Biology 21

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CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS,
NINTH EDITION, GLOBAL EDITION
PowerPoint Lectures
Chapter 21
Nutrition and Digestion
TAYLOR
SIMON
DICKEY
HOGAN
REECE
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
Introduction
• More than a third of American adults are obese.
• The obesity epidemic, combined with
increasingly sedentary jobs and inactive
lifestyles, has contributed to higher incidences of
• heart disease,
• diabetes,
• cancer, and
• other weight-related health problems.
• More than 300,000 deaths per year in the United
States are attributed to weight-related issues.

Introduction
• Despite the need for reliable methods to

shed pounds, only about 5% of dieters are
able to
• reach their goal weight and
• maintain it for the long term.
• With a wealth of fad diets, it can be difficult to
evaluate their soundness.
• As you think about your own diet, you should
begin with a clear understanding of the
structure and function of your digestive
system.
Figure 21.0_1

Figure 21.0_2
Chapter 21: Big Ideas
Obtaining and Processing The Human Digestive

Food System
Nutrition
OBTAINING AND PROCESSING FOOD

21.1 Animals obtain and ingest their food in a
variety of ways
• Most animals have one of three kinds of

diets.
1. Herbivores eat plants and include cattle,
gorillas,
sea urchins, and snails.
2. Carnivores eat meat and include lions, owls,
whales, and spiders.
3. Omnivores eat plants and other animals and
include humans, roaches, raccoons, and
crows.
variety of ways
• Animals obtain and ingest their food in

different ways.
• Suspension feeders capture food particles
from the surrounding medium.
• Substrate feeders live in or on their food
source and eat their way through it.
• Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluids from a
living host.
• Bulk feeders ingest large pieces of food.

variety of ways
Checkpoint question Bedbugs pierce mammalian
skin and suck blood for nutrition. Name their diet
category and type of feeding mechanism.

Figure 21.1a

Figure 21.1b
Caterpillar
Feces

Figure 21.1c

Figure 21.1d

21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in
four stages
• Food is processed in four stages:

1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Elimination
• Chemical digestion is necessary because animals
cannot directly use the proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, and nucleic acids in food.
Checkpoint question What are the two types of
components formed after the digestion of fats?
Figure 21.2a
Small
Pieces molecules
of food
Mechanical Chemical
digestion digestion
(hydrolysis) Nutrient
molecules
enter body
cells
Undigested
material
1 Ingestion 2 Digestion 3 Absorption 4 Elimination

Figure 21.2b
Food Molecules Components
Protein-
digesting
enzymes
Protein Amino acids
Carbohydrate-
Polysaccharide digesting
enzymes
Disaccharide Monosaccharides
Nucleic-acid-
digesting
enzymes
Nucleic acid Nucleotides
Fat-digesting
enzymes
Fat Glycerol Fatty acids

21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized
compartments
• Sponges and protists digest food in

vacuoles.
• Most animals digest food in compartments.
• Cnidarians and flatworms have a gastrovascular
cavity with a single opening, the mouth.
• Most animals have an alimentary canal that runs
from mouth to anus with specialized regions along
the way.
Checkpoint question What is an advantage of an
alimentary canal compared to a gastrovascular
cavity?
Figure 21.3a
1 Enzymes released
Tentacles
Mouth
2 Food broken
Food down
Gastrovascular
cavity 3 Food particle
engulfed
4 Particle digested
in vacuole

Figure 21.3b
Earthworm
Mouth Anus
Pharynx
Esophagus
Crop Intestine
Gizzard
Grasshopper
Esophagus
Midgut
Anus
Mouth
Crop
Gastric pouches Hindgut
Bird
Stomach
Mouth
Esophagus Gizzard
Intestine
Crop
Anus

THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

21.4 The human digestive system consists of
an alimentary canal and accessory organs
• In humans, food is
• ingested and chewed in the mouth, or oral cavity,
• pushed by the tongue into the pharynx,
• moved along through the alimentary canal by the
rhythmic muscle contractions of peristalsis, and
• moved into and out of the stomach by
sphincters.
• The final steps of digestion and nutrient absorption in
humans occur in the small intestine.
• Undigested material moves slowly through the large
intestine and is then expelled through the anus.
Figure 21.4
Alimentary canal Accessory organs
Oral cavity
(mouth)
Tongue
Salivary glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Esophagus
Sphincters
Small
intestine
Stomach
Large
intestine
Rectum Small intestine
Anus

21.5 Digestion begins in the oral cavity
• Mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

begin in the mouth.
• Chewing cuts, smashes, and grinds food,
making it easier to swallow.
• The tongue
• tastes the food,
• shapes the food into a ball called a bolus, and
• moves it toward the pharynx.

