Further Understanding of the Effects of Neuroplasticity on Aging and Memory

Literature Review
Roxanne Goodchild
619523865
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All body systems gradually change with age, including the brain and nervous system.

The age-related change in structure and function of the brain means that changes in memory

are inevitable. Ongoing discovery within the realm of neuroplasticity has led to a far greater

understanding of the way memory is altered with age. Departing completely from previous

popular and scientific belief, recent studies consistently show that plasticity stays present as

aging occurs and suggests that the mechanisms responsible for cortical plasticity are more

variable than formerly understood. This literature review discusses new research that shows

that neurogenesis occurs throughout adulthood, even in old age. It states the known and

accepted changes to the structure and function of the brain which effect memory as a result of

aging, and goes on to explore how recent findings in neuroplasticity in specific brain areas

add to the understanding of how memory alters with age. Factors which promote neuroplastic

change are mentioned throughout.

Age-related Change In Memory

Changes In Function

Changes in brain function are an expected consequence of aging (Nichols, 2017). The

function of memory is one of these changes. Nichols (2017) lists some of the common memory

changes that are linked to aging.

As people age, committing new information to memory takes longer. The result is that

older people can experience difficulty learning new skills and facts. Remembering occurrences

with the absence of cues, referred to as cue-dependant forgetting, also gets more difficult as

people age. This is specifically applicable to long-term memory. Strategic memory, the type of

memory utilised when recalling names and numbers. is also affected by age.

Changes In Structure
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There are a number of changes in various brain structures that account for these memory

alterations because most of the brain contributes to learning and memory (Kalat, 2016). As

Melnick (2011) states, it is an unavoidable fact that the brain shrinks as one ages. While age-

related changes differ between individuals and regions, evidence suggests that the prefrontal

cortex is the most susceptible to age-related changes (Ratz, 2012). Along with this, research is

continuously finding structural causes of age-related change. Scientific, proven and accepted

changes to the aging brain are numerous. Nichols (2017) describes a few of these.

Firstly, brain mass is decreased. This tends to occur at between 60 and 70 years of

age, with the frontal lobe and hippocampus losing mass and volume. These areas are

responsible for encoding new memories as well higher cognitive function.

Cortical density decreases with age. This is the thinning of the outer surface of the

brain. This is due to a decrease in the number of synaptic connections in the brain, which in

turn plays a role in slower cognitive processing. Slower thought-processing speed in turn has

an impact on working memory (Rosen, n.d.).

White matter, which consists of myelinated nerve fibres that are responsible for

carrying nerve signals between brain cells, also decreases (Nichols, 2017). This decline in

myelin leads to slowed processing and decreased cognitive function.

Aging leads to an alteration in neurotransmitter systems. As aging takes place, the

brain forms fewer chemical messengers. The decrease in activity of neurotransmitters is

thought to effect decreasing thought processes as well as memory. This is shown to be

especially true for the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and

acetylcholine.

Neuroplasticity In The Aging Brain

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While these structural alterations do occur and have an impact on an older person’s

memory, the ongoing findings in the field of neuroplasticity – and its implications for brain

health – give more insight than ever before on how memory is altered through the process of

aging (Voss, Thomas, Cisneros-Franco & de Villiers-Sidani, 2017) and offers a more positive

outlook on the age-related effects on recollection.

Neuroplasticity is a wide-ranging term that describes the brain’s ability to change and

adapt in both structure and function throughout life as well as to a response to experience

(Voss, Thomas, Cisneros-Franco & de Villiers-Sidani, 2017). While more prolific in earlier

stages of life, recent research shows that neurogenesis occurs even in very old age. This

indicates a complete departure from earlier views on the aging brain. Sigmund Freud

provides a statement indicative of the view regarding change in the aging brain in 1905 –

“Near and above the fifties, the elasticity of the mental processes on which [psychoanalytic

therapy] depends, is, as a rule, lacking – old people are no longer educable…” (Holman & de

Villiers-Sidani, 2014). This is no longer the way science views the brain. With continued

study, people are finding the far-reaching effects of neuroplasticity. Naturally, new findings

on neuroplasticity effect the way memory and aging is understood. By comparing the

previously discussed structural changes that occur during the aging process, it can best be

understood how new discoveries in plasticity are changing the way memory and aging is

viewed.

Firstly, it has been shown that exercise is able to prevent brain shrinkage (Salzman,

2017). This research argues that exercise stimulates neurogenesis, and that this occurs

especially in the cerebral verticals and hippocampus. Exercise increases the baseline activity

of the brain, which promotes cell growth. In addition, the article states that exercise signals

behave like stem cells, and are thus able of new growth. Salzman (2017) admits, though, that
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increasing or maintaining the brain’s size is not the most essential, but rather the adaption of

neural pathways.

It has been found that these neural pathways and synapses can be maintained and that

new synapses can even be created in an older brain (Peterson, 2012). This seems to be

prominent in the hippocampus, a part of the brain associated with memory. These

neurogenesis effects are especially influenced by physical and cognitive activity, while

environmental enrichment seems to enhance the survival of these newly formed cells. Key

predictors in adult neurogenesis were found to be previous experience, activity and novelty of

experience.

