Neuroplasticity - It is defined as the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to

intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections after injuries, such as a
stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI).
examples include: Remembering the name of somebody you met yesterday. Creating art, music, or
writing. Learning a new way to get to the store.

Neuroplasticity - is the brain's ability to change and adapt due to experience. It is an umbrella term
referring to the brain's ability to change, reorganize, or grow neural networks. This can involve functional
changes due to brain damage or structural changes due to learning.
Plasticity - refers to the brain's malleability or ability to change; it does not imply that the brain is
plastic. Neuro refers to neurons, the nerve cells that are the building blocks of the brain and nervous
system. Thus, neuroplasticity allows nerve cells to change or adjust.

What triggers neuroplasticity?

This experience-dependent plasticity means if you practice something consistently, such as
meditating, exercising or learning how to play an instrument, you're likely to alter your brain to associate
the relevant parts of its structure.
There are two main types of neuroplasticity:

Functional plasticity - is the brain's ability to move functions from a

damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas.
Functional Plasticity - is the brain's ability to relocate brain functions to
different parts of the brain when the brain is damaged. For example, if a
person receives a traumatic injury to the head, the resultant bruising and
swelling may damage the parietal lobe.

Structural plasticity - is the brain's ability to actually change its physical

structure as a result of learning.
Structural plasticity - gives the brain the ability to learn things like language,
music, mathematics, and other complex skill sets. For example, studies have
shown a distinct thickening in the tissues of the temporal lobe in musicians,
since the primary auditory cortex is located there.
 How Neuroplasticity Works
The first few years of a child's life are a time of rapid brain growth. At birth, every neuron in the
cerebral cortex has an estimated 2,500 synapses, or small gaps between neurons where nerve
impulses are relayed. By the age of three, this number has grown to a whopping 15,000 synapses
per neuron.
The average adult, however, only has about half that number of synapses. Why? Because as we gain
new experiences, some connections are strengthened while others are eliminated. This process is
known as synaptic pruning.
Neurons that are used frequently develop stronger connections. Those that are rarely or never used
eventually die. By developing new connections and pruning away weak ones, the brain can adapt to
the changing environment.