Figure 21.5
Incisors
Canine
Teeth
Premolars
Molars
“Wisdom”
tooth
Tongue
Opening of
a salivary
gland duct

21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food
through the esophagus to the stomach
• The pharynx, or throat, opens to two

passageways:
1. the esophagus (part of the digestive system)
and
2. the trachea (or windpipe, part of the
respiratory system).
• The swallowing reflex moves food into the
esophagus and keeps it out of the trachea.
Checkpoint question What is happening in the
trachea when food “goes down the wrong pipe”?
Figure 21.6a_3
Bolus of food
Tongue
Pharynx
Epiglottis up Esophageal Epiglottis Epiglottis up

sphincter down
Larynx down Larynx down
Esophagus Larynx up
Trachea (windpipe)
1 Before swallowing 2 Swallowing reflex 3 Swallowing completed

(sphincter contracted) (sphincter relaxed) (sphincter contracted)

Figure 21.6b
Esophageal sphincter
(contracted)
Bolus of
food
Muscles contract,
squeezing the bolus
Bolus of through the esophagus.
food
Muscles relax,
allowing the
passageway
to open.
Stomach

21.7 CONNECTION: The Heimlich maneuver
can save lives
• The Heimlich maneuver

• involves a forceful elevation of the diaphragm,
• pushes air into the trachea, and
• can dislodge food from the pharynx or trachea
during choking.
• Brain damage or death will occur within
minutes if no airway is open.
Checkpoint question During the Heimlich
maneuver, what causes food to dislodge from the
throat?
Figure 21.7

21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it
down with acid and enzymes
• The stomach secretes a digestive fluid

called gastric juice, which is made up of a
protein-digesting enzyme, mucus, and
strong acid.
• Pepsinogen and HCl are secreted in the
stomach.
• HCl converts some pepsinogen to pepsin.
• Pepsin in gastric juice begins to digest protein.

Figure 21.8
Inside of stomach
Esophagus Release of gastric
Pits juice (mucus, HCl, 3
Sphincter and pepsinogen)
Lumen (cavity) Pepsinogen Pepsin
of stomach 2 (active
Stomach Gastrin Epithelium
HCl enzyme)
Sphincter
Mucous 1
cells
Small Gastric
intestine gland
Chief cells
Parietal cells

21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it
down with acid and enzymes
Checkpoint question If you add pepsinogen to a
test tube containing protein dissolved in distilled
water, not much protein will be digested. What
inorganic chemical could you add to the tube to
accelerate protein digestion? What effect will it
have?

21.9 CONNECTION: Digestive ailments
include acid reflux and gastric ulcers
• Acid reflux of chyme from the stomach back

into the esophagus causes the feeling of
heartburn.
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
results from frequent and severe acid reflux that
harms the lining of the esophagus.
• Open sores in the lining of the stomach, called
gastric ulcers, may form.
• Bacterial infections (Helicobacter pylori) in the
stomach and duodenum can produce ulcers.
Figure 21.9
Colorized SEM 21,400×

Percent of sampled stomach bacteria
100
Key
Uninfected
80 people
People with
H. pylori infection
60
40 H. pylori
20
Phylum of stomach bacteria

21.9 CONNECTION: Digestive ailments
include acid reflux and gastric ulcers
Checkpoint question In contrast to most microbes,
the species that causes ulcers thrives in an
environment with a very low _____.

21.10 The small intestine is the major organ
of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
• Enzymes from the pancreas and cells of the

intestinal wall digest food molecules.
• Bile, made in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder, emulsifies fat for attack by
enzymes.
• Folds of the intestinal lining and finger-like
villi (with microscopic microvilli) increase
the area across which absorbed nutrients
move into capillaries and lymph vessels.

Table 21.10

Figure 21.10a
Liver
Bile
Stomach
Bile
Gall-
bladder
Chyme
Intestinal
enzymes
Duodenum of
small intestine Pancreas

Figure 21.10b
Lumen of intestine
Vein carrying Nutrient absorption
blood to the liver
Microvilli
Amino Fatty
Epithelial acids acids
cells and and
Lumen sugars glycerol
Muscle
layers Blood Fats
capillaries
Large
circular folds
Villi Nutrient Lymph Blood
absorption vessel
Lymph
Epithelial cells of
Villi a villus
Intestinal wall

21.10 The small intestine is the major organ
of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
Checkpoint question At what point do food
molecules actually enter the body’s cells?

