankan Text in Pali) –
3.Samyutta Nikaya Bhikkuni- 2.Vibhanga Historical and mythical accounts
4.Anguttara Nikaya Vibhanga 3.Dhatu-katha of the Buddha’s life, Buddhist
5.Khuddaka Nikaya 2.Khandaka : 4.Puggala- Councils, Ashoka and arrival of
Mahavagga pannati Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
Cullavagga 5.Kayha- Visuddhimagga – deals with
3.Parivara vatthu development from purity of
6.Yamaka discipline to enlightenment.
7.Patthana Milindapanho (Pali) – Dialogues
between Indo-Greek king
REASONS FOR SPREAD & POPULARITY BUDDHISM Menander and monk Nagasena
1. Liberal & democratic 2.Simple language 3.Personality of Nettipakarana (Book of guidance)
the Buddha 4. Royal patronage 5. Inexpensive – connected account of the
REASONS FOR DECLINE Buddha’s teachings.
1. Division among Buddhist 2. Use of Sanskrit language Divyavadana: Magical Deeds
3. Buddha’s idol worship 4. Persecution of Buddhists Lalitvisatara:Buddha’s Biography
5. Corruption in Buddhist Sangha 6. Islamic invasion Avadanashataka:Noble deeds
6 BUDDISHT COUNCILS
Time & Location Council/Chairman Patron Important Developments
483 B.C (Saptakarani 1st - Mahakassapa Ajatashatru Compilation of Suttapitaka and
Cave , Rajgriha) Vinayapitaka by Anand and Upali
383 B.C. (Vaishali ) 2nd -Sabbakami Kalashoka 1st schism i.e. Sthaviradins &
Mahasanghikas
250 B.C. (Patliputra) 3rd – Mogaliputra Ashoka Compilation of Abhidamapittaka
Tissa Missionaries to spread Buddhism
1st Century (Kashmir) 4th – Vasumitra Kanishka Schism : Hinayana and Mahayana
and Ashwaghosa Compilation of Mahavibhasha
shastra
1871 Myanmar 5th- King Mindon 729 stone slabs were engraved
Jagarabhivamsa, with Buddhist teachings
Narindhabhidhaja
1954 Myanmar 6th Burmese Preserve the Buddha's teachings
Government and practices as understood in the
Theravada tradition

IMPORTANT SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
1st division after 2nd Buddhist
council i.e. Stharvadin and Mahasanghika and then subsect will
be arise of each of them and a major division will be in 4th council i.e. Hinayana (Thervada) and
Mahayana
Stharvadin(Thervada) Mahasanghika(Buddha
(Buddha is human and School of Elders ) Worshipsed in anthromorphic form
Sarvastivadin (constituents of phenomena were not Subsects: Lokottarvadin:
wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form) Supernatural Buddha) ,
Vaibhashika : Relative truth is that which can be broken Ekvyavharika , Kaukkutikas
down into parts, whereas ultimate truth is indivisible Gaulikas , Caitiyka, Bahushrutiya,
Sautrantika (Based on Sutras and rejection of the Aparshaila, Prajnaptivada
authority of the Abhidharma. They maintained that In 4th Council: Deification of
though events (dharmas) have only momentary Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered
existence Mahayana Buddhism
Mool Sarvastivadin ,Vibhajyavadin , Dharmguptakas Madhyamika Shunyavaad by
Hinayana / Thervada , Pudgadvadin ,Vatsiputras- Nagarjuna and
Sammittiya Vigyanvaad / Yogacharya by
Asanaga ,Vasubandhu
Dimensions HINAYANA MAHAYANA VAJRAYANA

/THERVADA Great Vehicle Diamond Vehicle
Lesser vehicle / Tantric Buddhism
School of Elders
Buddha Great Human God God
Salvation Through Self-discipline & Help of Buddha & Magical power and help of
meditation Bodhisattvas female bodhisattvas
Buddha’s Rebirth No Yes Yes
Idol Worship No Yes ,1st human statue Yes
Language Pali Sanskrit Sandhya Bhasha /Twilight
Uniqueness Believes in the Paramitas : Bodhisattva 2 Truth Doctrine :
original teaching of strives to perfect in order Conventional : consensus
Buddha to purify karma and reality and common sense
Klesh and develop Ultimate truths : Reality as
Bodhichitta perceived by an enlightened
mind
Flourished in Sri Lanka and South Central Asia, East Asia Developed in Tibet
Asian Countries
Central Concept Arhat Bodhisattvas Tara
Sect of Mahayana Buddhism
Originated in China during the Tang dynasty as Chan school
ZEN BUDDHISM Spread to Japan in 7th century C.E.
Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition
NAVAYANA Neo-Buddhism – Reinterpreation by B.R. Ambedkar

BODHISATTVAS
Maitreya (Ajitaboddhisatva) :Future Buddha & Earliest bodhisattva ; Holds a water phial
laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of maitreya
Padampani/Avalokiteshwara : Compassion Samantabhadra :Universal Boddhisatva
Vajrapani : Manifest Power Kshitigarbha: Deity of diseased Children
Manjushri : Manifests Wisdom Akshagarbha :Boundless as space
Sadaparibhuta: Never disparaging spirit Amitabha : Buddha of Heaven
Other Important Terms
NIRVANA : Annihilation of Flame of Desire and State of Supreme Bliss
SHEEL : Refers to when a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Buddhist renunciate among
a community of bhikkhus
UPASAMPADA: Refers to the rite and ritual of ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a
candidate, if deemed acceptable, enters the community as Upasampadā (ordained) and
authorised to undertake ascetic life.
VASSA: 3-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners during rainy season
UPOSTHA: Uposatha day is for “cleansing of the defiled mind,” resulting in inner calm and joy.
PAVARANA: Confession by Monks of their offences committed during Rainy Season (Vassa)
Vishwa Shanti Stupa at Rajgir: Nichidatsu Fujii, a Japanese Buddhist monk and founder of the
Nipponzan-Myohoji Buddhist sect, started constructing Peace Pagodas in 1947 in many
locations around the world. Rajgir, also known as panchpahari is famous for both Buddhism
and Jainism. Saptparni Cave is placeof 1st congregation of the Buddhist Council .Gridhakuta
Hill/Vulture's Peak is placewhere Lord Buddha preached many of his teachings. 2 sermons
known as Lotus Sutra and the Prajnaparamita (“Perfection of Wisdom”) over here. At this Hill,
Buddha made Bimbisara convert to Buddhism. Several Jain temples on the hills surrounding
Rajgir.Lord Mahavira spent 14 years of his life at Rajgir.
BUDDHA’s RESIDENCES and Other Related events
-VELAVAN at Rajgriha by Bimbisara and ; Ashokaram Monastery by Ashoka in Patliputra
-Kutagrasala at Lichchhavi (Vaishali) ; Pubbarama vihara: Buily by Kosala King Prasenjit
Amarapali (Royal Courtesans Bacame his decsiple) and provided his Amarvatika for residence
of Buddhist Monks. In 8th year Buddha allowed Women to become Bhikshuni into Buddhist
Sangha at vaishali on advice of his disciple Ananda
- 1st woman to enter Sangha : Buddha’s Aunt Mahaprajapati
- Devadatta (Cousin of Buddha ) : wanted to become leader of Sangha  fight with Buddha
- Anathpindak (Wealthy businessman of Kosala ) donated Jetavana Viahra
- Light of Asia (Based on Lalitvistara) by Edwin Arnold dedicated to Buddha
- Death: Buddha Spent his last Rainy season at Vaishali and while preaching his philosophy
Buddha reached Pava (City of Malla) and theory suggests he ate a Sukaramaddava(soft pork) ,
prepared by his generous host, Cunda Kammaraputta and became ill and then he reaches
Kushinara (Capital of Republic of Malla) and gave last sermon to Subhada and died at 483
BC.Buddha Didn’t appoint any successor to lead Sangha
- Mahabodhi Tree: Recent one is 5th generation tree planted by Cunninghum -Balaputradeva
(Ruler of Suvarnabhumi ) founded a monastery at Nalanda and requested Devapala through
his amabassdor to grant 5 villages
- Giant Buddha Statue at Bodhgaya with help of Daijokyo sect of Japan
- Sanchi(Ancient Name : Kaknam, Kakanaya , Kakanadabota, Botasriparwata) Stupa doesn’t
have any relarion with Buddh’s life

Comparision between Unorthodox Sects Buddism and Jainism
Dimensions Buddhism Jainism
God Silent A perfect being and not a creator
Karma Theory Yes Yes (Karmas are bane of Soul)
Rebirth / Reincarnation Yes Yes
Acceptance of Authority of Veda No No
Criticism of Varna System Yes No (birth based on Previous Karma)
Avoidence of Extremism Yes, Middle Path No
Soul No Yes and Soul is in everything
Acceptance of Non violence Yes Yes ( in extreme form)
SIX ORTHODOX PHILOSOPHIES
Orthodox : Believes in authority of Veda Unorthodox :Doesn’t believes in authority of Veda
Samkya  Oldest philosophy started by Kapila
 Provided the materialistic ontology for Nyaya and Vaisheshik
 Dualistic and has two entities, purush (spirit) and prakriti (nature)
 God not accepted and forms the philosophical basis for Yoga
 Rebirth accepted and Self knowledge leads to liberation
Yoga  Releasing Purush from Prakriti by means of physical and mental
discipline ,Its is founded by Patanjali
 God is accepted at intial level to have mental concetartion
 Ashtang (Eight limbs) are Yama(Restraints, moral disciplines)
,Niyam(Observances) , Asana(Posture), Pranayama(Breathing) ,
Pratyahara( Sense withdrawal),Dharana( Concentration), Dhyana(
Meditation), Samadhi (Bliss)
Nyaya Founded by Gautama and state that knowledge can achieved through logical
reasoning and experience (scientific approach).Belives in God. It relies on
several pramanas i.e. means of obtaining true knowledge as its epistemology.
Vaishishika Founded by Kanada and discuss that every thing is combination of Atoms
(atomic theory) Except time space mind soul. God is accepted
Purva- Mimamsa means to analyze and understand thoroughly.Vedas are etenal and
Mimansa doesn’t believe in God. Focuses on Karma kanda as medium of liberation.
Uttar- Commenteries on Brahama Bhasya, compilation of Upnishda, written by
Mimansa(V Brihadaryana (Veda vyasa as per some Scholor).
edant) Major View points on soul and Brahama : Shankaracharya (advaitvaad-
Knowledge for salvation ) Ramanuja (Vishishtadvait-Bhakti for salvation)
Madhvacharya( Dwaitavada-Bhakti) Nibarkacharya (Dwait-adwait /Bheda-
abheda-Bhakti) Vallabhacharya( Shuddha Advait –Bhakti for Salvation)

JAINISM
Origin A very ancient religion. Total 24 Tirthankaras, last was Vardhaman Mahavira.
1st Tirthankara: Rishabhadev 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha, born in Varanasi.
All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth and Rishabhdev and
Arishtanemi(Neminath) are mentioned in Rigveda
Vardha Mother : Trishala (sister of Licchavi chief Chetaka) Father : Siddhartha Location :
man Licchhavi (Vajji Sangha)
Mahavi Wife :Yashoda Daughter : Anojja(Priyadarshana) Son-in-Law : Jamali
ra At the age of 42 he attained Kevaljnan under a sal tree on the bank of Rijupalika
540 – River (omniscience) Jrimbhik through Right Knowledge, Right Faith and Right
468 B.C. Conduct ( Triratna of Jainism-KFC) and became a Jina and then Tirthankara
Used Prakrit language(ardha –Maghadhi) so that ordinary people could understand
Death: Pavapuri and became a Siddha (free from cycle of birth and death)
Sudharaman : 1st Chief of jain Sangha after Mahavir
Mahamastaka-Abhishek : Important festival at Shravanbelgola in every 12 years
Philo Word Jain comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror
sophy Non-Violence :Practiced in extreme sense i.e. no agricultural occupation
of Soul : Everything has a soul even rock , pen etc .Karma is bane of Soul
Jainism Concept of God : Perfect being and Creator god not accepted
World is maintained by : Universal Law and there is no starting/end of this world
Rebirth in a Varna: Because of your Karma no criticism to Varna System
Salvation: Only Through renouncing the world, therefore, monastic existence is a
necessary condition and Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from
the cycle of karmaSo, Jain monks and nuns had to take the five vows.
1st Chief disciple : Ganadhar (Gautamswami), a well-known Brahmin scholar
Lord Mahavira had 11 Ganadhars, who compiled 12 scriptures based on his
teachings known as Agamas.
Santhara/Samlekhana/Samadhi Maran : Fast unto Death
Mahavrata-Anuvrata Seven Tattvas Types of
4 added by lord Parshvanath Karmas
and last one by Mahavira (7 elements of Jain Philosophy )
1. Ahimsa (non-violence) 1. Jiva (living substance) Ghati :
2. Satya (truth) 2. Ajiva (matter or non-living substance) Obstruct
3. Asteya (non-stealing) 3.Asrava (influx of Karmic matter in the soul) soul
4.Aparigraha (non-possession) 4.Bandhan (Bondage of soul by Karmic Aghati :
5.Brahmacharya (chastity) matter) affect the
Spread of Jainism 5. Samvara (stopping of Asrava) body
North India and to Gujarat, 6. Nirjara (Gradual removal of Karmic matter)
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka 7. Moksha (Attainment of salvation).
Jain Sangha by Tirthankar Other Related Terms of Jainism
Sadhus (Monks) Arihant : One who has destroyed his inner enemies
Sadhvis (Nuns) Arhat: One to whom nothing can be secret.
Shravaks (Male householders) Arhant: A spiritual acquisition leading a man to the state of
Shravikas (Female an Arihant.
householders) Nirgrantha : One who has gotten rid of all attachments

JAIN COUNCILS
Nos Year - Place Chairman Development
1st 300 B.C.- Patliputra (Bihar ) Sthulabhadra Compilation of Angas(lost)
2nd 512 A.D. –Vallabhi (Gujrat ) Devardhi Kshmasramna 12 Angas and Upangas
DIVISION IN JAINISM
Reason of Division: Due to famine (12 years) in Magadha group led by Bhadrabahu moved to
South India and stick to the tough practices while other group in Magadha adopted a more liberal
attitude and started wearing white clothes…After end of famine  Southern group came back
to Magadha, the changed practices led to the division of Jainism into 2 sects :
DIMANSIONS DIGAMBER SHWETAMBER
Led by Bhadrabahu Sthulabhadra
Meaning Sky Clad White Clad
Cloths Nudity for male , white unstitched White Cloths
saree to female
Women No , Need to take rebirth in man Yes
Salvation body
Vows All 5 4 excluding Brahmacharya
Images Tirthankaras have downcast eyes, Prominent staring eyes and are richly
are plain and always carved as decorated
naked figures (Kayotsarga Pose)
Sects 3 Major 2 Minor Major
1. Bisapantha 1.Gumanapantha 1.Murtipujaka/Derawasi/Mandirmargi
2. Terapantha 2. Totapantha 2.Sthanakvasi (avoided Idol Worship)
3. Mula Sangh 3.Terapanthi (simpler worship pattern
4. Taranapantha/ Samaiyapantha than Digambar Tera panthi)
Note: Yapniya originated from digamber but followed values of Shwetamber too.
OTHER PHILOSOPHIES OF JAINISM
Anekantavada All entities have 3 aspects: substance (dravya), quality (guna), and mode
(Metaphysics) (paryaya). Simply, it means non-absolutism or many-sidedness of reality
Theory of Realty meaning things have infinite aspects that no determination can exhaust.
Syadavada All judgments are conditional i.e. Partially correct.
Epistemology Combinations of these possibilities can be stated in 7 logical naya (judgement)
Theory of called Saptabhangi or Saptabhanginaya.
Knowledge
Ananta- Ananta Gyan(knowledge ) ,Ananta Darshna(Perception)
Chatushtaya Ananta Virya (Power) Ananta Anand (Bliss)
Royal Patron South India: Kadamba dynasty , Ganga dynasty , Amoghavarsha
,Kumarapala (Chalukya)
North India: Bimbisara ,Ajatasatru ,Chandragupta Maurya ,Bindusara,
Kharavela ,Harshavardhana

Tirthankars Symbols Place of Nirvana Jain text Composers
Lord Rishabha Bull Mount Ashtapada Kalpasutra :Bhadrabahu
Parishishta Parvan : Hemchandra
Ajitanath Elephant
Syadavadmanjari : Mallisen
Sambhavanatha Horse Dravya sangrah : Nemichandra
Abhinandananatha Monkey Tatvartha sutra : Uma swami
Nyayaavatara : Diwakar
Sumatinatha Goose Nyayadeepika: DHarmabhushan
Padmaprabha Lotus Samet Shikhar Shlok Vartika :Vidyananda
Panch vishashtika : Padamnandi
Suparshvanath Swastika Pravachansaar: Kund Kund
Chandraprabha Moon Mahapurana :Jinasena
Shwetamber Texts
Suvidhinath Swami Crocodile
Agamas consists of 12 Angas, 12
or Puspadanta
Upangas, 10 Prakirnakas, 6
Sheetalnath Kalpvriksha Chhedasutras, 4 Mulasutras and 2
Shreyansanath Rhinoceros Chulikasutra (Nandi Sutra ,
Anuyagadvara sutra-Diccussed
Vasupujya Buffalo Champa Nagri about moral stories of Monks )all of
Vimalnatha Boar the them are written in
Ardhmagadhi Prakrit
Anantnatha Bear (Falcon) Digamber text
Dharmanath Vajradanda) Digambara versions of Jain Agamas
are lost in time and they do not
Santinath Deer
accept Svetambara version of
Kunthunath He-Goat Samet Shikhar Agama literature valid
Shatkhandagama is oldest
Aranath Fish
Digambara Jain text
Mallinath Waterpot Kasayapahuda : philosophy of
Munisuvrata Tortoise Kasaya (the material world)
Anuyogas
Naminatha Blue-Lotus 14 Purvas
knowledge discussed by 23
tirthankars before Mahavira
Neminatha Conch Raivatgiri In Jain Literature Samprati
(Grandson of Ashoka) is described
Parshwanath Serpent Samet Shikhar
as patron of jainism
Mahavira Lion Pavapuri
OTHER FAMOUS PHILOSOPHIES
AJIVIKA: Started by Makhali Gosala (Student of mahavir). This School believed in Niyativaad
(eveything is already determinded) so they doesn’t belive in karma theoryUnorthodox Sect
Charvaka (Lokayata): Pure materialistic with no believe in Soul, god, Karma etcUnorthodox
Kapalika: Kapalika worshiped Bhairava and attributed great virtue and occult powers to
drinking wine and eating disgusting substances as food in human skull sacrificed by them.