Benefits of Neuroplasticity
There are many benefits of brain neuroplasticity. Allowing your brain to adapt and change helps
promote:
A. The ability to learn new things
B. The ability to enhance existing cognitive capabilities
C. Recovery from strokes and traumatic brain injuries
D. Strengthening areas where function is lost or has declined
E. Improvements that can boost brain fitness
 Characteristics of Neuroplasticity
1. Age and Environment Play a Role
While plasticity occurs throughout the lifetime, certain types of changes are more predominant at specific ages.
The brain tends to change a great deal during the early years of life, for example, as the immature brain grows and
organizes itself.
Generally, young brains tend to be more sensitive and responsive to experiences than much older brains. But
this does not mean that adult brains are not capable of adaptation.
Genetics can have an influence as well. The interaction between the environment and genetics also plays a role
in shaping the brain's plasticity.
2. Neuroplasticity Is an Ongoing Process
Plasticity is ongoing throughout life and involves brain cells other than neurons, including glial and vascular
cells. It can occur as a result of learning, experience, and memory formation, or as a result of damage to the brain.
While people used to believe that the brain became fixed after a certain age, newer research has revealed that
the brain never stops changing in response to learning.
In instances of damage to the brain, such as during a stroke, the areas of the brain associated with certain
functions may be injured. Eventually, healthy parts of the brain may take over those functions and the abilities can be
restored.
3. Brain Plasticity Has Limitations
It is important to note, however, that the brain is not infinitely malleable. Certain areas of the brain are largely
responsible for certain actions. For example, there are areas of the brain that play critical roles in movement, language
, speech, and cognition.
Damage to key areas of the brain can result in deficits in those areas because, while some recovery may be
possible, other areas of the brain simply cannot fully take over those functions that were affected by the damage.
 How to Improve Neuroplasticity
1. Enrich Your Environment
•Learning environments that offer plenty of opportunities for focused
attention, novelty, and challenge have been shown to stimulate positive
changes in the brain. This is particularly important during childhood
and adolescence, but enriching your environment can continue to
provide brain rewards well into adulthood.9
•Stimulating your brain might mean:
 Learning a new language
 Learning how to play an instrument
 Traveling and exploring new places
 Creating art and other creative pursuits
 Reading
2. Get Plenty of Rest
•Research has shown that sleep plays an important role in dendritic
growth in the brain.10 Dendrites are the growths at the end of neurons
that help transmit information from one neuron to the next. By
strengthening these connections, you may be able to encourage
greater brain plasticity.
•Sleep has been shown to have important effects on both physical and
mental health. Some researchers suggest that this is partly due to
genetics and partly due to the makeup of the grey matter in the brain.
•You can improve your sleep by practicing good sleep hygiene. This
includes developing a consistent sleep schedule and creating an
environment that contributes to good sleep.
3. Exercise Regularly
•Regular physical activity has a number of brain benefits. Some research
indicates that exercise might help prevent neuron loss in key areas of the
hippocampus, a part of the brain involved in memory and other
functions. Other studies suggest that exercise plays a role in new neuron
formation in this same region.
•Liu PZ, Nusslock R.
Exercise-mediated neurogenesis in the hippocampus via BDNF. Front
Neurosci. 2018; 12:52. doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00052
•A 2021 study adds that physical exercise also appears to boost brain
plasticity through its impact on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, a
protein that impacts nerve growth), functional connectivity, and the basal
ganglia—the part of the brain responsible for motor control and learning.
•The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommends getting at
least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity cardio exercises (such as walking,
dancing, swimming, or cycling) per week and a minimum of two days of
strength training exercises (lifting weights or doing bodyweight exercises).
•4. Practice Mindfulness
•Mindfulness entails completely immersing your mind in the present
moment, without ruminating over the past or contemplating the future.
Awareness of the sights, sounds, and sensations around you is key. Many
studies have shown that cultivating and practicing mindfulness can foster
the brain's neuroplasticity.
•5. Play
•Games aren't just for kids: Studies show that playing board, card, video,
and other games can improve your brain's neuroplasticity.
Problems With Brain Plasticity
•Brain changes are often seen as improvements, but this is not always
the case. In some instances, the brain's structure and function can be
negatively influenced or changed.
•For example, brain plasticity can be problematic when it allows
detrimental changes caused by substance use, disease, or trauma
(including brain injury or traumatic experiences that result in
post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD). Even lead poisoning can
negatively impact brain plasticity.
•There are also some medical conditions that can limit or hinder brain
plasticity. Among them are a variety of pediatric neurological disorders
such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, tuberous sclerosis, and Fragile
X syndrome.
 What is Epilepsy
• Epilepsy, which is sometimes
called a seizure disorder, is a
disorder of the brain. A person is
diagnosed with epilepsy when
they have had two or more
seizures. A seizure is a short
change in normal brain activity.
Seizures are the main sign of
epilepsy.
Causes of epilepsy?
• There are many possible causes
of epilepsy, including an
imbalance of nerve-signaling
chemicals called
neurotransmitters, tumors,
strokes, and brain damage
from illness or injury, or some
combination of these

• Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group
of disorders that affect a person's
ability to move and maintain
balance and posture. CP is the
most common motor disability in
childhood. Cerebral means
having to do with the brain.
Palsy means weakness or
problems with using the
muscles.
Can a child recover from cerebral
palsy?
• Cerebral palsy can't be cured,
but treatment will often improve
a child's capabilities. Many
children are able to manage their
disabilities; the earlier treatment
begins, the better chance children
have of overcoming
developmental disabilities.
• Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), • Most people with TSC
also known as tuberous sclerosis, will live a normal life
is a rare genetic disease that causes
non-cancerous (benign) tumors to span. There can be
grow in the brain and several areas of complications in some
the body, including the spinal cord, organs such as the
nerves, eyes, lung, heart, kidneys, kidneys, lungs, and brain
and skin. that can lead to severe
• Benign - refers to a condition, tumor, or
growth that is not cancerous. This means that
difficulties and even
it does not spread to other parts of the body. It death if left untreated.
does not invade nearby tissue. Sometimes, a
condition is called benign to suggest it is not
dangerous or serious. In general, a benign
tumor grows slowly and is not harmful.
• Fragile X syndrome (FXS)
is a genetic disorder. FXS
is caused by changes in a gene
called Fragile X Messenger
Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1).
FMR1 usually makes a protein
called FMRP that is needed for
brain development. People who
have FXS do not make this
protein.
Main cause of Fragile X syndrome
• Fragile X syndrome is caused by
a change to a gene on the X-
chromosome called the FMR1
gene. This gene produces a
protein that helps the brain to
function normally. If this gene is
changed or altered in any way, it
cannot produce its normal
protein, which can result in
Fragile X syndrome.
 Function of the synapse
•Synapses - connect neurons and help transmit information from one neuron to the next. When a nerve signal
reaches the end of the neuron, it cannot simply continue to the next cell. Instead, it must trigger the release of
neurotransmitters which can then carry the impulse across the synapse to the next neuron.
•General purpose of synapses - A synapse is a small gap at the end of a neuron that allows a signal to pass
from one neuron to the next. Neurons - are cells that transmit information between your brain and other parts
of the central nervous system. Synapses are found where neurons connect with other neurons.
•Chemical synapse - allows unidirectional transmission by using chemicals called neurotransmitters to send
signals along the neurons. Chemical synapses are specialized sites of cell–cell contact that serve to transmit
signals between presynaptic neurons and their respective postsynaptic targets.