21.11 The liver processes and detoxifies
blood from the intestines
• Blood from the digestive tract drains into the

hepatic portal vein and then into the liver.
• The liver regulates nutrient levels in the
blood, detoxifies alcohol and drugs, and
synthesizes blood proteins.
Checkpoint question Between which two body
systems does the liver act as a go-between?

Figure 21.11
Heart
Liver
Hepatic
portal
vein
Intestines

21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and
compacts the feces
• The large intestine has a pouch called the

cecum near its junction with the small
intestine, which bears a small, finger-like
extension, the appendix.
• Some bacteria in the colon produce vitamins.
• The large intestine
• absorbs these vitamins and water into the
bloodstream, and
• helps form firm feces, which are stored in the
rectum until elimination.
Figure 21.12
Large
intestine
(colon)
End of
small
intestine
Small
Unabsorbed intestine
food material
Rectum
Appendix
Cecum Anus

21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and
compacts the feces
• Diarrhea occurs when too little water is

reclaimed from the contents of the large
intestine.
• Constipation occurs when too much water is
reclaimed.
Checkpoint question Explain why treatment with
antibiotics for an extended period may cause a
vitamin K deficiency.

21.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION:
Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate
digestive systems relate to diet
• The length of the digestive tract often
correlates with diet.
• Herbivores may have
• longer alimentary canals than carnivores and
• compartments that house cellulose-digesting
microbes.
Checkpoint question Name two advantages of a
long alimentary canal in herbivores.

Figure 21.13
Stomach
Small intestine
Cecum
Colon
(large
intestine)
Carnivore Herbivore
NUTRITION

21.14 An animal’s diet must provide sufficient
energy
• The diet must provide chemical energy

(measured in kilocalories; 1 kcal = 1,000
calories), raw materials for biosynthesis, and
essential nutrients.
• Metabolic rate, the rate of energy
consumption, includes the basal metabolic
rate (BMR) plus the energy used for other
activities.
Checkpoint question What is the difference
between metabolic rate and basal metabolic rate?
Figure 21.14
Calories consumed (per item)
CALORIES
0 100 200 300 400 500
Calories burned (in 30 minutes)

21.15 An animal’s diet must supply essential
nutrients
• Essential nutrients are substances that an

animal requires but cannot assemble from
simple organic molecules.
• Essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are
• used to make phospholipids of cell
membranes and
• found in seeds, grains, and vegetables.
• Essential amino acids are
• used to make proteins and
• found in meats, eggs, milk, and cheese.
Essential amino acids
Methionine
Valine
(Histidine)
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Corn Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Beans
Lysine and other legumes
Checkpoint question Which of the following combinations of

food in the diet provides all essential amino acids: beans and
wheat or rice and wheat?
Figure 21.15b

21.16 A proper human diet must include
sufficient vitamins and minerals
• A vitamin is an organic molecule required in

very small amounts in your diet. Most
function as coenzymes.
• Minerals are inorganic nutrients, required in
small amounts, that play a variety of roles.
• A varied diet usually meets the
Recommended Dietary Allowances
(RDAs) for these nutrients.

Table 21.16a

Table 21.16b

21.17 CONNECTION: Food labels provide
nutritional information
• Food labels indicate

• serving size,
• calories per serving,
• amounts of selected nutrients per serving
and as a percentage of daily value, and
• recommendations for daily limits of
selected nutrients.

Figure 21.17

21.18 CONNECTION: Dietary deficiencies can
have a number of causes
• Malnutrition, a diet insufficient in nutrients

or calories, can cause significant health
problems.
• Protein deficiency is the most common
cause of malnutrition worldwide.
Checkpoint question Does malnutrition always
result from lack of access to food?

Figure 21.18

Kwashiorkor
21.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The human
health problem of obesity may reflect our
evolutionary past
• Obesity is defined as a too-high body mass
index (BMI), a ratio of weight to height.
• Obesity is linked to a lack of exercise and an
abundance of fattening foods and may partly
stem from an evolutionary advantage of fat
hoarding.

Figure 21.19a
6′4′′
6′3′′
6′2′′
6′1′′
6′0′′
5′11′′
5′10′′
5′9′′
Height
5′8′′
5′7′′
5′6′′
5′5′′
5′4′′
5′3′′
5′2′′
5′1′′
5′0′′
4′11′′
4′10′′
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
Weight (pounds)
21.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The human
health problem of obesity may reflect our
evolutionary past
• The hormone leptin is produced by adipose
(fat) cells and suppresses appetite.
• Researchers discovered that mice who
inherit a defect in the gene for leptin become
very obese.
• Obese children who have inherited a mutant
form of the leptin gene lose weight after
leptin treatments. But relatively few obese
people have such deficiencies.
Checkpoint question In what two ways does the
hormone leptin regulate appetite? In which of
these ways does leptin apparently not function in
obese humans?
21.20 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Scientists use a
variety of methods to test weight loss claims
• Epidemiology relates diets to health

characteristics in populations.
• Controlled experiments can be used to
identify effects of specific diet plans.