16 MAHAJANAPADA
Ancient India had several kingdoms after later Vedic Age. This era saw Religious, political and
socio-economic growth in Indo-Gangetic plain. These settlements led the growth from
Janapadas to Mahajanpadas i.e. SECOND URBANISATION OF INDIA and by 6th BC, the
focus of political activity moved from the western part of Gangetic plain to the eastern part.
16 Mahajanpadas by Anguttar Nikaya , 16 by Jain text Bhagwatisutras , 22 by Ashthadhyayi
Mahajanapada Capital Modern Location Developments
Kamboj Pooncha Kashmir and Several literary sources mention that
Hindukush Kamboja was a republic.
Gandhara Taxila Rawalpindi Gandhara is mentioned in Atharvaveda
Kuru Indraprastha Meerut moved to a republic form of governance
Panchala Ahichchatra Western UP Later the nature of governance shifted
and from monarchy to republic
Kampliya
Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur West of Panchalas and south of Kurus
Saurasena Mathura Western UP Centre of Hinduism +Buddhism
Ashmaka or Pratisthan Bank of Godavari
Assaka
Vajji Vaishali Bihar Republic + Main races were Licchavis,
Vedehans, Jnatrikas and Vajjis.
Malla Kusinara Deoria ,UP Republic and finds a reference in
Buddhist + Jain texts and Mahabharata.
Avanti Ujjaini or Malwa and Avanti was significant in relation to the
Mahismati Madhya Pradesh rise of Buddhism
Chedi Sothivati UP-MP Reagion Eastern parts of Bundelkhand and
adjoining areas
Kosala Sravasti Eastern UP
Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad Monarchical+ After the rise of Buddha,
the ruler Udayana made Buddhism a
state religion
Kasi Kasi Banaras cited in the Matsya Purana
Anga Champa Munger and Mentioned in Mahabharata and Atharva
Bhagalpur Veda , Took over by Bimbisara
Magadha Girivraja| Gaya and Patna Close to Anga, divided by river
Rajagriha Champa. Later, Magadha became a
centre of Jainism and 1st Buddhist
Council was held in Rajagriha
Svapnavasavadattam by poet Bhasha : story of vatsa king Udyana and Avanti princess Vasavadatta is realted to Ujjain

MAGADHA – THE MOST POWERFUL MAHAJANAPADA
Geogra  Location : Upper and lower parts of Gangetic valley Fertile soil
phical  Mainland route between west and east India
R factors  Encircled by rivers on 3 sides i.e. Ganga, Son and Champa
E  Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions
A  Huge copper and iron deposits + Received enough rainfall
S Econom  Easy control over trade due to its location and Rivers
O ic  Better agriculture, mining, building cities and in the army.
N factors  Economic Hegemony due to mastery over Ganga
S  Bimbisara annexed Anga and controlled river Champa important
in trade with South-East Asia, Sri Lanka + South India
O Cultura  Unorthodox character of Society  Aryan+Non-Aryan peoples.
F l  Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism  liberal traditionsStable
/Societa Society
R l  Society was not so much dominated by upper class
I factors  Even many kings of Magadha were ‘low’ in origins.
S
E Political  Location making the region impregnable to enemies.
factors  Large Population  strong standing armies
 Better Economy + Availability of iron  Advanced weaponry
 Many powerful and ambitious rulers.
 1st kings to use elephants in the army
IMPORTANT DYNASTIES OF MAGADHA
Dynasties Rulers/ Achievements
Time Period Time Period
Brihidratha Brihidratha Founder
(18th CBC-
8CBC) Jarasandha Son of king Brihadrath. Killed by Bhima (Mahabharta)
Pradyota Pradoyta Founder of the dynasty and ruler of Avanti & Magadha.S of
648B.C. -558 Pulika (Punika), who is said to have killed Ripunjaya of
B.C. Brihadratha dynasty at Rajagriha, to make his son the king.
Harayanaka Bimbisara  Founder of Hayanaka dynasty + Son of Bhattiya.
Dynasty (558 BC – 491  Contemporary and follower of the Buddha+ said to be
558 B.C. – BC) admirer of Mahavira
413 B.C. As Buddhist  Capital: Girivraja/Rajagriha surrounded by 5 hills,
sources:  Known as Sreniya(1st king to have a standing army)
Ruling years  Rivalry with Avanti king Pradyota, but later Bimbsara
(544 BCE – sent his royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain(i.e. Friendship)
492 BCE).  Started matrimonial alliances  strengthen his
Built political position.
Velavan at  3 wives: Kosaladevi (Sister of Prasenjit), Chellana
Rajgriha (daughter of Lichchavi chief Vaishali) and Khema
(Mahavihara (Madra, Punjab).
for Buddha )  Most notable conquest by Bimbisara was that of Anga.
 Effective Administrative system i.e. executive, military
and judicial

Ajatasatru  Son of Bimbisara and Chellana, killed his father.
(492 BC – 460  1st Buddhist Council at Rajagriha in 483 BCE.
BC)  Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali.
 Destroyed Vaishali and add it to his empire.
 Weaponry technology: War engine to throw stones
like catapults + chariots with maces for mass killings.
 Ajatashatru began the fortification of Rajgriha.
Udayabhadra  Son of Ajatasatru , Killed his father for Empire
/Udayin (460  Established his capital city Pataliputra, (Patna).
BCE – 444  Built the fort upon the confluence of the rivers Ganga
BCE) and Son at Pataliputra.
 Killed at the behest of Palaka, the king of Avanti.
 Succeeded by three kings – Aniruddha, Manda and
Nagadasaka(Last Ruler)
Sisunaga Viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha.
Sisunaga (Founder) Capital : Girivaraja(Rajgriha)
Dynasty (413 BCE – Destruction and Assimilation of Avanti to Magadha
(413 BCE - 395 BCE) Later shifted the capital to Vaishali
345 BCE) Kalasoka Son of Sisunaga. Also known as Kakavarna.
(395 B.C. – Capital : shifted to Pataliputra ; 2nd Buddhist Council at
367 B.C. Vaishali.Killed in a palace revolution
Followed by Nandivarman and Mahanandin (Last Ruler)
 1st historical emperor of India but Origins not clear.
 Puranas: Son of last Sisunaga king + Shudra woman.
Nanda  Jain texts and Greek writer Curtius: Son of a barber
Dynasty and a courtesan.
345 B.C. – Mahapadma  Titles:
321 B.C Nanda Sarva Kashtriyantaka : Destroyer of all the Kshatriyas
1st Non – Ekrat : Sole sovereign  destroyed all ruling princes
Kshatriya (Founder )
 Expansion of Empire : Kuru (N) , Godavari Valley (S)
dynasty Magadha (E ) , Narmada(W)
Adharmika  Added Kalinga to Magadha and brought an image of
(don’t Jinasena as a victory trophy and built a canal in
follow the Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela)
norms of  Acquired Kosala +called Ugrasena (large army) in Pali.
Dharma).
 Last Nanda ruler and son of Mahapadma Nanda
Buddhist
 Greek Text: known as Agrammes or Xandrames.
texts:
 Alexander invaded North-Western India during his
belonging to
reign, but he could not proceed towards the Gangetic
annatakula Dhanananda plains because of his army’s refusal.
(unknown
 Credited with the invention of Nandopakramani (a
lineage).
particular measure).
 Became Unpopular: Oppressive taxes regime and
anti-Kshatriya policy.

OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECT OF MAGADHA EMPIRE
S  3 types of villages:
O o 1st Category: Various castes and communities headed by ‘Bhojaka’.
C o 2nd Category: Dominated by craftsmen and linked the rural to urban.
I o 3rd Category: Fowlers, hunters lived a comparatively backward life.
E  Writing System: Started
T  Discrimination to Lower Varnas
Y  Severe punishments were awarded by royal agents.
E  Merchants and artisans organized into a ‘sartha’ guild
C  Trade and crafts : Occupation is more hereditary
O  Coins : 1st Archaeological evidences i.e. Punch Marked Coins/Aahat coins
N /Negama Coins : (Silver) issued by Mechants first and in laters phase by State
M  Agriculture: Paddy, barley, cotton, pulses, millets and sugarcane etc.
Y  Taxation: 1/6th of farm produce and there were no intermediate landlords.
 Grihapatis: Rich peasants ; Vessa: Merchants Street.
 Pottery : Northern Black Polished Ware ( NBPW)
A  Mahamatras : Mantrin (minister) ; Senanayaka (Commander)
D  Tax Officer: Balisadhakas collected tax from peasants and vaishyas only.
MIN  Head of village: Gramabhojaka, gramini or gramika.
FOREIGN INVASIONS DURING MAGADHA DYNASTIES
ACHAEMENID  Founder : Cyrus , invaded the region west of river Indus
DYNASTY  Indian Ruler : Bimbisar’s reign in Magadha
INVASION  Control: Over Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra.
PERSIAN  Cyrus grandson Darius-I conquered Punjab and Sindh.1st to
(IRANIAN) invade India
500 B.C.  Impact: Indo-Iranian trade, Kharoshthi script, Bell-shaped
capital, Ashokan inscriptions.
ALEXANDER’S  Darius-III (last Achaemenid emperor) was defeated by him.
INVASION (327  Then crossed the Hindukush and entered north-western India
BC – 325 BC)  Ambhi (Omphis), king of Takshashila, submitted to Alexander.
 Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Porus (Ruling area: Jhelum and
Ravi) was defeated but Alexander was impressed with his
Bravery reinstated him in power.
 Alexander’s army refused to cross river Hyphasis (Beas) No
war with Nanda Dynasty (Dhanananda)
 Alexander returned and died in 323 BC in Babylon.

MAURYAN EMPIRE (321 B.C. – 185 B.C.)
Reasons  Unpopular Rulership of Dhanannda
of  Unrest in North Western India after Alexander attack
Rise  After Alexander, Some regions come under control of Seleucus Nicator I
(Founded Seleucid Dynasty )
 Support of Chanakya(Vishnugupta/Indian Machiavelli) to Chandragupta
Rulers Developments
CHANDR  Origin not Clear ; Greek Sources : Non-warrior lineage
A GUPTA  Buddhist : Kshatriya ; Others: Son of Shudra Women (Mura)
MAURYA  Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos
 305 B.C.  A war with Seleucus Nicator I and defeted him
321 B.C. -  CG Gupta: Got Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region to the
297 B.C. west of Indus + Married Seleucus Nicator’s daughter.
 Seleucus Nicator : Got 500 elephants + War assets that helped him in
Battle of Ipsus, fought in 301 BC
 Greek Ambassador : Megasthenes (written Book INDICA)
 Policy of Expansions : Whole India barring few places like Kalinga and
Sangama Dynasties
 297 B.C. : Transferred rulership to Bindusara, and went to
Shravanabelagola (Karnataka, Famous of Stautue of Gomteshwara
dedicated to son of Rishbhdev i.e. Bahubali ) with Jain monk Bhadrabahu ,
embraced Jainism and Practiced Santhara
BINDUSA  Known as Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greek
RA297 BC-  Greek ambassador : Deimachus sent by Antiochus as per Strabo
273 BC  Appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
 Extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well
 Wanted his eldest Son Sushima to lead but didn’t happen.
ASHOKA ( 268 B.C. -232 B.C )
Sources  Ashoka’s edicts deciphered in 1837 by James Princep
 Literature : Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the 2nd CAD, Dipavamsa
and Mahavamsa
Basic Info  Born in 304 BC; Son of Bindusara and Subhadrangi.
 Other names: Devanampiya (Beloved of the Gods) and Piyadasi.
 Ashoka’s empire: Afghanistan (west), Bangladesh (east). Covered almost
the whole Indian subcontinent except present Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and
modern-day Sri Lanka.
 Capital: Pataliputra (Patna); Provincial capitals: Taxila & Ujjain.
 Greek ambassador : Dionysius Built : 1st herbal garden and Hospital
 Sequence of Religious Trip : Lumbini , Kapilvasthu, Bodhgaya, Sarnath,
Kushinagar, Shravasti
Rise of  Susima was eldest son of Bindusara and the heir but Ashoka, trained in
Ashoka Military and weapons, showed great skills as an administrator being
governor of Ujjain.

 War of succession: Ashoka emerged victorious aided by his father’s
minister Radhagupta
 Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka): a torture chamber for prisoners to death.
 In 8-9th year of his reign involed in war of Kalinga (Odisha)
Conversio  End of Kalinga War (261 B.C.)
n to  Mentioned in 13th Rock Edict
Buddhism  More than 1 lakh people were killed .Ashoka decided to shun violence for
the rest of his life and turned to Buddhism. He now became Dharmashoka
(the pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka
 Mentor of Ashoka : Mogaliputra Tissa
 As per Ashokavadana , Ashoka’s Spiritual Teacher was Upagupta
 Patron of 3rd Buddhist Council at Patliputra in 250 B.C.
Ashoka’s  Paternal King : Regarded all people as his children
Dhamma  Respectful to parents, teachers, and practice ahimsa and truthfulness.
(or  Avoidance of animal slaughter and sacrifice, humane treatment of animals,
Dharma in servants and prisoners.
Sanskrit)  Tolerance towards all religions and conquest through Dhamma
 Notably, he sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
Major Information’s Language ,Script,
Edict Locations
1 Animal sacrifice prohibited, especially during festive seasons Language : Prakrit ,
Greek , Aramaic
2 Medical treatment of humans and animals, digging of wells.
Script : Brahmi ,
South Indian Empire : Chola, Pandyas, Satyaputras and
Kharoshthi ,Greeak
Keralaputras and Tamrapani (Srilanka)
and Aramaic
3 Generosity to Brahmins. Fixing Tenure of officials for 5 years like
Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas to spread Dhamma
Locations of 14 Major
4 Dhammaghosha (Dhamma) over Bherighosha (War). Rock Edicts
Pakistan :
5 Dhammamahamatras appointed to spread dharma.
-Shahbazgarhi
6 Welfare measure for his people’s conditions. -Mansehra
India
7 Tolerance towards religions among all sects and welfare
-Kalsi (Uttarakhand)
8 Ashoka’s 1st visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree -Dhauli (Odisha)
-Jaugada (Odisha)
9 Stresses on moral conduct
-Yerragudi (A.P.)
10 Individual’s desire for fame and glory should be disapproved -Sannati (Karnataka)
-Sopara(Maharashtra)
11 Dhamma is the best policy to follow
-Girnar (Gujrat)
12 Women’s welfare and tolerance towards other’s dhamma
13 Kalinga War , Pandyas, Cholas and Greek Kings like Antiochus , Kandhar( is Bilingual
Ptolemy inscription in 2
labuagues i.e. Greeak
14 Purpose of rock edicts. and Aramaic

PILLAR EDICTS MINOR ROCK EDICTs
No Information about Name Importance
1 Protecting his people Maski Ashoka used his
name in these minor
2 Defines Dhamma as minimum of sins and purity Brahmagiri
edicts. 1st to give
3 Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness Nettur (A.P.) this information is
4 Responsibilities of the Rajukas Gujjara(M.P.) Maski on Maski
river
Udegolam
5 List of animals that should not be killed on certain Bhabru- Ashoka as king of
days. known as Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict Bairat(Raj) Magadha +
Accepted Buddhism
6 Welfare of the people
7 Tolerance for all sects and Dhamma Mahamattas
OTHER RELEVANT INSCRIPTIONS AND IMPORTANT EDICTS
Kosam/Queens Tivara /Tivala: Only Son of Ashoka eho is mentioned by name in his
Edict/Kausambi inceriptions Members of the Sangha to refrain from causing division in the
or Schism Edict ranks.
Prayag Prashashti: Samudragupta’s inscription by court poet Harishena.
Jahangir or Akbar shifted pillar to Allahabad fort from Kaushambi and
Jahangirinscription written in Parsian language -nastaliq script by Qalam
Kalinga Edicts Mentions ‘All men are my children.’
Sannati Site of all 14 major rock edicts as well as two separate Kalinga edicts
Rummindei Lumbini exempted from bali and Tax reduced to 1/8 of the bhaga
 4-fold Varna system, Divided into Jatis based on profession or occupation
 As per Arthashashtra: Man can be a Slave by Birth, Captured in War, Selling
himself voluntarily and by Judcial punishment. if a female slave bore her master
a son then she is legally free and child was entitled to legal status of master's son
S  As per asthashashtra Both man and Women have right to divorce on the basis if
husband
Man can go for another marriage if a woman either brings forth no live
O
children, or has no male issue, or is barren, her husband shall wait for eight years before
marrying another. If she bears only a dead child, he has to wait for ten years. If she
C brings forth only females, he has to wait for twelve years. Then, if he is desirous to have
sons, he may marry another.
I Woman can go for another marriage If a husband either is of bad character,
or is long gone abroad, or has become a traitor to his king, or is likely to endanger the life
of his wife, or has fallen from his caste, or has lost virility,
E  Widow remarriage is allowed ; S a t i i s n o t m e n t i o n e d
 Woman can also be employed as a security. So overall women condition was fine.
T  Varna- Shankar Vivah – Anulom(woman is of lower varna) and Pratilom
 As per Megasthenes : No slavery and farmers are never touched in War and
Y he discussed about 7-fold social divisions(philosophers, cultivators, hunters
and herdsmen, artisans and traders, soldiers , overseers (spies) and the king’s
counselors )
 As per Strabo ( Greek Writer ) with respect to his references from
Indika said that Indians were ignorant of art of writing and fusing
metal and never drank wine except at sacrifices
• 6 main committies : No 3 (registration of birth and Death) ; No6 (sales tax)
 Institution of Ganikas (prostitution) expanded
 As per Jataka Stories: Untouchability is there i.e. Chandals
 Chandalas and syvapaks (dog breeders) were included in ANTAVASAYIN
(Meaning living at the end) Category. And well of Chandala can be used by them
only so we can say that there was some references of Untouchibility.
 Sohgaura copper & Mahasthana inscriptionuse of food grains for Famine relief
E  Taxation rate : 1/6th of produce ; Crown land (Sita) ; Death penalty for tax evasion
C  As per Kautilya Arthashashtra(lost in 12th century and restored in 1905 by R
O Shamashashtri ) : Saptang(Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durg, Kosa, Danda, Mitra)
N  Interestingly there is no mention about Chandragupta , mauryas or patliputra
O in Arthashashtra
M  Punch-marked coins : Silver , standardization by Mauryan empire
 Karshpana /Kahapanas ,Suvarnas are other type of coins
Y
 Officers in salary in cash in the range of 48,000 panas to 60 panas a year.
 Karmakaras : Hired labourers Sarthwah : Convoy of Merchants
 State monopoly: Mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, arms and metallurgy
 Claudius Aelianus cites Megasthanese and said that Indian didn’t borrow or
lend money on Interest