•Electrical synapse - transmits signals along the neurons via an ionic current and allows for transmission in
both directions. Purpose of electrical synapses is to synchronize electrical activity among populations of
neurons. For example, certain hormone-secreting neurons within the mammalian hypothalamus are connected
by electrical synapses.
•The hypothalamus is an important regulator of energy homeostasis to control hunger and food intake. In
particular, the arcuate nucleus, the paraventricular nucleus as well as the ventromedial, and the lateral
hypothalamus are key centers in feeding regulation.
 Parts of Neurons:
•1. Cell body's main function is to house the nucleus
and other important organelles which manufacture
proteins, such as neurotransmitters, for the rest of the
neuron. The cell body also processes incoming
information from the dendrites. cell body is responsible
for protein synthesis and provides metabolic support for
the neuron.
•2. The main function of dendrites is to receive
information from other neurons, called pre-synaptic
neurons, or from the environment. The signals from
pre-synaptic neurons come in the form of
neurotransmitters.
•Dendrites - receive the data or signals from another
neuron. Dendrite collects and stores all incoming
information from axon terminals. Dendrites are the
structures of neurons, which conduct electrical impulses
toward the cell body of the nerve cell.
•3. Axons - allow neurons to transmit electrical and
chemical signals to other cells. axon of a neuron and
Function of Axon- Each neuron in your brain has one
long cable that snakes away from the main part of the
cell. This cable, several times thinner than a human hair,
is called an axon, and it is where electrical impulses from
the neuron travel away to be received by other neurons.
•Function of axons - is to carry electrical impulses that
are the means of communication within the brain and
between the brain and the rest of the body.
•4. Terminal bulbs - Terminal buttons are found at the
end of the axon, below the myelin sheath, and are
responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons.
At the end of the terminal button is a gap known as a
synapse. Neurotransmitters carry signals across the
synapse to other neurons. Release neurotransmitter
when stimulated by an electrical signal carried by the
axon.
 Types of Neurons:
•1. Sensory neurons - are the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment
- for example, when you touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the
ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information they have
received. Converting external stimuli from the organism's environment into internal electrical impulses.
•The main function of the sensory nervous system is to inform the central nervous system about
stimuli impinging on us from the outside or within us.
•2. Motor neurons - are cells in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to move, speak, swallow and
breathe by sending commands from the brain to the muscles that carry out these functions. Their
nerve fibers are the longest in the body, a single axon can stretch from the base of the spinal cord all
the way to the toes.
•Motor neurons - These neurons transmit impulses from the spinal cord to skeletal and smooth
muscles (such as those in your stomach), and so directly control all of our muscle movements.
•3. The primary function of interneurons is integration. They carry sensory information and regulate
motor activity. More interneurons are activated when a response to stimuli is required to be complex.
Interneurons are utilized in all higher functions, including learning, memory, cognition, and planning.
 Four Lobes:
•1. Frontal lobe - is the most anterior (front) part of the brain. It
extends from the area behind the forehead back to the precentral
gyrus. As a whole, the frontal lobe is responsible for higher
cognitive functions such as memory, emotions, impulse control,
problem solving, social interaction, and motor function. The frontal
lobes are also involved in working memory as well as the ability to
retrieve and store memories.
•2. The parietal lobe - is vital for sensory perception and
integration, including the management of taste, hearing, sight,
touch, and smell. It is home to the brain's primary sensory area, a
region where the brain interprets input from other areas of the
body. The parietal lobe - is where information such as taste,
temperature and touch are integrated, or processed. Humans
would not be able to feel sensations of touch, if the parietal lobe
was damaged.
•3. The temporal lobe - is a pair of areas on your brain's left and
right sides. These areas, which are inside your skull near your
temples and ears, play a role in managing your emotions,
processing information from your senses, storing and retrieving
memories, and understanding language.
•Primarily involved with auditory perception,
however also plays an important role in memory,
specific perception such as recognition of objects
and people’s faces as well as emotional responses
to sensory information and memories.
•4. The occipital lobes - sit at the back of the
head and are responsible for visual perception,
including color, form and motion. Damage to the
occipital lobe can include: Difficulty with locating
objects in environment. Difficulty with identifying
colors (Color Agnosia).
•The occipital lobe - is found in the back portion
of the brain where it caters to the primary visual
cortex. It is the portion of the human brain that
functions as a visual processing region—
interpreting the information that the eyes
perceived.
Metacognition - On its most basic level, metacognition is thinking about thinking. It is defined as
the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. Metacognitive thinking
strategies allow people to be aware of their own learning and memory and improve them.
Metacognition - is, put simply, thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the
processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance. Metacognition
includes a critical awareness of a) one's thinking and learning and b) oneself as a thinker and
learner.
Metacognition - is a self-monetary process which helps the individual to find out strategies to learn
and memorize. This ability helps the students to gain achievement orientation, either mastery or
performance, which in turn results in academic success.
Metacognition - refers to one's awareness of and ability to regulate one's own thinking (Flavell,
1979). Everyday examples of metacognition: awareness that you have difficulty remembering
people's names in social situations. reminding yourself that you should try to remember the name of
a person you just met.
 Components of Metacognitive:
1. Metacognitive knowledge - refers to what individuals know about themselves as cognitive
processors, about different approaches that can be used for learning and problem solving, and about
the demands of a particular learning task.
 Knowledge about human learning and information processing.
 Knowledge about the learning tasks and hand and its corresponding demands.
 Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their appropriate use.
3 types of Metacognitive knowledge:
 Declarative knowledge - Knowledge about one's self as a learner and what can influence one's
performance.