• A study published in 2011
• measured the body mass index of 4,451 healthy
Canadian adults and
• tracked their diet through daily self-reporting.
• The results indicated that the more carbohydrates
consumed, the lower the risk of obesity.
• One important fact about epidemiological studies is
that scientists must differentiate correlation from
causation.

Table 21.20

• A 2009 study by researchers at the Harvard School
of Public Health assigned 811 overweight adults to
one of four diets.
• After two years, the total weight lost was recorded
and comparisons between the diets were made.

Figure 21.20
4.5
Weight lost after 2 years (lb)
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
High Low High fat Low fat High Low
protein protein carb carb
Dietary component
• The data table reveals two interesting facts.
• First, members of every group lost a moderate
amount of weight over the two-year trial.
• Second, every group lost a similar amount of
weight.
• These data suggest that cutting calories is what
results in weight loss, not cutting carbs (or fats or
protein) or eating a lot of one kind of food.

21.21 CONNECTION: Diet can influence risk
of cardiovascular disease and cancer
• Two main types of cholesterol occur in the

blood.
1. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) correlate
with a tendency to develop blocked blood
vessels, high blood pressure, and heart attacks.
2. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) may
decrease the risk of vessel blockage, perhaps
because HDLs convey excess cholesterol to the
liver, where it is broken down.
• The ratio of HDLs to LDLs is influenced by
diet.
21.21 CONNECTION: Diet can influence risk
of cardiovascular disease and cancer
• The relationship between food and health is

complex.
• The American Cancer Society (ACS)
suggests that following the dietary guidelines
in Table 21.21, in combination with physical
activity, can help lower cancer risk.

Table 21.21

Figure 21.21

You should now be able to
1. Define and distinguish between herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores, suspension feeders,
substrate feeders, fluid feeders, and bulk
feeders.
2. Describe the four stages of food processing.
3. Compare the structures and functions of a
gastrovascular cavity and an alimentary canal.
4. Describe the specialized digestive systems of an
earthworm, a grasshopper, and a bird.

5. Describe the main components of the human
alimentary canal and the associated digestive
glands.
6. Describe the functional components of saliva
and the types and functions of the teeth in
humans.
7. Explain how swallowing occurs and how food is
directed away from the trachea.
8. Explain how the Heimlich maneuver is
performed.

9. Relate the structure of the stomach to its
functions.
10. Describe the causes and treatments of
heartburn, GERD, and gastric ulcers.
11. Describe the different types of chemical
digestion that occur in the small intestine.
12. Explain how the liver helps to regulate the
chemical composition of blood.

13.Describe the structures and functions of the
colon and rectum.
14.Compare the digestive tracts of carnivores and
herbivores.
15.List the three nutritional needs common to all
animals.
16.Define the basal metabolic rate and explain how
energy is obtained and stored in the body.

17.Describe the four classes of essential nutrients.
18.Describe the types of information found on food
labels.
19.Describe the causes of dietary deficiencies and
obesity.
20.Describe the best approach to weight control.
21.Explain how diet can influence the risks of
cardiovascular disease and cancer.

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本教學投影片係屬教科書著作之延伸，亦受著作權法

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Despite the need for reliable methods to

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Obtaining and Processing The Human Digestive

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Most animals have one of three kinds of

• Animals obtain and ingest their food in

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Food is processed in four stages:

1 Ingestion 2 Digestion 3 Absorption 4 Elimination

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Protein Amino acids

Nucleic acid Nucleotides

Fat Glycerol Fatty acids

• Sponges and protists digest food in

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• The pharynx, or throat, opens to two

Epiglottis up Esophageal Epiglottis Epiglottis up

1 Before swallowing 2 Swallowing reflex 3 Swallowing completed

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• The Heimlich maneuver

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• The stomach secretes a digestive fluid

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Acid reflux of chyme from the stomach back

Colorized SEM 21,400×

Phylum of stomach bacteria

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Enzymes from the pancreas and cells of the

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Blood from the digestive tract drains into the

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• The large intestine has a pouch called the

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Diarrhea occurs when too little water is

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• The diet must provide chemical energy

Calories consumed (per item)

Calories burned (in 30 minutes)

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

• Essential nutrients are substances that an