Central Government : Highly Centralised headed by Empreror
 Mantri- Parishad(Council of Minister) supported Empreror and council was headed
by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the PM of today
 18 Tirthas: Highest category of officials in the administration.
 20 Adhyakshya: Responsible for economic and military functions.
 Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials; Amatyas: Administrative and judicial roles.
 Arthashastra mentions departments of Adhyakshyas for commerce, storehouses etc
A  Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the Empire’s revenue.
D  Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing(surveyors)
M Sansthadhyasksha: Mint Sitaadhyaksha: Agriculture Samasthadhyasksha: Markets
I Sulkaadhyaksha: Tolls Navadhyaksha: Ships Lohadhyaksha: Iron
N Pauthavadhyakhsa: Weights and measures Akaradhyaksha: Mines
I Panyaadhyaksha: Commerse Department Sunadhyaksha : Slaughterhouse
S Kunyadhyaksha: Forest Lakshanadhyaksha : Coin Minting Pattanadhyaksha :Port
T Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers Pulisanj: Public relations officers
R  Administration was controlling Registration of births and deaths, foreigners etc
A Local Administration :
T  Village : smallest unit with lot of autonomy of administration , headed by Gramika
I  Provincial Governors: Pradeshika; Sthanika: Tax collectors under Pradeshikas
O  Durgapala: Governors of forts; Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
N  Akshapatala: Accountant General ; Lipikaras: Scribes ; Purmukhya: town chief
Army
 Senapati: Commander-in-chief of the entire army and appointed by the Emperor.
 5 divisions: Infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy and transport
 The army’s salary was paid in cash
Revenue
 Samharta: Chief of revenue department ; Sannidhata (treasurer)
Police : Bandhangara (Jail) and Charaka (Lock-up)
Courts : Dharmasthiya ( Civil) , Kantakshadhona(Criminal)
Espionage : Well-developed , spies informed Emperor about the bureaucracy and markets
 2 Types : Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer)
 Gudhapurushas (picked from different segments) Vishakanyas (poisonous girls)
 Controlled by Mahamatyapasarpa.
Transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and pedestrians
1. Ashoka’s Peaceful policies 2.Foreign invasions 3. Internal revolt
4. Weak rulers after Ashoka 5.Brahmanical Reaction 6.Financial Crisis
7. Highly centralised administration 8. Independence of the provinces
Reasons 9. Partition of the Empire: After Ashoka, Mauryan Empire split 2 halves – western
of Fall and eastern partsweaker Rulership; As per Rajtarangini (Kalhana) Ashoka Son
of Jalauka ruled over Kashmir as an independent ruler.
Mauryan 10. Oppressive Rule : Kalinga edicts show that Ashoka felt very much concerned
Empire about the oppression in the province and therefore, introduced rotation of officers
in Torali (in Kalinga), Ujjain and Taxila.
11. Spread of the new material knowledge in the outlying areas
12. Negligence towards North-West frontier : Absence of the boundary structure
such as the Great Wall of China by Shih Huang Ti (247-210 BCE) in 220 BCE

POST MAURYAN PERIOD (185 B.C. – 275 A.D.)
Region Dynasties Time Period Founder
Northern Shunga 185 B.C. -73B.C Pushmitra Shunga
Kanav 73B.C.- 27B.C. VAsudev kanva
Indo Greeks 190B.C. Demetrius
Indo Scythians 98B.C. Maues (Moga)
Indo Parthians 1Century CE Gondopherens
North-Western
Kushana 30AD-72AD Kujala Kadaphies
Maharashtra ,A.P. Satavahana 235B.C. – 225A.D Simuka

Central India
Tamilnadu Chola
Southern Tamilnadu and Pandyan Sangam AGE

southern Kerala
300 B.C – 300A.D
Kerala Chera (Keralaputras )
SHUNGA DYNASTY (Ancestors belongs to Ujjain )

Rulers Important Developments
Pushyamitra  Followed Brahminism and as per some accounts he persecuted
Buddhists but no authoritative evidence to this claim
Sunga  Countered attacks from Greek kings i.e. Menander and Demetrius
 thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela
185 B.C. -  Conquered Vidarbha and renovated Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut
151B.C  Also, sculptured stone gateway (Torana) at Sanchi.
 Ayodhya Inscription: Performed Ashvamedha Yajna
 Patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali wrote Mahabhasya
Agnimitra  He was Son of Pushyamitra and succeeded him to the throne.
 By this time, Vidarbha broke away from the empire.
149 B.C. -  Kalidasa’s poem, Malavikagnimitram is devpted to Agnimitra
141B.C.  His son Vasumitra succeeded him as king.
Last Rulers  As per some sources : Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra and Ghosha
 Last Sunga king: Devabhuti, killed by his own minister, Vasudeva
Kanva in around 73 BC.
Effects  Hinduism revived + Emergence of various mixed castes and
integration of foreigners into Indian society.
 Language of Sanskrit gained prominence +Patronised art and
architecture + increase in the usage of human figures and symbols in
art during this period
.

KANAV DYNASTY (73 B.C. – 27 B.C)
Rulers Important Development
Vasudev Kanav  Ruled for a short period
Bhumimitra  Ruled for a period of 14 years and his son
Narayana  Ruled for 12 years
Susruraman  Last Rules who is eliminated by Satavahana king.
SATVAHANA (235 B.C. – 225 A.D)

Satavahna : Driven by Seven i.e. Sun as per hindu Mythology
Major Regions: started from Maharashtra then A.P., Telangana and, Karnataka, Gujrat, M.P.
Capital : Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati Some Sources : Rule started in the 1st CBC
As per Puranas: Referred as Andhras and 30 Satvahana Rulers mentioned in Matsya Purana
Last Ruler : Pulamavi IV (death 225 A.D) ; then empire fragmented into smaller kingdoms
Rulers Important Development
Simuka Founder , Patronised Buddhism and Jainism
Satakarni I (70-  1st to expand his empire by military conquests.
60 BC)  Conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
 Pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra and ruled over MP.
 Naneghat Inscription (Maharashtra) by his queen Nayankia which
describes him as Dakshinapathapati(annexing the Godavari Valley)
 Performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahmanism in Deccan
Hala  Interest in Arts and compiled the Gatha Saptashati (Love theme)
 Minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha in Paiscachi language
Gautamiputra  Restored power of Satvahana and called himself the only Brahmana
Satakarni (106 – who defeated the Shakas and destroyed many Kshatriya rulers.
130 AD or 86 –  Destroyed the Kshaharata lineage of his adversary
110 AD) Nahapana (Western Satrapas).
 Regions: Krishna (south ) ; Malwa and Saurashtra(North);
Berar (East) ;Konkan (West)
 Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balashri : Described as
the destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas (Greeks)
 Titles: Ekabrahmana (a peerless Brahmana); Rajaraja and Maharaja.
Khatiya-dapa-manamada (destroyer of pride of Kshatriyas).
 Karle inscription: Granted of Karajika village, Pune.
 As per Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman Ⅰ : In later period lost
some Kshaharata territories to the Kardamaka line of the Shaka
Vashishthiputra  Immediate successor of Gautamiputra.
Pulumayi (c. 130  His coins and inscriptions are found in Andhra.
– 154 CE)  Junagadh inscriptions: married to the daughter of Rudradaman Ⅰ.
 Western satrapas recovered some of their territories.

Yajna Sri  Recovered north Kokan and Malwa from the Shaka rulers.
Satakarni (c. 165  Motif of a ship on his coins: Lover of trade and navigation, found in
– 194 CE) Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Administration  Based on the Dharmashastras ; not very clear
 Rajan (ruler : upholder of dharma ) Princes or Rajas (names
inscribed on coins)Maharathis (power of granting villages +
marital relations with the ruling family ; Mahasenapati ;
Mahatalavara
 Kingdom was divided into districts called ahara. Their officials
were known as amatyas and mahamatras
 Military and feudal elements : Senapati provincial governor
 kataka and skandhavara : Military camps and settlements
 Gaulmika : Village headman + head of a military regiment
 1st to started giving free land to Brahmana and Buddhist
 3 grades of feudatories – Raja (Right to strike coins), Mahabhoja
and Senapati
ECONOMY  Agriculture was the backbone + relied on trade and production
 Maritime trade(Ship motifs on coin)
 Acquainted with the use of iron and agriculture (produced cotton)
 Paddy Transplantation : Mouth of 2 rivers i.e. Krishna and
Godavari (formed a great rice bowl)
 Exploited the rich mineral resources of the Deccan such as iron
ores from Karimnagar and Warangal and gold from Kolar fields
 Coins : Die-Struck and Cast-coins + Punch-marked coins
Material : Silver, copper, lead and Potin(Silver + Lead+ Copper)
1st native rulers to start Portrait coins
Language : Dravidian and Brahmi script
Shapes – round, square, rectangular
Many symbols : Chaitya ,Chakra ,Lotus,Nandipada,Ship, Swastik
RELIGION Hindu religion and the Brahmanical caste but generous towards other
castes and religions that is evident from donations
LANGUAGE Prakrit with Brahami Script and rare use of Sanskrit
MATERIAL  Regular use of fire-baked bricks and flat, perforated roof tiles
 Drains were covered and underground
SOCIETY  4- fold varna system
 Important Buddhist sites : Nagarjunakonda and Amravati(AP )
Nasik and Junar (Maharashtra) , also under successor Icchavakus
 Good Status: Artisans, Merchants and Gandhikas (perfumers) are
mentioned as donors, later used for all kinds of shopkeepers. Title
‘Gandhi’ title is derived from this ancient term Gandhika
 Women occupied an important position in the society

SANGAMA AGE (300 B.C – 300 A.D.)
Named after the 3 Sangam academies held during this period ,flourished under the royal
patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai (Tamilnadu) popularly known as Muchchangam
Sage Agastya (Father of Tamil Literature) credited to have Aryanised South India.
SANGAM REGION SURVIVED DEVELOPMENTS
1 Madurai  Attended by gods and legendary sages.
 No literary work of this Sangam is available
2 Kapadapuram  Only Tolkappiyam written by Tolakappiyar survives
3 Madurai  Few of these Tamil literary works have survived
CLASSIFICATION OF SANGAM LITERATURE
Based on Name Development
Period of Composition Patinenmelkanakku Composed between 200 BC- 100 BC
Oldest surviving Tamil poetry
Patinenkilkanakku Composed mostly in Post Sangam
Period (100 CE - 500 CE)
Collection of 18 poetry compositions
like Thirukkural, Palamoli, Naladiyar,
Context and Interpretation Aham (Inner) Abstract discussion on human aspects
such as love, sexual relations, etc.
Puram (Outer) Human experiences such as heroism,
social life, ethics, philanthropy, etc.
SANGAM LITERATURE
Literature Information
Tolkappiya  Composed by Tolkappiyar.
m  Information on social life, human psychology, political and economic
conditions during the Sangam Age + Tamil grammar.
 Sanskrit influence on this work is peripheral and very little.
Ettuthokai Consists of the following works: Natrinai ,Kuruntogai Ainkurunuru
8 nthologies (composed by Gudalur Mar) ,Pathitrupathu, Paripadal, Kalittogai,Ahanuru
Long Stories (compiled by Rudrasarman), Purananuru
Pattuppattu Consists of the following works:
10 idylls 1. ThiruMurugatrupadai (composed by Nakkirar) 2. Perumbanarruppadai, 3.
Short Pattinappalai 4. Maduraikkanji 5. Porunararrupadai 6.Kurinchippattu
Stories 7.Nedunalvadai 8.Malaipadukadam 9.Mullaippattu 10.Sirupanarruppadai
Patinenkilk Deal with moral values ,most important is Thirukkural (Post Sangam Age)
anakku
Thirukkura Written by Thiruvalluvar, 1st First Dravidian work for ethics.Also known as
l(Muppal) Laghuveda of tamil Literature.
Palamoli (by Munrurai Araiyar) and Acharakkovai (contains a description of the daily life of
an orthodox Hindu, shows the influence of the Sanskrit Shastras).

POST SANGAM LITERATURE ( 200 CE – 500 CE )
EPICS SUMMARY
Silappadika  Writer is Ilango Adigal, brother of Chera King Senguttuvan
ram  Story of an anklet and Discuss about Jainism.
 Chief Character: Kannagi, who seeks revenge on the Pandya kingdom
for her husband (Kovalan) Death
Manimekal  Composed by Chithalai Chathanar( Sattanar)
ai  Sequel to Silappadikaram.
 Work espouses the values of Buddhism over other religions
Other Epics : Jivaka Chintamani , Valaiyapati , Kundalakesi
POLITICAL HISTORY OF SANGAM DYNASTIES
Dynasty Important Points

Chola  Core Area: Central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu and Kaveri delta, later
known as Cholamandalam.
 Early Capital : Uraiyur (Known for Cotton and Big Buildings )
Later : Puhar (Poompuhar or Kaviripattinam - Chief port town)
 State Emblem: Tiger; Maintained an efficient navy.
 Most Famous King : Karikalan (Pattinappalai portrays his life and military
conquests)
 Battle of Venni: Karaikalan defeated the confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas
and eleven minor chieftains.
 Trade and commerce flourished during his reign.
 Founded the port city of Puhar and constructed 160km embankment
along the Kaveri River.
Note: From 300A.D-600A.D , Kalabhras occupied the Tamilnadu .This period was called an 'dark age'
by earlier historians
Chera  Core Area: Central and northern parts of Kerala and Kongu region of TN
 Capital : Vanji Ports : West coast, Muziris and Tondi,
 State emblem : Bow and Arrow
 Pugalur inscription (1st CAD): Reference to 3 generations of Chera rulers.
 Trade with the Romans. They also built a temple of Augustus there.
 Greatest ruler : Senguttuvan , Red Chera /Good Chera
 His military achievements have been discussed in epic Silapathikaram,
with details about his expedition to the Himalayas
 Introduced the Pattini cult i.e. worship of Kannagi as ideal wife
 1st to send an embassy to China from South India.

Pandyan  Area: Madurai State Emblem : Fish
 Port: Korkai; near the confluence of Thampraparani with Bay of Bengal.
 As per Megasthanes : Known for pearl, fishery and started by Women
 Rulers kept a regular army,Trade was prosperous
 Society: Presence of Sati, caste, idol worship. Widows were treated badly.
 Religion: Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.
 Power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
 After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than a
century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century.
SANGAM ADMINISTRATION
 Form of government: Hereditary monarchy
 King was 5 councils: Ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar),
military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).
 Military administration: Efficiently organized with regular army of each ruler.
 Chief source of state’s income: Land Revenue + Custom duty on foreign trade.
 Major source of Income for Royal Treasury: Booty captured in wars.
 Prevention of robbery / smuggling: Market place (Avanam) and Roads were guarded
SANGAM ECONOMY
 Division of Land: As per Tolkappiyam -– Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
 Chief Occupation: Agriculture, rice was the most common crop.
 Other Economic Activities: Handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship
building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
 Cotton of Uraiyur : Great demand in west due to high level expertise in weaving
 Important Ports: Puhar(TN), Tondi, Muziris(Kerala), Korkai(TN), Arikkamedu(TN)
,Marakkanam ,Tamralipti (West Bengal )
 Flourishing Trade: Many gold and silver coins of Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius
and Nero in TN. Though after 3rd century AD indian metrchants will be relying more on South
Asian trade as Roman Empire will be ended by Huna
 Exports: Cotton fabrics, spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon turmeric), ivory
products, pearls and precious stones.
 Imports : Horses, gold, and sweet wine
 Trade with Romans : Book “Periplus of the Erythrean sea” and Pliny, a Roman writer, in his
book “Natural History”, complains that the Roman empire was drained of gold.Peper was 1 st
spice used in Europe.Black pepper is also known as Yavanpriya.
 Discovery of the monsoon winds by the Greek sailor Hippatus, around 46 – 47 CE.
SANGAM SOCIETY
 Concept of varna was known and they are : Arasar (Rulers), Anthanar, Vanigar(trade and
commerce) and vellalar(Agriculturists) , labourers (Kadaisiyar – lowest class)
 Primitive tribes: Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
 Rich lived in houses of brick and mortar while the poor lived in mud houses
 Position of Women : Respected and educated and can choose their life partners
 Women Poets: Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar contributed to Tamil literature
but Life of widows was miserable.
 Prevalence of Sati (known as Tippayadal) in the higher strata of society.

SANGAM RELIGION
 Primary deity: Murugan (Tamil God), Magical charms are practiced.
 Other Gods: Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai.
 Nadu Kal/Virrukal worship: Erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors
 Captains of the army were given the title “Enadi” at a formal ceremony
 Megalithic practice (started in 1200 BCE after Neolithic Age in south ) of providing for
the dead continued in this age and cremation was also introduced
 Chevilittai: Foster mothers and they had a close association with the family members.
 Kuti (clan-based descent groups): Most relevant basis of stratification: where there
was no restriction on inter-dining and social interactions among Kuti groups.
CHEDI DYNASTY / MAHAMEGHAVAHANA /CHETAVAMSA (KALINGA - 1ST CBC)
 Hathigumpha inscription: Information about King Kharvela (3rd Chedi King),
Mahapadmananda made Canals in Kalinga and captured it Religion: Jainism
FOREIGN DYNASTIES IN NORTH WEST REGION OF INDIA
DYNASTY KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER
PERSIAN  550 BCE : Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus invaded the North-
Western front of India during Rule of Bimbisara od Haryanka Dynasty
Ancient  Indian Smaller Empires : Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra
IRAN  Cyrus succeded tribes in Gandhara region
 Darius I (Cyrus’s grandson) annexed Punjab and Sindh
 Xerxes (Son of Darius) could not move ahead with the further conquest
of India because of war with the Greeks.
IMPACT OF INVASION :
 Indo-Iran Trade : Iranian coins ,found in the North-Western frontier
 Script: Kharoshti script introduced to northwest India by the Persians. It
is derived from the Aramaic script and is written from right to left.
 Achaemenid influenced Mauryna Art i.e. bell-shaped capitals
 Arab and Persians are 1st to use name HIND for land across Sindhu
GREEK ALEXANDER ( 356BCE -323 BCE) :
 He is Son of Philip of Macedonia, became king in 336 BC and conquered
INVASION Asia Minor, Iran, Iraq.
 330 BCE: Annexed the whole of Persia (Babylon) by defeating Persian
King Darius III in the Battle of Arbela.
 326BCE: Small rulers like Ambhi of Taxila and Porus of the region of
Jhelum. Ambhi accepted Alexander’s sovereignty but Porus didn’t and
involved in Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) and got defeated.
 326 BCE: Alexander Army refused to cross Beas and forced him to
retreat and Alexander finally died at Babylon in 323 BCE aged 32.
 321BCE: Spilt of Greek Empire. In Northwest India, Alexander left four
of his generals in charge of four regions, one of them being Seleucus I
Nicator (established Seleucid Dynasty)
 Eudamas was the last General of Alexander in India.
 Women of Massaga (Capital of Frontier republic Ashwaka) taken part
in battle against Alexander and all were killed by him.