 Procedural knowledge - Skills, heuristics, and strategies. Knowledge about how to do things.

 Conditional knowledge - Knowledge about when and in what conditions certain knowledge is
useful.
Four levels of Metacognitive learner:
1. Tacit learner - Tacit' learners are unaware of their metacognitive knowledge. They do
not think about any particular strategies for learning and merely accept if they know
something or not. Ah, I'm not very good at math’s, so I won't really bother in this
particular class.
2. Aware learners - know about some of the kinds of thinking that they do such
as generating ideas, finding evidence etc. However, thinking is not necessarily deliberate or
planned.
3. Strategic learners - organize their thinking by using problem-solving, grouping and
classifying, evidence-seeking and decision-making etc.
Strategic learning - is defined as “using evaluation to help organizations or groups learn
quickly from their work so they can learn from and adapt their strategies.
4. example of reflective learning - is that of an athlete learning a set of skills to succeed
in their sport. As part of reflective learning practice, the athlete can take time to analyze
what their strengths and weakness are, and how they can use that knowledge to perform
at a higher level.
 Self-regulation - is the ability to understand and manage your
behavior and your reactions to feelings and things happening
around you. It includes being able to: regulate reactions to strong
emotions like frustration, excitement, anger and embarrassment.
More specifically, emotional self-regulation refers to the ability to
manage disruptive emotions and impulses—in other words, to think
before acting.
 Self-regulated learning - refers to one's ability to under- stand
and control one's learning environment. Self- regulation abilities
include goal setting, self- monitoring, self-instruction, and self-
reinforcement (Harris & Graham, 1999; Schraw, Crippen, & Hartley,
2006; Shunk, 1996).