As far as white matter in the aging brain is concerned, Yotsumoto et al (2014) made

an interesting discovery. In this study, a group of old and young participants were compared

on their ability to compete a visual task. The task was to learn and perform an abstract visual

task over the course of one week. Thus, working memory was tested in this study. The study

found that older participants completed the task just as effectively as the young participants,

with one marked difference – the older people displayed plasticity in a different area of the

brain than the younger participants. These younger participants displayed changes in the

cortex, as expected. In the older learners, neuroplastic changes occurred in the white matter

of the brain. White matter is the myelin sheathes covering axons throughout the brain. It is

hypothesized than the cortex sees a reduction in plasticity with age. However, older people

retain the ability to learn and remember (at least visually) by the changes in white matter.

The final point of comparison is the accepted belief that reduction in

neurotransmitters with aging has a negative effect on memory (Nichols, 2017). Pauwels,

Chalavi and Swinnen (2018) found that when both young and old participants performed a

tracking task over three days with a retention test six days later, there was an expected result
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that block practice as opposed to randomised practice is more effective. Additionally, and

rather unexpectedly, it was also found that the efficacy of block practise was more

pronounced in older adults than young people. GABA plays a major role in brain plasticity.

This neurotransmitter was not only found in the motor cortex as expected, but also in the

broader occipital area – of which the posterior precuneus, involved in episodic memory, and

the primary and secondary visual cortex, which play a role in visual memory functions, form

part of. These findings are critical for a better understanding of neuroplasticity in older adults,

and provide confirmation for task induced plasticity throughout the lifetime. Pauwels,

Chalavi and Swinnen (20l8) thus conclude that skills, including learning and memory, can be

developed at any age even though the progress may be reduced in older populations

compared to younger people.

Conclusion

The age-related alteration in brain structure, and its corresponding effects, have been

examined. It has been shown that neuroplastic change is still possible in older adults,

providing further understanding on how memory and other mental processes are altered with

age. These positive changes have been shown to occur in different parts of the brain. Noted

influences were found to be practice and repetition, physical exercise, newness of experience

and cognitive activity. This creates exciting potential for further research. It remains an

important field to study – memory, to which the effects of aging are inevitable, is valued by

society. Better understanding of this universal topic will provide clarity and could provide

greater opportunities to prevent age-related decline in memory.

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References

Holman, C. & de Villiers-Sidani, E. (2014). Indestructible plastic: the neuroscience of

the new aging brain. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8(219). DOI:

10.3389/fnhum.2014.00219

Kalat, J. W. (2016). Biological Psychology. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning

Melnick, M. (2011, August 3). Study: 4 Factors That May Shrink Your Brain. Retrieved

from http://healthland.time.com/2011/08/03/study-4-factors-that-may-shrink-your-brain/

Nichols, H. (2017, August 29). What happens to the brain as we age? Retrieved from

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319185.phpPauwels L., Chalavi, S. & Swinnen.

S. P. (2018, August 1). Aging and brain plasticity. Impact Journals: Aging, 10(8). 1789-1790.

DOI: 10.18632/aging.101514

Peterson, J. C. (2012). The Adaptive Neuroplasticity Hypothesis of Behavioral

Maintenance. Neural Plast, 2012(516364). DOI: 10.1155/2012/516364

Raz, N. (2012, March). The aging brain: Structural changes and their implications for

cognitive aging. New Frontier in Cognitive Aging.

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198525691.003.0006

Rosen, P. (n.d.). The Connection Between Slow Processing Speed and Executive

Function. Retrieved from

http://bowvalleycollege.libguides.com/c.php?g=494959&p=3386873#s-lg-box-wrapper-

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Salzman, A. (2017, August 13). Exercise-Induced Neuroplasticity – Creating New

Neural Pathways. Retrieved from https://www.ausmed.com/cpd/articles/exercise-induced-

neuroplasticity

Voss, P., Thomas M. E., Cisneros-Franco, J. & de Villiers-Sidani, E. (2017). Dynamic

Brains and the Changing Rules of Neuroplasticity: Implications for Learning and Recovery.

Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1657). DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01657

Yotsumoto, Y., Chang, L., Ni, R., Pierce, R., Andersen, G. J., Watanabe, T. & Sasaki,

Y. (2014, November 19). Many Older Brains Have Plasticity, but in a Different Place.

Retrieved from https://neurosciencenews.com/neuroplasticity-aging-learning-1557/

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Plagiarism Declaration

I, Roxanne Goodchild (student number 61953865), am registered for HRPYC81 at the

University of South Africa for the year 2019. I hereby declare the following:

• I am aware that plagiarism (the use of someone else’s work without their permission

and/or without acknowledging the original source) is wrong.

• I confirm that all the work submitted for assessment for the above course is my own

unaided work except where I have explicitly indicated otherwise.

• I have followed the required conventions in referencing the thoughts and ideas of

others.

• I understand that the University of South Africa may take disciplinary action against

me if there is a belief that this is not my own unaided work or that I have failed to

acknowledge the source of the ideas or words in my writing.

Date: 14 May 2019

Plagiarism Declaration modified from

https://libguides.wits.ac.za/plagiarism_citation_and_referencing/declarationform