IMPACT OF INVASION :
 Political unification : Augmented in northern India under the Mauryas
 Direct Contact with Greece : Establishment in different fields
 Tarde: New land and Sea routes paved the way for Greek merchants
and craftsmen to establish trade with India. As per Historical records
carpentry flourished and used in making Chariots, boats and ships
 Indian History : Important to established chronology of Indian Rules
 Greek settlements: Under both Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.
Important cities: Alexandria (Kabul), Bonkephala (on Jhelum) and
Alexandria in Sindh.
 Art : Gandhara school of art ; Introduced Yavanika(Curtain) in Theatre
 1st to Appoint Strategos ( Military Governorship System )
 1st to use name India who translated Hind as Indus
INDO INITIAL PRESENCE :
 305 BC: Seleucus’s conflict with Chandragupta and ceded large parts
GREEK west of Indus, including Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and
Balochistan to Mauryan king. Mauryas also had departments to take
KINGDOM care of foreigners like Yavanas, Yonas (Greeks) and Persians.
PROPER KINGDOM :
 King Demetrius (190 BC) son of Euthydemus I) invaded and conquered
southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab
 Civil wars among Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated
independent kingdom of Apollodotus I, can be regarded as the first
proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from Bactria).
MENANDER I / MILINDA (IN PALI). (165 BCE- 145 BCE)
 Empire: Kabul valley (west) , Ravi River (East ) Swat valley in the north
to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan) + Rajasthan and Pataliputra
 Discussion with Buddist Monk Nagsena (compiled in Milnd Panho-Pali)
 Succeeded by son Strato I in 130 BCE +His Coins found in Bairat
HERMAIUS
 Last ruler in Bactria and defeated by the Parthians around last quarter of
the 2nd century BC end of Greek rule in Bactria
 However, Indo-Greek rule continued in north-western India for some
more time and lost to Parthians and Shakas in due course of time.
 Remaining part of the territory, i.e, the area to the east of the Jhelum also
ceded to the Kshatrapa ruler Rajuvula.
The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II (issued lead coins). He ruled the Punjab
region until 55 BC, some say until 10 AD
COINS:
North of Hindu Kush: Gold, Silver, Copper and Nickel coins , Greek legends
+Royal portraits (obverse) and Greek deities (Athena) on the reverse
South of Hindu Kush region : Silver and copper coins , bilingual inscriptions –
Greek and Kharoshthi , royal portraits (obverse) Indian Deity (reverse )
INDO A group of Iranian nomadic pastoral tribe ,also known as Shakas
SCYTHIAN Started Satrap System
S 5 Branches : Afghanistan ,Punjab , Mathura , Upper Deccan and Western India

Resistance from India: In 57 B.C., King of Ujjain, around E) defeated Shakas
and taken title Vikramaditya and starting of Era Vikram-Samvat (58 BC).
IMPORTANT RULERS
Maues/Moga (Reign 98/50 BC – 60/57 BC)
 Empire: Earliest King and ruled over Gandhara
 Coins: Buddhist + Hindu symbols; languages: Greek and Kharoshti.
 His son Azes I acquired the remaining Indo-Greek territories by
defeating Hippostratos.
Chashtana (Reign 78 AD – 130 AD)
 Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who ruled over Ujjain.
 Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in 78 AD.
 Tiasthenes: Name given by Ptolemy.
 2 Major Kshatrapa dynasties in northwest India
Bhadramukhas: Founded by Chashtana
Kshaharatas : Included the king Nahapana
 Rudradaman I (130 AD – 150 AD –Title : Makakshatrapa)
 Greatest Rulers of Western kshtrapas and Grandson of Chashtana.
 Empire: Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, Gujarat and Malwa.
 Yavaneshwara (Greek writer) translated Yavanajataka from Greek to
Sanskrit.
 Junagarh Inscription (Girnar) of Rudradaman I (150 CE )
 Fully in (Kavya Style)prose and written in Sanskrit
 Repair work of the Sudarshana Lake that was built by
Pushyagupta (Governor of Chandra Gupta Maurya)
 Defeated Satavahana King and married his daughter to
Satvahana king Vashishtiputra Satakarni
Note: Girnar has 3 Inscriptions i.e. Ashokan , Rudradaman and Skandgupta
Decline : Came to an end in the 4th century AD when last Western Satrap ruler
Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty
INDO PARTHIANS
 Shakas domination in northwest India was followed by that of the Parthians.
 As Per some Sanskrit texts: mentioned together as the Shaka-Pahlava. In fact, they
ruled on parallel lines for some time.
 Occupied a small portion of north-western India in the 1st century.
 Most Famous Parthian King :
Gondophernes (mentioned in an inscription dated 45 CE found at Takht-i-Bahi , near
Peshawar) in whose reign
Saint Thomas came to India to propagate Christianity.
 Later Parthians, like the Shakas, assimilated into Indian society.
 Kushanas ultimately ousted the successors of Gondophernes from north-west India.
KUSHANA EMPIRE ( 15 AD – 232 AD)
 Kushana came into power after Parthians. They were one of the 5 clans into which the
Yueh-Chi (moon tribe or Tocharian’s) tribe was divided. They were originally from the
steppes of North Central Asia, in the neighbourhood of China.
 Empire:
 Extended from Oxus to Ganga, from Khorasan (Central Asia) to Varanasi.

 Part of Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan + Pakistan +almost whole northern India
 Journey to Empire: 1st occupied Bactria (north Afghanistan) where they displaced the
Shakas, and gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized Gandhara by crossing the
Hindu Kush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and the Parthians in these areas.
Finally, they set up their authority over the lower Indus basin and the greater part of
the Gangetic basin
KUJULA KADPHISES 1 (15 CE – 64 CE)
 Consolidated 5 clans of the Yue-Chi tribe  unified Kushana
 adopted the epithet ‘Dharmathida’ and ‘Sachadharmathida’
 COPPER COINS: Believed to imitated the Roman ‘aurei (Gold)’ type coins,
found south of the Hindukush and give an idea about his association with
Buddhism.
VIMA KADPHISES 2 (64 CE – 78 CE)
 Son of Kadphises-I, conquered Gandhara from the Parthians and extended the
kingdom to the east of the Indus till Mathura region.
 Firmdevotee of Shiva proclaimed himself as ‘Mahishvara’ on his coins.
 GOLD COINS: Considered as 1st Ruler to issue a large number of gold coins
KANISHKA (78 CE – 105 CE) : MOST FAMOUS KUSHAN RULER
I  Extension of Empire: Central Asia -Afghanistan, north-western India to Ganga
M valley + Malwa region +Varanasi, Kaushambi and Shravasti (UP) and Sanchi(MP)
P  Centre of Empire: Bactria, evident from Bactrian language in coins- inscriptions.
O  Sources of information: Rabatak inscription (Afghanistan)
R  Title: ‘Devputra’ and on some coins has been shown wearing a peaked helmet.
T  2 Capitals –Purushapura (Peshawar) - Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge
A stupa to house the Buddha’s relics 2nd Capital is Mathura in India.
N  A headless statue of Kanishka depicting him as a warrior
T  Requested to marry Chinese princes Denied and defeated by General Pan Chao
PATRONIZED
R
 4th Buddhist council at Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar (Kashmir)
U
 Vasumitra : Buddhist scholar who authored Mahavibhasashashtra)
L
 Ashvagosha: Buddhacharita (Poetic Discourse about Buddha in Sanskrit)
E
 Charaka :The father of Ayurveda , Court Physician
R
 Nagarjuna: wrote Book Madhyamakakarika and given theory of
S
Madhyamika Shunyavad (school of Mahayana)
 Gandhara and the Mathura schools of sculpture
 Coins: Images of Buddha + Greek and Hindu Gods (Secular Ruler).
 Successors of Kanishka : Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka Ⅱ (title of Kaiser)
VASUDEVA (189/195CE – 225 CE : THE LAST KUSHANA EMPEROR)
 He took the title ‘Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshano’  reflects that by this time
Kushanas were totally indianised.
 Vasudeva came under military attack from the Sasanian emperor Ardashir I
 Coins : Gold (Dinar) + Copper and Introduction of a Nandipada (hoofprint of the
bull Nandi, in the obverse right field
 Possibly Vasudeva was the son (presumably of Huvishka) by a Hindu mother

 Pottery : Red ,Polished ,Medium to fine fabric
 Architecture : Use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for both roofing and
flooring was evident
 Irrigation facilities by Kushans : Archaeological traces have been discovered in
parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Western Central Asia
I  Military equipment : Riding horses on a large scale + Introduction of , turban,
M trousers, long coats and long boots  facilitated victories in war
P  Indian Society: As per Manusmiriti Foreign Rulers got mixed and got the title of
A Vratya Kshatriya. Institution of Child marriage started in Kushana (Girl’s best
C Age decided in 8-10 years). Abolition of Upanayana to female.
T  Trade and Agriculture
S  Gold from the Altai mountains(Central Asia) and Roman Empire
 Silk Route was controlled by Kushanas lead to better trade control and
O betters tolls collection  better economy
F  Gold coins issued by Indo greeks and in Large scale by Kushanas
 Polity and Administration :
C
 Idea of the divine origin of kinship i.e. Kushans are son of God
E
 System of military governorship (strategos) by Indo-Greeks
N
 Science and Technology :
T
 Copper, gold coins were an imitation of Roman coins
R
 Glass making Process made a unparalleled growth in this period
A
 It seems that process of making leather objects (boots) started
L
 Ancient Indian physicians relied mainly on plants (oshadi) in Sanskrit 
A medicine named ‘aushadhi’
S  Art :
I  Gandhar and Mathura School of Art ,
A  Hellenistic(Greek) influence in decoration of Torana
N  Greek introduced Yavanika (Curtain) in Indian Theatre
 Literature :
C  Sanskrit Promoted : Sundarananda(example of Sanskrit Kavya) and
O Buddhachrita by Ashwaghosh , Rudradaman’s Incription
N  Kavya style : Earliest specimen is inscription of Rudradaman
T  Secular Literature : Kamsutra by Vastsayana
A  Term horasastra used for astrology in Sanskrit was derived from
C the Greek term ‘horoscope
T  Religion :
S  Hindusim :Heliodorus (Greek ambassador in Court of Local Shunga
prince Bhagabhadra’s ) set up a Garuda pillar in honour of Vishnu near
Besnagar(Vidisha/Bhilsa) in MP
 Vima Kadaphies was follower of Shaivism
 Buddhism : Rulers accepted Mahayana Buddhism
Note : Mostly they accepted Buddhism because it has easy entry as strict caste sytem is
not there
Note: Yaudheyas is issued copper coin with six headed Karttikeya (war god).The Time period
can be 200 BC to 400CE. Also mentioned in Panini Ashtadhyayi ,Purana and Mahabharata

GUPTA EMPIRE ( 275 AD- 550 AD)
Reason Decline of Kushana and territorial expansions
of Rise
SOURC (i) Inscription written on different materials like copper plates, stone, clay seals; (ii)
ES Coins issued by rulers of different dynasties; (iii) Material from excavations; (iv)
Contemporary literature; and (v) Accounts left by foreign travellers like Fa-Hien
KINGS INFORMATION
Srigupt Reign : 240 CE- 280CE ; Founder and taken Title of Maharaja
a
Ghatotk Son of Sri Gupta , took the title of ‘Maharaja
acha
Chandr  Son of Ghatotkacha and taken Title of Maharajadhiraja
agupta I  Considered to be founder of the Gupta Era (319 – 320 CE)
 Married Kumaradevi (Licchavi’s Princess)
319 CE-  Issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
335CE  Empire: UP, Bengal and parts of modern Bihar.
 Considered as 1st great king of the Gupta Empire.
Samudr  Son and successor of Chandragupta I
agupta  followed the policy of war and conquest
(335/336  Title : Kaviraja (king among poets) + Napolean of India by VA smith +
– 375 Apratirathah (invincible), Vyaghra-Parakramah (brave as a tiger), Parakramah
CE) (brave) on coins:
 His conquered/controlled areas can be divided into 5 groups
 Group A – Rulers of Ganga-Yamuna doab + 9 Naga rulers
 Group B – Rulers of the eastern Himalayan states and some frontier
states i.e. Nepal, Assam, Bengal, parts of Punjab.
 Group C – Forest kingdom of Vindhya (atavika rajyas) this region
helped him to move towards south.
 Group D – 12 rulers of Eastern Deccan and south India till Kanchi
(TN) Pallavas accepted suzerainty. Virasena, commander of
Samudragupta, adopted the policy of political conciliation during his
southern campaign.
 Group E – Shakas(Western India)+Kushana(Afghanistan)
 Chinese sources: Meghavarman (Sri Lanka) sought permission to
Samudragupta to build a Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya.
 Issued coins : Gold Coins with legend “restorer of the asvamedha”+ Images
like playing veena and killer of lion
 Prayag Prashahti in Allahabad Pillar: Written in Sanskrit as Champu Kavya
(Prose+Poerty) by His court Poet Harisena.
 Patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.
Chandr  As per Sanskrit play Devi Chandraguptam written by Vishakhadutt:
agupta Chandragupta-Ⅱ killed his elder brother Ramgupta and ascended throne
II (376 –  Titles: Vikramaditya’ (powerful as the sun) and Simhavikrama

413/415  Other Names : Devagupta , Devaraja , Devashri , Saka Conqueror (Sakari)
CE)  Policy: Conquest + Marriage alliance and Dynasty reached its peak
 Married: Kuberananga, (Naga princess) and had a daughter, Prabhavati who
married to Vakataka prince, Rudrasena Ⅱ. After the death rudrasena
Prabhavati ruled the territory and Chandragupta Ⅱ indirectly controlled the
Vakataka kingdom helped him eliminate Western Shakas
 Contributions:
 Iron Pillar inscription (Delhi ): Believed to erected in udaygiri (Vidisa and
then Transferred to Mehrauli by Anagpal Tomar
 Coins: Gold (Dinara) + silver (Rupaka) +copper coins.
 Chinese traveller: Fa-Hien wrote Fo-Khow-Ki(Records of Buddhist Countries
 Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to him as Digvijaya
NAVRATNAS (NINE GEMS):
1. Kalidasa (Playwrights) 2. Ghatakarapara (sculpture and architecture)
3. Dhanvantri (Physician) Considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
4. Shanku (architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra)
5. Kahapanaka (Astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra)
6. Vararuchi(Grammarian ) Prakrit Prakasha(Book on Prakrit grammar)
7. Vetala Bhatta (Magician ) wrote Mantrashastra
8. Amarasimha(Lexicographer) Namalinganushasanam(Amara kosha)
vocabulary of sanskrit with 10000 words divided in 3 parts (Trikanda)
9. Varahamihira(Astronomer): Pancha Siddhantika + Brihadsamhita + Brihat
Jataka (astrology)
Kumara  Son and successor of Chandragupta Ⅱ.
gupta Ⅰ  Titles: ‘Shakraditya’ and ‘Mahendraditya’.
( 415 CE  Foundation of Nalanda University
– 455  Attack of Huns of Central Asia, during Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign, was made
CE) unsuccessful by prince Skandagupta.
 Inscriptions in reign of Kumaragupta :
 Bilsad inscription (oldest record of his reign)
 Mandsor (Dashpur, MP): Written by Vatsabhatta and refers
KumaraGupta as 'reginging over the whole earth' (kumaragupte
prithvim prasasti). + Migration of silk weavers from Lata (Gujarat) to
Dasapura + Tantuvaya (Guild) + SuryaTemple by Guilds on 436 and
that’s repaired by Guilds in 473 CE.
 Damodar Copper Plate inscription + Karandanda inscription
Skanda - Title : Vikramaditya after defeating Toramana (Probably Huna)
gupta - To consolidate his position he had to fight the Pushyamitras
(c. 455 – - Girnar inscription: His governor Parnadatta repaired Sudarshan Lake.
467 CE) - Bhitari Pillar inscription (Ghazipur, UP) : Gupta Genealogy
- Chandra Vyakarana and Kathasaritsagara refer to his victory over Huna
- Successors : Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ, Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta(Baladitya)
, Kumaragupta Ⅲ and Vishnugupta (Last Ruler)
Decline Hun Invasion: Excellent horsemanship and expert archers
 Toramana (founder) defeated by Skandgupta

 Mihirkula: Mentioned in Rajatarangini by Kalhana and Hieun-Tsang refers to
him as a persecutor of Buddhists.
 Defeated by coalition of Yashodharman (Aulikara of Malwa) + Narasimha
Gupta Baladitya (Gupta empire) and Maukharis of Kannauj  Exposed
weakness of Gupta Empire
Rise of Feudatories : Due to Huna’s invasion
Economic Instability: Independent Rulers + Free Land Grants
 Agriculture was main source for Revenue
 Land Types: Kshetra (land under cultivation) Khila, Aparhata(No cultivation )
E  Land Measurement system : Nivartana ,Kulyavapa and Dronavapa
 Irrigation : Tadaga(Reservoir), Ghati-yantra /Arghatta (Water Wheel )
C  Ordinary cultivators : Krishibala, Karshaka or Kinass
 Village landholders: Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras
O  As per Kamasutra : Exploitation of Male and Female slaves was prevalent
 Important Ports : Chaul,Tampralipti ,Bhrigukachchha , Arikemedu , Kaveripatnam
N  Crafts Production and Trade :
 Kshauma and Pattavastra : different varieties of silk cloth
O
 Earthen pots, furniture , metal tools for domestic use
 Nagarasresthi (head of city merchants) Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader)
M
 SHRENI (Guilds):
Y  Facilitated the functioning of both craftsmen and traders.
 Each guild has its own chief ,assisted by others and Functionaries are selected
with great care
 Sometimes operated as cooperative and controlled new entries
 Regulated fare Wages , Price to maintain business Ethics
 State was expected to respect customs and norms and provide protection
 Members of the Shreni were subject to punishment in case of misconduct.
KING: CENTRAL FIGURE OF ADMINISTRATION
Titles : Paramabhattaraka, Parama-daivata, Chakravarti, Paramesvara
A Example: Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta describes him as "equal to the gods:
D Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Sea-God), Indra and Antaka (Vama).However, in the spirit of
M Smriti literature and that of Kalidasa we find Skandagupta in his Bhitari Pillar inscription
I eulogized as a person who "subdued the earth and became merciful to the conquered
N people, but he became neither proud nor arrogant though his glory was increasing day by
I day." His father, Kumaragupta, "followed the true path of religion"
S COUNCIL OF MINISTERS AND OTHER OFFICIALS : Offices were perhaps hereditary
T Mahanandanayaka (Chief Justice) : Assisted King Mahapratihara : Chief of palace guards
R Pratihara: Regulated ceremonies and granted permits for admission to royal presence
A As per Fa-Hien : No Capital punishment Dutakas : Task of implementing gifts
T ARMY: Paid in cash , At the time of war the King led his army
I Sandhi-Vigrahika / Mahabaladhikrita : Minister in charge of peace and war
O Pilupati (head of elephants), Asvapati (head of horses), Narapati (head of foot soldiers)
N
Ranabhandagarika: Officer-in-charge for supply of offensive and defensive weapons.
REVENUE ADMINISTARTION : Land revenue and fines were source of state's income
Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita : Accounts registers, recover royal dues
Pustapala : Record-keeper Land Revenue : Udrang and bhag Irrigation Tax: Bedakbhog

Uparikara : levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another
Sulka: Commercial tax paid by organization of traders , In case of non-Payment 
Cancellation of Right to Trade and fine amounting to 8 times of the original Sulka
Visthi: King had a right to forced labour
Kamandaka in Nitisara suggests that a King should take special care of his treasury
Kalidasa and author of the Narada-Smriti = Revenue is 1/6 of produce
PROVINCES, DISTRICTS AND VILLAGES: Empire was divided into Bhuktis /Desas
Bhuktis : Governed by Uparikas and directly appointed by the King
Vishayas(districts): Headed by Ayuktaka/Vishyayapati, appointment by governor
Prathama-Kulika (head of artisan), Prathama Kayastha (head of Kayastha).
Astakuladhikarana : In north Bengal a post higher than the village
Village’s headman: Gramapati ; Grama-vriddhas : village disputes
S  Ideal Varna System not practiced and many Jatis (Caste ,a Portuguese word ,derived
in 14th Century) emerged due to Varna-Samkara (inter-marriage between varnas)
O  Vratya Kshatriaya(semi-Kshatriya) : Families of Greek and Scythian origin
 Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods
C of distress that means take to professions and duties not assigned to them
 Brahmadiyas, Agrahara : kings, officials gave land not only to individual and
I groups of Brahmana’s to come and settle in remote areas
 Antyajas(Untouchables): Considered impure So outcasted like Chandals
E  1st Epigraphic evidence of Sati Practice in Eran Inscription of Bhanugupta.
 Fa-Hien’s observation about Gupta Empire:
T
1. Vegetarianism 2. Non-Violence 3.Prevalence of caste 4. Existence of slavery
5.Presence of untouchability – Chandalas 6.Remarriage of widows was unfavorable
Y
7. Prevalence of Devadasi system 8. Multi-religious : Buddhism, Hinduism , Jainism
L  Kalidasa: Classical Sanskrit writer, greatest poet and dramatist of Gupta Period.
1. Abhijnanashakuntala 2.Vikramorvashi 3. Raghuvamsha(Poems)
I 4. Malavikagnimitra 5. Kumarasambhava 6.Meghaduta(Poems)
 Vishakhadatta : 1. Mudrarakṣhasa : Foucs on Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
T 2.Devi Chandraguptam : Story of Chandragupta II
 Shudraka(king as well as poet)
E 1. Mrichchhakatika [story of Charudutta (merchant) and Vasantsena (Courtesans)]
2. Vinavasavadatta 3. A bhana (short one-act monologue) 4. Padmaprabhritaka
R  Bhasa: Wrote 13 plays , famous one is Swapnavasavadattam
 Bharavi : Kiratarjuniya, Sanskrit Kavya about the conversation of Shiva and arjun
T
 Bhatti : Bhaṭṭikavya which is also known as Rāvaṇavadha
 Magha : Sisupala (7th century AD)
U
 Dandin: 1. Kavyadarshana 2. Dasakumarcharita (Adventures of 10 princes)
R  Bhatrihari (King): 1. Nitishatak (philosophy) 2. Vakyapadiya( Sanskrit Grammar)
 Ishwar Krishna : Sankyakarika (observation on Samkhya Philosophy)
E  Vyasa :Vyasabhasya(work on Yoga philosophy)
 Vatsyayana : 1. Nyaya Sutra Bhashya (1st commentary on Gautama’s Nyaya Sutras)
2. Kamasutra (a Secular text dealing with Eroticism)
Mathem Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhattiya discuses about Sine, Cosine etc.same is discussed in
atics Suryasiddhanta written by Latadeva(as per Albaruni of 11th Century )
Note: Game of chess (Chaturanga) originated in India in this period

GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA DYNASTIES IN NORTH AND SOUTH INDIA
VAKATAKA KINGDOM (250 AD- 500 AD) known as VINDHYAKAS in PURANAS
Vindhyashakti  Founder of the dynasty.
(250 – 270 CE)  Described as a Dvija on the Ajanta inscriptions of the time of Harisena
and is praised for his military accomplishments
Pravarasena I  Titles: Samrat, Dharmamaharaja and Haritiputra.
(270 – 330 AD)  Founder of the real power and greatness of the Vakatakas.
 Matrimonial Alliances: Gautamiputra (son) + Daughter of Naga king
+conducted wars with the Nagas.
 After his death, there were two divisions of the Vakatakas.
1. Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch [modern Nagpur]
Rudrasena I  Founder of Nandivardhana Branch
(340 – 365 CE)  Grandson of Pravarasena I
Prithvisena Ⅰ  He is very ethical and comparted to Yudhister ( Mahabharata Hero )
(365 – 390 CE)  Along with Chandragupta Ⅱdefeated the Shaka Satraps of Malwa
Rudrasena II  Son of Prithvisena I.
(390 – 395 CE)  Married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II
 After his death: Wife Prabhavatigupta ruled as regent until 410 CE.
Pravarasena II  largest number of Vakataka inscriptions belong to his reign
(395 – 440 CE)  matrimonial alliance with the contemporary Kadambas(Karnataka)
 Composed Setubandha/Ravanavaha, Maharashtri Prakrit) kavya
Narendrasena  Married to Ajihata Bhattarika, daughter of Kakutsavarman(Kadamba)
(440 – 460 CE)  Had to face stiff opposition from Nalas
Prithvisena Ⅱ  Last known ruler of the Nandivardhana branch
( 460 – 480 CE)  had to face the invasion of Harisena (Vatsagulma line) and the
invasion of Bhavadottavarman of the Nala dynasty
 Fight with the Traikutaka king, Dahrasena of southern Gujarat
2. Vatsagulma Branch [Modern Washim, Akola district, Maharashtra]
Sarvasena  Son of Pravarasena I and author of Harivijaya
(330 – 355 CE)  Adopted the title “Dharma-Maharaja”.
Vindyashakti  Defeated Kadambas of Banavasi, Kuntala (North Karnataka).
Ⅱ/Vindhyasena  Succeeded by Son Pravarasena Ⅱ then Devasena( a capable minister
(355 – 400 CE) Hasthibhoja) and then great ruler of Vatsagulma branch Harisena
Harisena  Patronage to Ajanta cave Thalner copper plates belong to his reign
(475 – 500 AD)  Varahadeva (His minister as mentioned in One inscription )
 not much is known about the end of the dynasty
Importance :  Vaidharbhariti was a style developed in Sanskrit presided by Kalidas
dandin etc ; Brahmin Ruler but supported other religion too ,Ajanta
Cave , Portable Bronze Sculpture ,Prabhavati sealing at Nagrdhan
 Vakataka traded with Iran and beyond thourgh Mediterranean Sea.

ICCHAVAKUS (227 AD – 320 AD)
Ikshvakus came to power in Telangana after Satavahanas. Ikshvakus were originally
feudatories of the Satavahanas and bore the title Mahatalavara
Capital : Vijayapuri (Nagarjuna Konda)
Other Name : Andhrabhrtyas (Andhra servants) and Sriparvatiyas (Foresters)
Religion : Hinduism(By Rulers followers of Brahmanism and performed Vedic sacrifices )
+ Buddhism (Their consorts erected Buddhists buildings at Nagarjunakonda the principal
founder being a princess named Chamtisiri )
Inscriptions : Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapetta, Amravati, and Bhattiprolu
According to the Kannada poem Dharmamrita : Andhra Ikshvakus were the descendants of
the renowned Ikshvakus of North India, though the authenticity of this is debatable
Art and Culture : Stupas were also plain and Buddha represented in symbolic forms such as a
wheel, feet, and throne with Swastika +Intricately designed and beautifully carved reliefs of
Sati, a female deity with 2 arms, and Kartikeya sculptures etc
Secular Art: Battle scenes depicted on pillars
IMPORTANT RULERS
Founder : Vashishtha Putra Santamula(220 - 233 AD) attested by Rentala and Kesanapalli
inscriptions
Virapurushadatta (c.233 - c.257 AD): Saka-Ikshvaku marriage was undoubtedly of some
political significance
Ehuvula Santamula II(257 - c.281 ) : His reign witnessed the completion of a Devi Vihara, the
Sihala Vihara, a convent founded for the accommodation of Sinhalese monks
Rudrapurushadatta (c.281 - c.299): Ikshvaku inscription was found in Phanigiri on a pillar in
Sanskrit and Prakrit languages and Brahmi characters belongs to him and was issued in his
18th regnal year. The inscription contains four verses in adoration of Lord Buddha. This
inscription records the erection of a pillar containing the Dharmachakra by the chief physician
(aggra-bhishaja) of the king.
The last of the Iksvaku kings was overthrown by Abhiras and Pallava ruler Simhavarman I
(A.D. 315-345) around c. 320 AD
ABHIRAS( 220 AD-377 AD) : YADUVANSHI KSHATRIYA CLAN
Subordinate rulers of Western Satraps and declared independence after fall of Satavahanas
Founder : Ishvarasena Language : Sanskrit Religion : Hinduism (Saivism)
At about 270 A.D Abhiras lost sovereign status due to the rise of Traikutakas in Western
Deccan and Ikshavakus in Eastern Deccan.An Abhira king is known to have sent an embassy to
Sassanid Shahanshah of Persia, Narseh, to congratualte him on his victory against Bahram III.
Samudragupta's Allahabad Pillar inscription: Abhira mentioned as "frontier kingdom" who
paid an annual tribute.
Important Rules : Abhira Sivadatta , Sakasena alias Saka Satakrni
Abhira Ishwarsena aka Mahaksatrapa Isvaradatta (248 AD): 1st independent king (Source:
Cave IX, Nasik).Also discussed about investment of hundreds of Karshapanas (coins) in certain
guilds for providing medicines for Buddhist residing in the Viharas of Pandavleni (Trirashmi).
Ishwarsena started an era which later became known as the Kalachuri-Chedi era
Abhira Vashishthiputra Vasusena :After the death of Abhira Vashishthiputra Vasusena, the
Abhiras probably lost their sovereign and paramount status

TRAIKUTAKAS (388-456AD)
Derived their name from Trikuta (Nasik hills) ,also mentioned in Raghuvamsha of Kalidasa
Founder : Dhaharsena Important Rulers :Maharaja Indardatta (415 -440) Daharsena(440-465)
Maharaja Vyghrasena ,Madhyamsena
VISHNUKUNDINS(420-624 AD)
Founder: Madhavavarman I Location : Maharshtra , AP, Telengana ,Odisha
Most Powerful: Madhavavarman II describes himself as the lord of Trikuta and Malaya.
Undavalli Caves (A.P.) : A monolithic rock-cut architecture is one of the finest testimonials to
ancient viswakarma sthapathis (Hinduism)+Jainsim +Buddhism
EARLY KALACHURIS (550-625AD)
Founder: Krishnaraja I from Mahishmati, modern Maheshvara
Association : Elephanta and Ellora Cave
Earliest coin found at Ellora, in front of Cave No. 21 (Rameshvara), was issued by Krishnaraja
WESTERN GANGA DYNASTY (350–1000 C.E.) : ANCIENT KARNATAKA
 Followed Jainism , erection of monuments in sites Shravanabelagola, Kambadahalli
 Founder: Konkanivarman, also known as Dharmamahadhiraja.
 Religion: Shaivism, Vedic Brahmanism, and Vaishnavism
 Gomateshwara, monolith sculpture, dedicated to Lord Bahubali standing in
Kayotsarga pose (leaving bodily comfort) commissioned by Chamundaraya represents
the pinnacle of Ganga sculptural during Rachamalla IV reign in 981AD.
 Administartion
Sarvadhikari (Prime minister), shri bhandari (treasurer), Sandhivirgrahi (Foreign)
Mahapradhan (chief minister) Commander (dandanayaka)
Steward (manevergade), master of robes (mahapasayita), Gajasahani (elephant corps)
Thuragasahani(Cavalry commander) , Niyogis (Palace administration) Padiyara ( In
charge of court ceremonial tasks) Pergades (superintendents of social Starta)
manepergades (Royal house superintendents), Sunk Verdades(Toll Collector)
Nadabovas (Village accountants and tax collectors), also served as scribes.
Nalaga migas (Defecnce officers in village) , Manya (Tax free Land)
Talavritti (donation granted for the maintenance of temples )
 Income Tax Terms:
Anthakara (internal taxes), utkota (gifts to the king), Hiranya (cash payments), sulika
(Duties on import) Siddhaya ( local agricultural tax) Pottondi (local feudal ruler's tax)
KADAMBA DYNASTY -BANWASI and TRIPARVATHA BRANCH (345AD - 540AD)
 Sources: Alagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi, and Halmidi, family was named
after the Kadamba tree that flourished there.
 Talagunda inscription of crown prince Santivarma, one of their earliest inscriptions
 Founder : Mayursharma who have beaten the Traikutas, Abhiras, Sendrakas, Pallavas,
Pariyathrakas, Shakasthana, Maukharis, and Punnatas in other wars
 Kings : Mayurasharma(345 - 365) Kangavarma(365 - 390) Bagitarha(390 - 415)
Raghu(415 - 435) Kakusthavarma(435 - 455) (most powergul) Santivarma(455 -
460)Mrigeshavarma(460 - 480) Shivamandhativarma(480 – 485) Ravivarma(485 –
519) Harivarma(519 – 525) (Triparvatha Branch) Krishna Varma I(455)
Vishnuvarma Simhavarma Krishna Varma II

 Ravivarma succeeded in developing the kingdom after Kakusthavarma.HE involved in
Series of clashes within the family as well as against the Pallavas and the Gangas and
credited with conquering the Vakatakas and extending his Kingdom to Narmada River.
 Mixed farming( grazing and agriculture) dominated by Gavunda peasantry (Gowdas)
 Perjunka (load tax), Vaddaravula (royal family social security tax), Bilkoda (sales tax),
Kirukula (land tax), Pannaya (betel tax)
 Architecture : Stepped Pyramid ( Kadamba Shikara) with Stupika adopted in the
Doddagaddavalli Hoysala temple and the Mahakuta temples in Hampi
 Religion: Vedic Hinduism Famous Temple : Madhukeshwara temple
 Sangolli inscription: Ravivarma was replaced by his peaceful son Harivarma(519AD)
 Bannahalli plates: Harivarma was murdered in 530 and Krishnavarma II (son of
Simhavarma) of Triparvata branch and unified both branches.
 Chalukyas (vassals of the Kadambas) in 540 AD replaced them and then Kadambas
became vassals of the Badami Chalukyas
 Administartiative offices : Pradhana(Prime Minister), steward (Manevergade), council
secretary (Tantrapala or Sabhakarya Sachiva), scholarly elders (Vidyavriddhas),
physician (Deshamatya), private secretary (Rahasyadhikritha), chief secretary (Sarva
Karyakarta), chief justice (Dharmadhyaksha), and other officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta).
 Officers in the army: Jagadala, Dandanayaka, and Senapathi.
KALABHRAS (3RD CE – 6TH CE) : Due to lack of sources , known as Dark Age in south
 No clear evidence about the origin of the Kalabhras
 Tamil grammar Yapperunkalam refers to a Kalabhra king, namely Achutha Kalappalan
 Ruled the Tamil country from Uraiyur Buddhist scholar : Buddhadatta
 According to traditions, he imprisoned the Chera, Chola and Pandyan rulers
 Extended patronage to Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries.
 Simhavishnu(Pallava) had deafeated Kalabhras
MAUKHARIS OF KANNAUJ
 3 Kings mentioned in inscriptions of Barabar and Nagarjuna Hills(Bihar) i.e. Yajna-
varman, his son Sardula-varman and his son Anantavarman
 Asirgarh Copper seal gives the names of the following rulers:
1) Maharaja Hari-varman 2) Maharaja Aditya-varman 3) Maharaja Isvara-varman
4) Maharajadhiraja Isana-varman 5) Sarva-varman 6) Avanti-varman
 Isanavarman: Defeated Andhras, Gulikas , Gaudas and 1st to have title(Maharajadhiraja)
 Grahavarman (last Maukhari king) Married to Rajyasri(Pushyabhuti) and killed by
Malawa king Devagupta  Maukhari kingdom to an end
LATER GUPTAS OF MAGADHA (MID OF 6TH CENTURY CE - 675 CE)
 Feudatories of the Imperial Guptas and not part of the main Gupta dynasty
 Aphsad Inscription ,Gaya : genealogy of the kings of this dynasty-
1) Krishnagupta 2) Harshagupta 3) Jivitagupta 4) Kumaragupta
5) Damodaragupta 6) Mahasenagupta 7) Madhavagupta 8) Adityasena
 Powerful ruler : Adityasena( 672 CE) got title of Param bhagvata and construted temple
 Names of three successors of Adityasena – Devagupta, Vishnu-gupta and Jivita-gupta
 No successor of Jivita-gupta is known, and end of the Later Guptas is ambiguous.

MAITRAKAS OF VALABHI (475AD-776AD)
Founder: Bhattarka who also constructed Valabhi University (Hinayana centre). Gunamati and
Sthiramati (Buddhist scholars) are said to have attended this university. Xuanzang, a Chinese
pilgrim, came to Valabhi in the 7th century, while Yijing came at the end of the century
AULIKARA OF MALWA (350 AD- 550AD)
 Founder not confirmed but most famous one is Yashodharmana.
 Mandsaur inscription of yashodharma /Dashapur ( Sondani village)
 Battle of Sondani (528AD): Yashodharmana along with Narsimhagupta defeated
Mihirkula Mihir has taken refuse in KashmirEnd of Huna Empire
 Vakpati,Court Poet , seems to be an exaggeration that Yasodharman conquered
all the regions in south and north
GAUDAS OF BENGAL(6th-7th Century AD)
SHASHANKA (590AD-637AD) : FAMOUS RULER CAPITAL : KARNASUVARNA
 Shaiva Brahmin, referred to as the Lord of Gauda, Gaureshwara.
 1st Mention : 7th-century fort Rohtasgarh (Magadha) as Mahasamanta Shashankadeva
 Said to chopped down the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya's Mahabodhi Temple
 Replaced by his son, Manava, but Kingdom was quickly split between Harsha and
Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa(also conquered Karnasuvarna)
KAMARUPA(VARMAN) DYNASTY ( 4TH CENTURY CE – 12TH CENTURY CE )
 Also Known as Bhauma (Son of Bhumi) Location : Modern Assam and Pragjotish
 Claims its descent from Asur Naraka , father of Bhagdutta (taken part in Mahabharat)
 King Pushyavarma (350 AD): Founder and assumed title of Maharajadiraja and Lord of
Pragjotish as per Nalanda seal ) under Samudrgupta
 Naraynavarmana(7th King ) 1st Independent King , Followed by Bhutivarma(8th King)
 Chandramukhavarma (not so known) followed by Sthitavarma (mentioned in Aphsad
incription of Adtiyasen Gupta (Late Gupta Ruler). Sthitavarna defeted by
Mahasenagupta on the banks of Lauhitya ( Brahmaputra River)
 Sasanka defeated Son of Sthutvarna i.e. Suprasthatitavarna and
BHASKARVARNA : FAMOUS RULER
 Political alliances with Harshavardhana against Gauda and East Malwa.
 Forein Rulers: Xuanzang and Li Yi-Piao Envoy to Harsha: Hamsvega
 1st king to claim descent from the mythical Narakasura, Bhagadatta, and Vajradatta.
 Issued: Dubi and Nidhanpur copper plate grants+ clay seal found in Nalanda.
 Salasthambha established Mlechchha dynasty
SALAMBA DYNASTY OF ASSAM (800 – 1000 CE)
800 CE, Harjaravarman – a local ruler of Kamarupa assumed control and established the
Salamba dynasty with its capital at Haruppeshvara on the banks of river Brahmaputra

Figure: EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD

PUSHYABHUTI /VARDHANA DYANSTY OF STHANESHWAR (500 CE - 647 CE)
(THANESAR HARYANA)
 Fall of the Gupta Empire  Political disintegration of northern India.
 Major Power of North India : Pushyabhutis, Maukharis of Kannauj, Later Guptas
of Magadha and Aulikaras of Malwa and Maitrakas of Valabhi , Gauda kingdom of
Bengal under King Shashanka (c. late 6th century CE - 637 CE) .
 As per Banabhatta Pushyabhuti is Founder of Pushyabhuti or Vardhana Dynasty
.Some other believe that Naravardhana was the Founder , followed by Adityavardhana
and Rajyavardha(presumably from c. 500 - 580 CE) .
PRABHAKARVARDHANA (580-605 CE) :1ST NOTABLE KING
 Fought against Gurjaras and Huns and established his authority till Malwa and
Gujarat.
 He had 3 Children i.e. Rajyavardhana , Harshavardha and a daughter named Rajyashri
o Rajyasri : Married to Grahavarman (Maukhari king of Kannauj) Ally
o Rajyavardhana (605-606CE): Later Guptas + Gauda killed Grahavarman in 606
CE. Devagupta, the Later Gupta king, then occupied Kanyakubja (Kannauj) and
imprisoned Rajyashri. Rajyavardhana possibly killed Devagupta but
treacherously murdered by Sasanka.
o Harshavasdhana: Younger son and ascended throne after death of elder brother
Rajyavardhana at age of 16 in 606 AD and freed Rajyashri.
HARSHVARDHANA : MOST FAMOUS RULER ( 606 AD- 647 AD)
 Warned Rulers like: Sasanka, Maitrakas of Valabhi and Gurjara of Broach, Pulikesin II
(Chalukya), Rulers of Sindh, Nepal, Kashmir, Magadha, Odra (northern Odisha) and
Kongoda (another geographical unit in ancient Odisha)
 Alliance with : Bhaskarvardhana of Kamarupa (Pragiyaotisha),Assam
 No detail of the war between Harsha and Sasanka and Harsha seems to have
successfully subjugated the Gauda Empire after death of Sasanka in 637 CE
 Marriage alliance with Maitrakas: Dhruvabhatta + daughter of Harsha.
Soon, Valabhi became a subordinate ally of Harsha.
 Pulkeshin II defeted Harsha and assumed the title of “Parameswara”(Mentioned in
Aihole inscription written by Ravi Kirti in Sanskrit language ) and gave
Sakalottarapathanatha title to Harsha
A  Harsha was first commander in the chief of the army and taken titles of
D Maharajadhiraja and Parambhattaraka
M  King assisted by a council of ministers on internal and external administration
I Avanti : officer for war and peace Singhanada : commander in chief of army
N Kuntala: head of the cavalry Skandagupta head of war elephants.
I Dirghadhvajas – Royal Messengers Mahaprathihara – Chief of Palace Guard
S Banu – Keeper of Records Sarvagata – Secret Service Department
T Samanta Maharaja: feudatories for administration, not paid in cash, but assigned
A Jagirs jagirdari system existed (feudalism)
R  Division of Empire : Same as Gupta Rulers i.e. Bhuktis , Vishya , Gram
T  Revenue: Bhaga 1/6th of the product was paid in kind. Hirnya, Bali, Sales-Tax,
I toll tax, presents from feudatories were other income. Harsha used to organised
O religious assembly once in 5 years and left over in treasury was used to give
N charity along with personal belongings.

 In Post Harsha Period: Hundi will be used as bill of Exchange ,as remittance
instruments (to transfer funds from one place to another),as credit instruments
(to borrow money [IOUs]),
 Army: four divisions (chaturanga) of Harsha’s army
Commander : Baladhikrata /Maha-Baladhikrata
Head of cavalry : Vrahadasvatara, Maha-senapathi: armed forces
 Justice: Severe and usual punishments were imprisonment for life, loss of limbs,
ordeals by fire and water also existed.
 Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice
 4-fold division + caste system was firmly established.
 Position of women declined.
S
 No purdah system among high class
O  Sati : Yasomatidevi, wife of Prabhakara Vardhana, immolated herself
C  Consumption of meat, onion was avoided.
 People were given complete freedom of worship and social harmony prevailed
I  Religion : He accepted Buddhism but Hinduism, Jainism were also popular
E  Slaughter of animals and consumption of meat was restricted.
 Religious assembly at Prayaga was constituted once in every 5 year. golden
T statue of Buddha was consecrated in a monastery and a small statue of Buddha
Y (three feet) was brought out in a procession
 convened quinquennial assemblies known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag
 Empire of prosperity, agriculture, industry and trade both in internal and
external flourished. Cities like Peshwas, Taxila, Pataliputra and Mathura were
destroyed by Hunas. But places of Bannaras, kannuj were prosperous
 An individual took to learning between 9 and 30 years of age
L  Harsha wrote Ratnavali , Priyadarshika and Nagananda
I  Banabhatta wrote Harshcharita and Kadambari
T  Language: Sanskrit , Centre of Learning :Nalanda and Vallbhi
 Famous scholars in his court : Mayura, Divakara, Jeyasena
E
 Hiean Tsang Received education in Nalanda
R
 Noted scholars went to China: Kumarajiva, Paramathra, Sndhakara and
A Dharamdeva.
T  Noted scholars went to Tibet : Padma Sambhaver,, Kamalashila, Sthirmati,
U Santha Raksita
R  Nalanda University: Shilabhadra considered as guru of Hieun Tsang.
E  Important Teachers :Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari,
Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga
 Hiuen Tsang wrote Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World)
 Tatpadanudhyata/padanudhyata: literally meaning “meditating at his feet”, it is
often used to refer to the son and successor of the king or the favourite samanta
(subordinate)

EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTY IN SOUTH INDIA
CHALUKYAS (6TH -12TH CENTURY A.D.) : CAN BE DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS
Early Capital: Vatapi (modern Badami) Early Rulers : Jayasimha and Ramaraya,
Western Founder : Pulakesin-I (543-566.A.D)
Chalukyas Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.)
(6 -8
th th  Real founder and greatest ruler of this dynasty
Century  Aihole inscription (By Ravi Kirti) gives us information that he defeated
AD) Harsha and Mahendravarma-I-Pallava (Battle of Pullulur)
 Alliances: Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas.
 Defeted by: Narsimavarman–I (Son of Mahendravarman I) in Battle of
Vatapi
Other Important Rulers :Vikramaditya-I ,Vijayaditya ,Vikramaditya II
Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD): Last Chalukya King of Badami.
Later Time Period: 10th-12th century A.D
Western They ended Rashtrakuta rule to an end.
Chalukyas Important Rulers of this Dynasty: Someshwara-II ,Vikramaditya-
VI,Vikramaditya-VI,Someswara IV (last ruler)
*Manigramam: Influential guild of Merchants
Eastern Time Period: 7th-12th century A.D. Location : Vengi
Chalukyas Founder: Vishnu Vardhana brother of Pulakesin-II
One Ruler Kulothunga Chola (1071-1122 A.D.) crowned as a Chola ruler
Contribution Architecture : Vesara Style (Combination of Nagara and Dravidian), Ex:
Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple,
Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti, Badami temples,
Pattadakkal (Culimination of Nagara , Dravida and Vesara
Paintings :Badami Cave Mural Paitings (4 armed Brahama)
Women were appointed to High Designation i.e. Vijaya Bhattarika
PALLAVAS (275AD - 897AD )
Sivaskanda Varman: Early rulers and performed Ashwamedha and Vedic sacrifices.
Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (575 AD – 600 AD)
 Founder and was a Buddhist +Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
 Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler.
Mahendravarman (600 AD – 630 AD)
 Inscription of Mandagapattu: described hin as Vichitrachita, Chitrakarapuli and
Chaityakari. He wrote a play Mattaavilasa Prahasana
 Introduced rock-cut temple architecture(Temple known as Mandapa)
 Religion: Jain who converted to Saivism.
 Defeated by Pulakesin II
Narasimhavarman I / Mahamalla/Mamalla (630 AD – 668 AD)
 Killed Pulakesin II in Battle of Vatapi and Assumed title ‘Vatapikonda’.
 Sent naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstatedmSinhalese Prince Manivarma.
 Founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram
 Hiuen Tsang : Kingdom was good and eople were happy
 Great Nayannar saints : Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar
Contributions:
 Kanchi (capital) Kanchi's Ghatika(Educational institution attached to temples) was
well-known, attracting students from all over India and abroad

 Kanchi was the home of Dharmapala, who later became the President of Nalanada
University.
 Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer, came to Kanchi to study.
 Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived during Simhavishnu's reign.
 Another Sanskrit writer, Dandin, graced the court of Narasimhavarman II.
 Architecture like : Arjuna/ Bhagiratha Penance , Ratha Temple , Kailashnath temple of
Kanchipuram ,Shore Templw of Mahabalipuram etc
 Paintings in the Sittannavasal caves date from the Pallava period
Decline of Pallavas
 Attacked by Pandyas, the western Gangas, and the Rashtrakutas.
 Dantidurga defeated Nandivarman, but later married his daughter Reva in to
Nandivarman
 Other Rulers: Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), and
Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) Last Pallava king: Aparajitavarman (903 CE).
 Aditya I,Chola king, defeated Aparjitavarman and took control of the Kanchi region
IMPERIAL CHOLAS (850 – 1200 CE)
Founder: Vijayalaya Chola, captured Tanjore and built a temple for Durga.
IMPORTANT RULERS
Aditya (871 – 907 CE): ended Pallava Rule
Parantaka Ⅰ (907 – 955 CE): Defeated Pandyas + Ceylon Ruler at Battle of Vellur.
 Defeated by Krishna Ⅲ in Battle of TakkolamRashtrakuta army overran
Tondaimandalam.
 Provided vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
 Uthiramerur inscriptions: Village administration under the Cholas
Parantaka Ⅱ/ Sundara Chola (c. 957 – 973 CE): Invaded Sri Lanka
Uttama Chola (973 – 985 CE): Recovered most of Tondaimandalam
Rajaraja Ⅰ/Arumolivarman (985 – 1014 CE)
 Conquests
 Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman in the naval battle of Kandalur Salai
 Defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga
 Annexion of northern Sri Lanka by Rajendra I  Sri Lankan king MahindaⅤ fled
 A naval expedition against the Maldive Islands.
 Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja Ⅰ captured Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other
places. Hence, the Chola Empire extended up to the river Tungabhadra.
 By his conquests, the extent of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja Ⅰ included the Pandya,
Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi,
Notambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of
Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
 Construction: Rajarajeshwara temple or Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (1010 CE)
 Title: “Ulagalanda Perumal” (the king who measured the earth).
Rajendra Ⅰ (1014 – 1044 CE)
 Captured the whole Sri Lanka and converted Bay of Bengal into Chola Lake.
 Defeated JaysimhaII Tungabadhra (boundary between Cholas and Chalukyas)
 GangaikondaCholapuram: Established city after Winning over GangaHis most famous
military enterprise was his expedition to North India.
 Rajendra Ⅰ defeated Mahipala Ⅰ (Pala Empire) of Bengal

 Temple: Brihideshwara Temple at Gangakondacholapuram.
 Naval Expedition at peak even captured South Asian Countries like Java etc
Rajadhiraja (1044 – 1052 CE)
 Other name: Jayamkonda Chola (the victorious Chola king).
 Destroyed Chalukyan cities such as Kalyani and planted a Jaystambha at Yadgir.
 Killed in Battle of Koppam against Someshwar – western Chalukyan king and earned
title of Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (died on the back of an elephant).
Rajendra Ⅱ (1054 – 1063 CE): Defeated Someshwar, planted Jaystambha (Kolhapur)
Virarajendra (1063 – 1067 CE): Defeated Someshwar Ⅱ +Vedic college of learning.
Athirajendra (1067 – 1070 CE): He died while suppressing one of his rebels.
Kulottunga Ⅰ (1070 – 1122 CE)
 Sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the
kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Complete freedom to Srilanka and got his daughter married to
Virapperumal, Sinhala Prince
 United the Vengi kingdom of Chalukyas with the Chola Empire.
 Classic writer Kamban (who wrote Ramayana in Tamil) was at his court.
Decline: later rulers like Kulottunga Ⅱ, Rajaraja Ⅱ (Airateshwar Temple), and Kulottunga Ⅲ
tried to maintain the Chola rule but it gradually suffered a downfall and came to an end.
ADMINISTARTION
 Rashtriyam/Rajyam (empire)  Mandalams (provinces) Valanadus / Kottams 
Nadus (districts) under Nattar. Nadus (autonomous villages) are divided into 2 parts :
Ur : General assembly of the local residents of non Brahmadeya villages
Sabha: An assembly of adult males in agraharas (rent-free villages i.e Brahamdeya)
 Guilds/Shrenis were present
 Erivirpattinam: fortified settlements Nilaippadai: Army cantonments
Nagaram (assembly of merchants ) , Taniyurs : Land outside Brahmdeya
 Shankarappadi Nagaram : Ghee and oil suppliers
 Saliya Nagaram and Satsuma Parishatta Nagaram: textile trade.
 902 CE inscription : Mention of a woman Bittaya headed village Bharangiyur
SOCIETY AND ECONOMY
Caste syaytem is prevelent , condition of the Paraiyar (untouchables) was miserable
Valangai -mainly agricultural groups Idangai – mainly artisans and trading class
ART AND LITERATURE
Ardhitecture : Living Chola temples ; Sculpture : Four handed Bronze Sculpture of Natraja by
Chola artists (Sthapati) Literature : Ramayana(kamban),Tirumurais by Nambi ( Shaiva) , Divya
prabandham by Nathmuni (Alvar-Vaishnav)
Famous Trinity of Kannada poetry : Pampa, Ponna and Ranna
HOYSALAS OF DWARASAMUDRA (11TH -14TH CENTURY A.D.)
Founder :Nripakama II /Sala Capital : Halebid (Dwarsamudram) Location : AP,Karnataka
IMPORTANT RULERS
Vinayaditya (1006 -1022 A.D.): carved out a territory of Mysore with Sosavir as capital
Vishnuvardhana (1108–1152 A.D.)
1st distinguished ruler of Vinayaditya’s family.
Shifted capital to Dwarasamudra and captured Gangavadi from Kulothunga Chola
Vira Ballala – II (1173-1220 A.D.): Defeated Billama V of Yadava Dynasty.
Narasimhan-II (1220-1235 A.D.):

Lost territory between Krishna and Tungabhadra to a Yadava ruler, Singhana.
Defeated Maravarman Sundara Pandya and Restored Rajaraja-III to Chola throne.
Erected the pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.
Ballala III (1291-1342 A.D): Last great ruler of this dynasty and defeated by Malik Kafur. He
fell victim to the Sultans of Maduraiin 1342 AD
Ballala IV: Last Ruler
Contributions : Encouraged Kannada literature, Hoyasala Architecture (Sringeri, Halebid)
KAKATIYAS OF WARANGAL (12TH -14TH CENTURY A.D.)
Founder : Betaraja I (1000-1052) , worked as Feudeteries of Kalyani Chalukya and Followed by
Prolaraja I , Betaraja II(Feudetaries of Chalukyas) and Durgaraja (No information )
IMPORTANT RULERS
Prola-II (1110 -1158 A.D.): 1st Independent Ruler andruled with capital in Hanumakonda
Prataparudra-I (1158 – 1196 .A.D.): Shifted the capital to Warangal.
Ganapathi (1199-1261. A.D.) : Captured territories up to Kanchi from the Cholas and He invaded
Kalinga and Western Andhra.
Rudrama Devi (1261 -1291 .A.D.): Morco Polo (Italian traveller) visited during her Era.
Prataparudhra-II (1291-1326 A.D.): Invasion of Malik Kafur in 1309 A.D and attack of Ulugh Khan (
Son of Ghiasud-din Tughluq) who captured Warangal in 1323 A.D. and sent Prataparudra II to Delhi
 Successor will struggle with the rulers of the Tughluq dynasty
Vinayakadeva: Last ruler of this dynasty and sentenced to death by Muhammad Shah I.
Contributions:
1. Kohinoor (unearthed in Kollur) and transferd to allauddin Khilji by Malik Kafur. Got his name
by Nadir Shah i.e. Mountain of Light
2. Thousand Pillar temple (trikutayalam)at Hanumakonda , Ramappa temple(Unesco)
3. Motupalli had served as an international port during early and medieval periods.
YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI (DAULTABAD) (850–1334 A.D.)
Also known as Sevunas (region from Nasik to Devagiri) and Gavali Kings
Descendants of the feudatory nobles of the Western Chalukyan (Chalukyas of Kalyani)
Founded by: Dridhaprahara. His son Seunachandra ruled an area of present Khandesh
Bhillama V (1175 – 1190 A.D.):
 Defeated Someswara-IV and declared his independence.
 Conflict with Vira Balalla-II (1173-1220A.D.), a Hoysala ruler.
 Lost his life in the battle of Lakkundi.
Jaitrapala (1191-1210 A.D.): Son of Bhillama V and defeated Kalachuris, Kakatiyas.
Singhana (1210-1247A.D.): Son of Jaitrapala and defeated Mahadeva, a Kakatiya ruler .He also
defeated Vira Ballala-II, Hoysala ruler and expanded his kingdom beyond the River
Krishna.He invaded Gujarat many times and captured Kolhapur (Silhara dynasty)
Krishna (1247-1260 A.D): Krishna was the grandson of Singhana and succeeded him.
Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D): Brother of Krishna captured North Konkan and ended Silhara
Ramachandra Deva (1271-1309 A.D.): Last great ruler and defeted by Ala-ud-din-Khilji and
called to Delhi.
Sankara Deva (1309 – 1312 A.D.)
Son and successor of Ramachandra Deva and killed by Malik Kafur in 1312 A.D.
Harapala, brother-in-law of Sankara Deva raised the flag against the Khiljis.
Mubarak, son of Ala-ud-din Khilji killed Harapala.
Contribution of the Yadavas: Devagiri Fort (Yadava), Juma Masjid and Chand Minar(Added
by Delhi Sultans later)

RASHTRAKUTA (8TH CENTURY TO 10TH CENTURY AD)
Considered themselves as descendants of Satyaki.
Origin: Kannada origin Mother tongue: Kannada.
RULERS
 Dantivarman / Dantidurga (735AD – 756AD)
 Founder and occupied all territories between the Godavari and Vima.
 Said to conquered Kalinga, Kosala, Kanchi, Srisril, Malava, Lata etc.
 Occupied Maharashtra by defeating Chalukya King Kirtivarma.
 Krishna I (756AD-774AD)
 Succeeded Dantidurga and built Kailash Temple at Ellora
 Defeated Vishnuvardhana of Vengi and Western Ganga king of Mysore.
 Govinda II (774 AD- 780AD): Son of Krishna I succeeded.
 Dhruva (780AD – 793AD): Defeated Vatsyaraja (Gurjara-Pratihara), Pallavas
Dharmapala(Pala Dynasty )
 Govinda III (793AD – 814AD):
 Defeated the great Gurjara King Nagabhatta II.
 Pala King Dharmapala sought the help of Govinda III.
Areas : Vindhyas and Malava (north) and Tungabhadra (south)
 Amoghavarsha I (814AD - 878 A.D.):
 Greatest king of Rashtrakuta New capital : Manyakheta (Malkhed,Karnataka)
 Port: Broach Religion: Converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
 Suleman (Arab merchant): Discuss about 4 Kings of world in his account
Amoghavarsha-I, Caliph of Bagdad, king of Constantinople, Emperor of China.
 Krishna II (878AD – 914AD): Son of Amoghavarsha, succeeded the throne.
 Indra III (914 AD - 929AD ) : Defeated and deposed Mahipala
 Krishna III (939 AD – 967AD): Defeated Tamil kings of Chola kingdom.
 Karka (972AD – 973AD) Defeated by Taila or Tailapa, the Chalukya king of Kalyani.
ADMINISTRATION
Rashtras (provinces) – headed by Rashtrapatis dividedinto Vishayas (districts)-governed
by vishayapatissubdivision into bhukti –Headed by bhogapatis
LITERATURE ( Patronized Sanskrit literature and Beginning of Kannada Literature)
 Trivikrama Bhatta: Nalachampu. Halayudha: Kavirahasya
 Jinasena: Parsvabhudaya (biography), Trishashthilkshana Mahapurana (2 parts- Adi-
Puran by Acharya Jinasena and Uttara Purana by Gunabhadra.
 Sakatayana: Amogavritti (a grammar work), Viracharya: Ganitasaram(Maths)
 Amogavarsha: Kavirajamarga - first poetic work in Kannada language.
 Pampa (Greatest Kannada poet) :Vikramasenavijaya
 Ponna (Kannada): Santipurana
ART AND CULTURE
Kailasanatha Temple at ellora : central face of the plinth has imposing figures of elephants
and lions which give an impression that the entire structure rests on their back,Sculpture of
Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa
Elephanta (original name : Sripuri ,Mumbai) : Portuguese named it as Elephanta after seeing
Elephant Sculpture , Trimurti of Shiva , Dwar palakas

EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES IN NORTH INDIA
YASHOVARMANA OF KANNAUJ (approx. 700-740 AD )
 Hero of a Prakrit poem Gaudavaho (defeat and death of the king of Gauda probably
Jivika gupta II) written by Vakpati.
 He also conquered Marudesha(Rajputana) and Srikantha( Thaneshwar, Haryana)
 Sent his minister to Chinese court (Purpose not known).
 Alliance with Lalitaditya(Kashmir Ruler) and deafted Tibet
 Defeted by Lalitaditya and and absorpotion of empire into growing empire of Kashmir
 Bhavabhuti aka SRikantha (Palywright): Wrote Uttara-Rama-Charitra
HISTORY OF KASHMIR
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed historical account of Kashmir
 Kashmir“Ka” (the water) and shimeera (to desiccate) land desiccated from water.
 As per Traditions: Kashmir was originally a lake that was drained by the great saint of
ancient India Kashyap.
 250 BC: Foundation of the city of Srinagar by Ashoka. During this period Buddhism
spread in Kashmir and flourished under the Kushans. As per Kalhan’s Rajtaringiani it
was ruled by Jaluka (Son of Ashoka)
 1st Century AD : 4th Buddhist council but Hindusim sway in Region
KARAKOTA DYNASTY (625 AD-855 AD)
Durlabhavarrdhana : Founder , Nilamata Purana is believed to have been commissioned
Lalitaditya Muktapida: Famous Ruler and mentioned in Chinese Tang Dynasty Chronicles.
He is credited with extensive conquests spanning major parts of India, Afghanistan and
Central Asia and some historians gave him title of Alexander of India. He built Martand sun
Temple, Parihaspur Stupa etc
UTPALAS DYNASTY(855 AD -958 AD)
Avanti-verman: Founder. He took appropriate steps to control and prevent flood waters from
Wular (Mahapadma) entering the fields. He founded Avantipur and Suyapur Cityadn built
Avantiswara and Avantiswami temples.
Sankara Varman ( 883 – 902 CE):Son and successor of Avanti Varman
YASHASKARA DYNASTY
Queen Didda (c. 958 – 1003 CE): Granddaughter of Bhima Shahi, one of the Hindu Shahis of
Kabul, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara (region around Pir Panjal range) and wife of king
Kshemagupta. Kalhana describes her as a merciless woman and explains in detail how
ruthlessly she killed her son and three grandsons in order to ascend the throne .She founded
the towns of Siddapura and Kankanapura. Didda placed Sangramaraja (son of her brother
and tranfered power to Lohara Dynasty. The last Hindu ruler of Kashmir was Udyan Dev.
His Chief Queen Kota Rani was the de-facto ruler of the kingdom. With her death in 1339 the
Hindu rule in Kashmir came to an end and thus was established the Muslim rule in Kashmir
under Sultan Shamas-ud-din-whose dynasty ruled the valley for 222 years.
Note: Lalleshwari (1320-1392) aka Lal ded : A shavaite mystic poetess created style of
mystic poetry called vatsun or Vakhs(speech)
GURJARA – PRATIHARA(8th Century to 11th Century )
Location: Western India and Upper Gangetic plains ; Pratiharas means “door keeper”
Founder: Harichandra (Brahmana) in Jodhpur (southwestern Rajasthan).
Gained importance during the rule of Nagabhata Ⅰ

RULERS
Nagabhata Ⅰ (730 – 760 CE): Defeated Arab army during the Caliphate campaigns in India.
Vatsaraja (780 – 800 CE)
 Made Kannauj (western Uttar Pradesh) his capital.
 Tripartite struggle with Dharmapala (Pala) and Dhruva (Rashtrakuta) for 350 years.
However, Pratiharas exercised their control over Kannauj till the last.
 Vatsraja defated Dharmapala and in turn, defeated by Dhruv in tripartite struggle.
Nagabhata Ⅱ (800 – 833 CE):
 Defeated Dharmapala (Palas) but was later defeated by Govind Ⅲ (Rashtrakuta).
 Succeeded by son Ramabhadra, (short span of time) succeeded by son Mihir Bhoja.
Bhoja Ⅰ/Mihir Bhoja (836 – 885 CE) :
 Capital : Kannauj (also called Mahodaya) Religion:Vaishnavism Title: Adivaraha
 Earlier: Defeated by the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Kalachuris
 Later: Defetaed Rashtrakutas and Palas.with the help Chedis and the Guhilas
 Barrah Copper Plate inscription: Military camp(Skandhavara )at Mahodaya
 Al-Masudi (Arab Traveller) : Give Title “King Baura”
Mahendrapala (885 – 910 CE)
 Extention of Empire – reached west to the border of Sindh, north to the Himalayas,
east to Bengal and south past the Narmada.
 Lost some territories to king of Kashmir
 Title : Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta
 Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) : Karrpuramanjari (written in Sauraseni Prakrit), Kavya
Mimansa, Balabharata, Bhrinjika, Vidhasalabhanjika, Prapanch Pandav
Mahipala Ⅰ (913 – 944 CE)
 Deafted by Indra Ⅲ (Rashtrakuta) who destroyed the city of Kannauj.
 Al-Masudi in his accounts – Pratihara empire had no access to the sea’Rashtrakutas
took control over Gujarat
Rajyapala (960 – 1018 CE)
 Defeated by Krishna Ⅲ
 Mahmud Ghazni raided Kannauj and Rajyapala had to flee from the battlefield.
 Killed by Vindhyadhar Chandela.
Yashpala (c. 1024 – 1036 CE): Last ruler of Pratihara dynasty
11th century CE : Ghaznavids removed Pratiharas from political map and were succeeded by
Chauhans(Rajputana), Paramaras(Malwa) and Solankis/Chalukyas (Gujarat)
EASTERN GANGA DYNASTY(11th to 14th Century )
Anantavarman Chodaganga (c. 1076 – 1150 CE)
 Founder and Built famous Jagannath temple of Puri in Odisha.
 Titled: Trikalingadhipathi (ruler of three Kalingas) in 1076 CE, which consisted of
Utkal (north), Kosal (west) and Kalinga proper (south).
Narsimhadeva (c. 1238 – 1264 CE): Built the Sun Temple at Konark
Declined during king Bhanndeva (1414 – 1434 CE)
PALA DYNASTY(8th -12th Century )
Gopala (750 CE)
 Founder and displaced the later Guptas of Magadha and Khadga of eastern Bengal.
 Religion: Buddhism and built famous monastery at Odantapuri.
Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE)

 Founded Vikramshila University (Bihar), Dipankara (Atisa) was associated with it
 Founded Somapuri monastery (Bihar) + Renovated Nalanda university
 Santarakshita: founded the philosophical school known as Yogacara – Svatantrika –
Madhyamaka  integrated Yogacara tradition (Asanga), Madhyamaka (Nagarjuna) and
logical and epistemological thought of Dharmakirti.
Devapala (810 – 850 CE)
Extended of empire to Kamarupa(Assam) , parts of Orissa (Utkala) and Nepal
Defeated Hunas, lord of Gurjaras (probably Mihir Bhoja) and the Dravidas.
 As per Buddhist tradition, Sailendra dynasty king, Balaputradeva (ruler of
Suvarnadvipa (Indonesian, Java and others) requested him to grant 5 villages to the
monastery at Nalanda. He accepted the request and appointed Viradeva as the head
 Vajradatta (Buddhist scholar): Wrote Lokesvarasataka
 Arab merchant Sulaiman called the Pala Empire Ruhimi or Ruhima Dharma.
Mahapala Ⅰ ( 977 – 1027 CE)
 Revived under Mahipala Ⅰ + defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Ramapala (1072 – 1126 CE) :Revived Pala fortunes and controlled of Kamarupa and Kalinga
Vijaysena (Sena dynasty) destroyed the Pala Empire in the 12th century
CONTRIBUTION
Under Pala empire Buddhism flourished.
Buddhist universities – Nalanda and Vikramashila.
Language: Proto-Bengali language laid the foundation for the Bengali language.
Charyapada (collection of mystic Buddhist poems) : 1st literary work of Bengal
Diplomatic relations: Srivijaya empire, Tibetian empire and Arab Abbasid Caliphate.
Coin: Abbasid Painting : Pala School of Art
Trade flourished between Bengal and Middle East led to Entery of Islam in Bengal
SENA OF BENGAL (1097 – 1225 CE)
Religion : hindu
Deopara inscription: Origin is Karnataka and one of founders in the south, Samantha Sen,
folloed by Hemanta Sen, who defeated Palas in 1095 CE. Founder can be Hemanta Sena or
Vijaya Sena. Eulogises Sena kings, especially Vijaya Sena.
Vijaya Sena (c. 1095 – 1158 CE)
 Defeated Bhojavarman and conquered Vanga; 2 capitals: Vijaypura and Vikrampura.
 Sriharsha composed Vijay Prasasti (Eulogy of Vijay)
 Barrackpore copper plate mentions him as Maharajadhiraja.
Ballal Sena (c. 1158 – 1179 CE): Capital : Nabadwip
 Revived orthodox Hindu practices in Bengal, in particular with establishment
of Kulinism (Hindu caste and marriage rules).
 Wrote Adbhut Sagara and Dana Sagara.
Lakshmana Sena (c. 1178 – 1207 CE)
 Defeated the ruler of the Gahadavala dynasty, Jayachandra.
 Title: Ariraja-Madana-Sankara, Gaureswara and Paramvaishnava.
 Jayadeva (Vaishnava poet of Bengal and author of Geeta Govinda), Umapati Dhar,
 Completed Adbhut Sagara However, during the last years of his rule, the Sena dynasty
weakened and started to disintegrate.

13th century (1203 – 1204 CE): Muhammad Bin Khalji (generals of Mohammad Ghori) attacked
Nabadwip and conquered northwest Bengal while eastern Bengal remained under Sena rule.
However, by mid- 13th century, Deva dynasty overthrew Sena
KALCHURI ( CHEDI) OF TRIPURI 9th – 11th Century (JABALPUR)
Chedi Region(Dahala-mandala): Between Narmada and Godavari rivers
Earlier: Subordinate to Pratiharas Later: Around Mid 10th century declared independence.
Kokkala Ⅰ ( 845 – 885 CE)
 Founder and invaded northern Konkan and helped Krishna Ⅱ against eastern Chalukyas
and Pratiharas.
 Marriage: Chandella princess.
Yuvraja (915 – 945 CE)
 Defeated the Rashtrakuta army.
 Famous poet Rajasekara wrote a drama Vidya Salabhanjika dedicated to him
 Kalachuri inscription: successful raids against Kashmir and the Himalayan region.
Lakshmanaraja (around 3rd quarter of the 10th century CE)
 Defeated Vangala (south Bihar) and Somavamsi king of south Kosala. Defeated king of
Solanki (Mulraja Ⅰ, founder)
Gangeya Deva (1019 – 1040 CE): Great Ruler
 Title of Trikalingadhipati (the lord of Trikalinga), Vikramaditya.
 Kingdom did not face any raids from the Ghaznavids.
 4-armed Lakshmi seated cross-legged on the lotus, holding a lotus in the upper two
hands with inscriptions in the Nagari script “Shrimad -Ga/ngeyade/va” on the reverse
side was introduced.
 Coins: gold, silver, silver-gold, copper, and silver-copper.
Lakshmi Karna (1041 – 1073 CE)
 Known as Karna defeated the Pallavas, Pandyas (south), kungas and Someshwara Ⅰ.
Yashkarna ( 1073 – 1125 CE)
 Defated by Chandellas and Paramaras destroyed Tripuri.
Vijayasimha (1177 – 1211 CE): Last ruler of the dynasty and Trailokyavarman (Chandella)
captured nearly whole of Kalachuri kingdom including Baghelkhand and Dahala-mandala.
Chedi possessions were also lost to the rising dynasties such as the Yadavas of Devagiri, the
Ganpatis of Warangal and the Vaghela Rajputs.
CHANDELA OF JEJAKABHUKTI (BUNDELKHAND)(9th to 13th Century)
Rajput Rulers and Feudatories of the Kanyakubja Gurjara-Pratiharas (Kannauj)
Rajputs of Chandela dynasty are the descendants of the sage Chandratreya, son of the moon.
IMPORTANT RULERS
Nanuka (835 - 845 CE) : Founder , Ruler of Khajuravatika, fuedatory of Gujara-Pratihara
Followed by Vakpat, Jayashakti & Vijayashakti, Rahila, Shri Harshadev Yashovarman (925 -
950 CE): 1st Independent King of Jijakbhukti ,Dhangadeva ,Gandadeva ,Vidyadhara,
Vijaypala,Devavarman, Kirtivarman ,Sallakshanavarman ,Jayavarman , Prithvivarman
,Madanavarman ,Yahsovarman-II 1165 - 1203 CE: Independent king of Mahoba for sometime
and later surrendered to Delhi Sultanate ,Trailokya Varman ,
Bhojavarman ,Hammiravarman ,Viravarman 1315 CE (Reduced to local chief)
Decline of Dyansty: In year 1182-83, Prithviraj Chauhan invaded Chandela kingdom and
sacked Mahoba due to which King Parmardi took shelter in Kalinjar fort but here also Prithviraj
defeated Chandela forces and Parmardi shifted to Gaya. After sometime, he restored Chandela

rule but in year 1202-03 CE, Delhi Sultanate invaded Chandela kingdom and Parmardi decided
to surrender and pay tribute to them but died before he will pay anything. After that, Chandela
continues to become week and other new dynasties emerged in to picture like Bundela in
Orchha, Baghels in Bandhavgarh region.
Art and Culture :
 Hindu and Jain Temples : Kandariya Mahadeva, Chaturbhuja, and Parsvanath
 3 other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh),
Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar), and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba).
PARAMARAS OF MALWA (9TH AND 14TH CENTURIES)
 Vassals of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
IMPORTANT RULERS
Upendra (around 9th century CE): Founder
Siyaka (Harsha) II (948-972 CE): Defeated Khottiga (Rashtrakuta), at Kalighatta and
established Paramaras as a sovereign power.
Munja/ Vakpatiraja II/ Prithvi Vallabha (972-990 CE)
 Titles: Amoghavarsha, Prithvi Vallabha, and Sri Vallabha.
Sindhuraja (990-1010 CE): Padma Gupta wrote his biography, Nava-Sahasanka- Charita.
Bhoja (1010-1055 CE):
 Title: Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka
 Founded: Bhojpur, Bhojeshwar Temple, Bhoj Shala (Centre for Sanskrit in Dhar)
Naravarman (1094-1133 CE):Written Nagpur Prashasti and restored Mahakala temple(Ujjain)
Mahalakadeva: last known king, killed by forces of Ala-ud-din Khalji of Delhi in 1305 CE.
SOLANKI (CHALUKYA) OF GUJRAT (940- 1244 CE)
Believed to be descend from the Badami Chalukyas.
Capital : Anhilwara (Modern Patan , Gujarat)
Mularaj: Founder, supplanted last ruler of Chavda dynasty. Beginning of Gujarati language
and script and built temple like Mulavastika (digambers )Mulanatha Jinadeva (Shwtamber)
Bhimdev I (1022-1063 AD): Built sun Temple at Modhera and Rani ki Vav (Step tank built by
Udaymati). Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked Somnath and Bhima- I has left to Kutch and then Raja
Bhoja chased Ghaznavi.
Karna : Founded Karnavati ( Modern Ahemedabaad)
Jayasimha Sidharaja: Captured Junagarh fort along with Ranakdevi (wife of Chaudsmana
King).Ranakdevi preffered to commit Sati  Ranakdevi temple
Good relation with Archarya Hemchandra (Jain Monk-written Yoga-Shastra-died in 1173 )
Kumarapala : Rebuilt Somanth Temple , propogation of Jainism , Tarana Jain temple
6 of Solanki rulers renounced their thrones to become hermits
Other Contribution : Somnath Temple , Maru Gurjara Style
Decline: Conquered by Delhi Sultanate and followed by Vaghela dynasty.
TOMARA OF DELHI and HARYANA (8th to the 12th century)
 8th-10th century CE: Feudatories of Pratiharas 10th-12th Century : Independent Ruler
 736 AD: Anangpal I, started Tomar dynasty and founded Lal Kot (Delhi’s 1st fortresses)
 1052 AD: Anangpal-II(Anangpal Tomar)founded Delhi and Anangpur Dam
 Surajpala believed to have commissioned the Suraj Kund reservoir.
 Decline(12th Century : Tomars was ousted by Chahamanas of Shakambhari Ajmer
 1180 AD : Lal Kot transformed into a gigantic 13-gated Fort known as Qila Rai Pithora
by Prithiviraj Chauhan

GAHADAVALAS OF KANNAUJ(1090CE-1194CE)
 Capitals: Kannauj and Banaras
 Chandradeva (1090 CE): Founder who defeated Pratiharas and rashtrakuta to won Delhi
 Govindachandra (1114 – 1154 CE): Grandson of Chandradeva and defeated Ghaznavids
He patronised both Hinduism as well as Buddhism.
 Vijayachandra/Vijayapala/Malladeva (1154 – 1170 CE) : Delhi was lost and Tomara
rulers aligned with the Chauhans of Ajmer and stopped acknowledging Gahadavalas
sovereignty
 Jaichandra (1170 – 1194 CE): Defeated by king Lakshmansena of Bengal. It is believed
that Jaichandra was defeated in Battle of Chandawar (1194) by Ghori
 Decline: As per Popular belief survivors of the Gahadavala dynasty fled Marwar desert
region and founded the Rathore clan and ruled Marwar or Jodhpur.
HINDU SHAHI DYNASTY

 Kallar (890 – 895 CE): As per Rajataringini also known as Lalliyashahi. Founder of
Dynasty.
 Jayapala (964 – 1001 CE): Defended his empire from the Turkish rulers of Ghazni and is
celebrated as a hero for his struggles.
 Anandapala (1001 – 1010 CE): Fought “Battle of Chach (1008)” against Mahmud Ghazni.
He lost battle and his kingdom suffered huge financial and territorial losses. Some
historians compare him with king Porus, who strongly opposed Alexander.
 Trilochanpala (1010 – 1022 CE): Conquered region of Shivalik hills (under the rule of the
Rai of Sharwa) and expanded his kingdom from the Indus River to the upper Gangetic
valley. He was assassinated by some of his own mutinous troops in 1022 CE.
 Bheempala (1022 – 1026 CE): Famous historian Utabi described him as fearless. Asper
some sources he seriously injured Muhammad bin Ibrahim (commander of Ghaznavid
army) in battle of Nandana”. He was the last “Shahi” emperor.
 Decline: In the early 12th century, the kingdom was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCEINT INDIA
Astronomy
 Astronomy has made great strides. Planetary motion became emphasised and closely
monitored.
 Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy
 Aryabhatta: Wrote Aryabhattiya which includes movement of sun and moon
 Varahamihira: Panch Siddhantika, summarizes 5 schools of astronomy. He discovered
trigonometric equations and Moon’s movement around Earth and Earth’s around Sun
was widely accepted
Mathematics
 Harappa's People were well-versed in measurement and geometry.
 Sulvasutras (Same as Pythagorus) are thought to be the source of Indian mathematics.
 Apastamba (2nd CBC) Idea about acute, obtuse, and right angles.
 Zero was deicovered in India and the flourished to arab and other areas
 Brahmagupta (598 to 668 CE) wrote Brahmasputa Siddhanta in 628AD: 1st to mention
'zero' as a number. Brhamagupta described cyclic quadrilateral. offered the solution
tothe general linear equation
 Aryabhatta discovered algebra as well as area of a triangle

 Surya Siddhanta and Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita from the 6th CAD.
 Baudhayana (800-740 BC): Discovered Pythagoras Theoem before Pyathagoras(570BC-
490BC)
 Bhaskaracharya (12th century AD): Wrote Siddhanta-Siromani  4 parts i.e.Lilavati
(arthimatic), Bijagaita (algebdra), Grahaganita (planetary mathematics, and
Goladhyaya.
Medicine
 Atharva Veda: Magical Charms to remove diseases like diarrhoea, leprosy etc
 Charaksamhita by Charak :Mentioned planats and heard , Father of Indian Medicine,
was the first physician to introduce the concepts of digestion, metabolism, and immunity
in his book
 Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta (6th CBC): Reference to 121 surgical instruments.He
discusses operation methods such as bone setting, cataract removal, etc. Rrepair of
noses, ears and lips (Plastic Surgery) was there.He also mentions 760 different plants.
Different types of specialized surgical instruments were in common use by the 1st
century AD.However, surgery suffered in the early mediaeval period because the act of
disecting with a razor was taken over by a barber.
 Jivaka (Bimbisara and Ajatsatru's Time): Atreya taught him Ayurvedic medicine.He
was Lord Buddha's and Sangha's personal Physician.
 Nagarjuna: An alchemist who worked extensively with mercury and promoted the use
of chemical treatments .He referred to blood as rakta dhatu .Several specifically
formulated compounds with medicinal properties are known as bhasmas.
Metallurgy: Examples IVC artefacts, Iron pillar, Frsco Paintings etc
Engineering, Technology and Architecture: IVC, Rock CutArchitecture
Indian iron Wootz (ootz) was best and always on demand to make sword in whole world
SCHOOLS OF HINDU LAW
Hindu law really emanated from books called the Smritis e.g. Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smiriti
and the Smritis of Vishnu, Narad, Parashar, Apastamba, Vashisht, Gautam, etc
MANUSMIRITI YAJNAVALKYA SMRITI
Written Early with 3000 Shloks Later with 1000 Shloka
Jumbled up More organised
Commentary : Dayabhaga by Jimutvahan Commentary: Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwar
A bit orthodox in approach More liberal particularly towards women
Mitakshara prevailed over the whole of India except Bengal and Assam, while the Dayabhaga
prevailed in Bengal and Assam
DAYABHAGA MITAKSHARA
Differences between the two Schools in Coparcenary
A son is entitled to his ancestral property Right of a son by birth in the ancestral property
only on the death of his father. The father equal to the interest of his father.
is the absolute owner of his property in his
lifetime
A son becomes coparcener by death of his A son becomes coparcener right after his birth.
father. This right is not available within the His right is applicable to the property of his
property of his father, grandfather or grandfather and grand-grandfather
grandgrandfather

Everyone‟s share is defined. There is Everyone is entitled to the property as a unit.
tenancy-in-common. Their shares are not defined. They have only
the commodity of ownership. There is joint-
tenancy
One can transfer his share. One cannot transfer his share to the third party
As the shares are defined, one can easily The joint-property can be partitioned. In that
partition with his share. case, it will be partitioned as it was in case of
the father.
Coparcenary property can be imposed by a female could not at all be a coparcener and
both male or female was therefore not entitled to partition
Differences between the two Schools in Succession
Property is of two types- (a) Joint, (b) Property of a deceased Hindu is partitioned
Separate. The descendants inherits the into two ways as the property is of two types-
property whatever type it is. (a) Ancestors property, (b) Separate property.
Ancestor’s property is partitioned in
accordance to the Rules of Survivorship. But a
Separate property is partitioned to the
descendants.
If coparcener dies, his widow will get the In default of close heir, brother and immediate
property in default of a close heir but she survivors inherit, the wife does not inherit.
cannot alienate
The order of heirs is decided by competence The order of heirs is decided by mereness of
to offer Pinda and Sraddho to the deceased blood.
Reference for Notes:

 India’s Ancient Past by RS Sharma
 Ancient History by R.C. Mazumdar
 Anicent History (IGNOU)
 Ancient History, Romila Thapar
 The Wonder That Was India by A.L. BASHAM
 Ncerts
 Coins by Parmeshwari Lal Gupta
 Arechalogical Surevey of India
 Previous Year Questions
 Hindu Code Analysis by Justics Katju and Neha Singh
inprotected.com
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES, INSCRIPTIONS,
MOTTOS OF HISTORY FOR UPSC-CSE (PRELIMS)
BY-
RAHUL SENGAR SIR (FACULTY, NEXT IAS)

REF: PYQS (CSE, CAPF, CDS, CISF, CURRENT AFFAIRS, NCERTS)
Avadana/Apadana: Buddha's explanation of a person's worthy deeds (Noble) in Previous Life.
Mahavastu(compilation of Mahasanghika is one of Avadana related to Buddha's life). Others are
Divyavadana, Ashokavadana.
Ahadis : Gentlemen-troopers called/recruited by the Mughal emperor and paid higher salaries than
other troopers.
Araghatta : Water wheel used in land irrigation.
Aurang : Warehouse where goods were collected.
Agrahara / Brahmadeya : land grants to brahmana or Educational settlements.
Akhabarat-i- Darbar-i-Mulla : News from the exalted court.
Agrarikas : looked after the land given in charity.
Bandagan-i-Khas : Royal Slaves
Banian : Indian agents to East India Company.
Banjaras : Traders
Bhattavriutti : Area donated to Brahamana for educational reasons.
Bhilsa : Ancient Name of Vidish (M.P.)
Dhanyakataka : Ancient Name of Amaravati
Dharma & Rita: Dharma (duty) signifies behaviour in accord with Rita (Natural order which
regulates the operation of universe).
Charanachitras : story telling scroll paintings.
Chaturvedi mangalam: Brahmana with Irrigation facility by kings.
Devadana, Tirunamattukanni : land gifted to temples.
Damin-i-koh : land of Santhals also means skirts of hills.
Eripatti : Tank lands i.e. land donated by Individual, the revenue from which was set apart for
maintenance of the village tank.
Fanam : Coins
Faujdars : Commandants
Ghatika : Colleges generally attached to the Temples, smaller than Agrahara.
Hundi: A bill of exchange.
Gomastha : Paid servant to supervise weavers, collect supplies & examine quality of clothes.
Iqta : Land distribution/revenue and administrative system introduced by Iltutmish.
Ibadat khana : Hall of worship built by Akbar for religious debates.
Kuddapah-kar : Rice cultivation season along with Samba-peshnam.
Kharaj : Land revenue
Kulah-daran : Saiyyad used to wear a cap (kulah).
Khilat : Robe of honour
Important History Terms by Rahul Sengar Sir

Khuntkatti : A joint holding of land by Tribals lineage (Munda Tribe).
Kutagarashala : A place where travelling medicants halted and debated
Khawajasara : slaves the eunuchs moved between external and part of as inner apartments in
internal life of households as guards, servants and also as agents of or women dabbling incommerce.
Maitreya : Future buddha yet to incarnate and holds water philal.

Mirasidar : Designated revenue payer to state.
Mahattara : Village headman
Milkiyat : Personal land of Zamindars
Mauza : Revenue collection unit in pargana.
Manigramam and Nanadeshi : Guilds of south India.
Nirvana : Extinction of flame of desire as per Buddhism.
Nuncai : Wet fields
Puncai : Dry fields
Parivrajaka : Homeless wanderer
Paramitas : Perfection whose attainments led to the Bodhisattva path.
Pahi-kashta and khud kashta : Non-residents and resident cultivators.
Padma-murassa : lotus blossom set with jewels was given only in exceptional circumstances.
Sarapa : A gift head to foot consisted of a tunic, Turban and sash (Pataka).
Sant Bhasha : Language of Nirvana mystics.
Siddhas( sittars) : lived in Tamilnadu with belief of monotheism and condemned Idolatry.
Shramana : One who strives for enlightenment i.e. Buddhism,Jainism.
Sumangalavilasini : Buddhaghosha commentary on Digha Nikaya.
StriDharmaPaddhati : Only extant Sanskrit treaties to address women's place and role in society
by Trayambaka.
Syadvada/ Anekantavada : Jain's epistemology and Metaphysics.
Sadhal Sadhvi : Jain male and female monk.
Theri : Elder nuns or respected women in Buddhism.
Therightha : Songs / short poems collected by Theris.
Tamiyurs : Large village land distinct revenue unit of Cholas.
Tolkappiyam: Text on Tamil grammar written by Tolakappiyam which also discussed about
geographical distribution or economic activities during Sangam Period i.e. Tinais {Kurinji(Hilly reasons
for hunting and gathering ), Mullai(Forest for pastoral or shifting agriculture ), Palai(Dry land) ,
Marudam ( wet land for agriculture) & Neithal(Sea coast for Fishing , pearls etc )}.
Tottakal : Garden land's.

Thirukkural : 1st work on ETHICS in Post Sangam era by Thiruvalluvar.
Tambavati :Ancient Name of Ahar (Rajasthan)
Upari : Category of Tenancy Tenure during Maratha Rule.
Upasaka : Lay follower of Buddhism.
Qazi : Judicial officer
Qanungo : keeper of revenue records.
Qasid or pathmar : Foot-runners
Vishti : Forced labour ( A type of revenue by state prevalent in Ancient times).

Vanik : Traders.
VIrukallu and Natukkul : A hero stone is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in
battle.
Vattakirutal : A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death.
Waqia Nawis : Court writer who recorded all applications and documents presented in court.
Wakil : Agents of Nobles.
Yapniya : A sect. of Jainism ( Part of Digambara but also follow practices of Shwetambara).
Uttaramerur inscription : Parantaka Chola's inscriptiondedicated to local self-governance
Sohgaura inscription : Oldest copper inscription of Mauryas (Pre-Ashokan) that deals in Famine
relief efforts.
Vasudhaiva kutumbakam : Taken from MAHA UPANISHADA .
Aham Brahmasmi : Taken from BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHAD.
Tatwamasi : Taken from CHHANDOGYA UPANISHADA
MaGridhah Kasyaṣvidhanam : (Motto of Lokpal): Taken from Isavasya Upanishad.
Kosh mulo dand : "Treasury is backbone of Administration" is taken from Kautilya
ARTHASHASTRA.(Interestingly in Arthashastra, there is no mention of Chandra Gupta,
Mauryas and Patliputra.)
Motto of the Indian Navy ‘Sham No Varunah’ ,proposed by again C. Rajagopalachari, is taken from
tattriya upanishad (yajurveda ) / Rigveda (as sources are not very clear)
Yato dharma stato Jayaha : Supreme Court's motto taken from MAHABHARAT.
OTHER TYPES OF LAND IN CHOLAS
Vellan vagai : land of Non-Brahmana peasants.
Shalabhoga : land for maintenance of school.
Pallichchandanam : land donated to Jaina's Institutions.

Ancient History 22 June by Rahul Sengar Sir

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ANCIENT HISTORY

(A COMPREHENSIVE YET CRISP COVERAGE)

RAHUL SENGAR SIR

Wishing you all the very best.

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Human Homo-Erectus Neanderthals Emergences Homo Sapiens Homo Sapiens

Houses Caves and Caves and Caves and Semi-permanent Rectangular or

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Major Sites UP :Belan UP :Belan MP: Rajasthan:Bagor Kashmir:Burzaho

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Afghanistan Shortughai , Oxux Takhar Traces for Canal

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Dimensions HINAYANA MAHAYANA VAJRAYANA

Buddha Great Human God God

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Maharashtra ,A.P. Satavahana 235B.C. – 225A.D Simuka

Southern Tamilnadu and Pandyan Sangam AGE

SHUNGA DYNASTY (Ancestors belongs to Ujjain )

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SATVAHANA (235 B.C. – 225 A.D)

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Dynasty Important Points

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