AVS 1201 Summer 2022 Panama Exam 2 Study Guide

1) Precipitation
a. Know the following FAA terminology, know the sizes!
i. Icing in Precipitation
1. Icing occurring from an encounter with freezing precipitation, that is,
supercooled drops with diameters exceeding 0.05 mm or 50 µm,
within or outside of visible cloud.
ii. Icing in Cloud
1. Icing occurring within visible cloud. Cloud droplets (diameter < 0.05
mm or 50 µm) will be present; freezing drizzle and/or freezing rain
may or may not be present.
iii. Supercooled Drops or /Droplets
1. Water drops/droplets which remain unfrozen at temperatures below
0 °C. Supercooled drops are found in clouds, freezing drizzle, and
freezing rain in the atmosphere. These drops may impinge and freeze
after contact on aircraft surfaces.
iv. Supercooled Large Drops (SLD)
1. Liquid droplets with diameters greater than 0.05 mm (50 µm) at
temperatures less than 0 °C, i.e., freezing rain or freezing drizzle.
v. Freezing Precipitation
1. Freezing precipitation is freezing rain or freezing drizzle falling
through or outside of visible cloud.
vi. Freezing Drizzle (FZDZ)
1. Drizzle is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid
water drops which have diameters less than 0.5 mm (500 µm) and
greater than 0.05 mm (50 µm). Freezing drizzle is drizzle that exists
at air temperatures less than 0 °C (supercooled), remains in liquid
form, and freezes upon contact with objects on the surface or
airborne.
vii. Freezing Rain (FZRA)
1. Rain is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid
water drops which have diameters greater than 0.5 mm (500 µm).
Freezing rain is rain that exists at air temperatures less than 0 °C
(supercooled), remains in liquid form, and freezes upon contact with
objects on the ground or in the air.

b. Understand collision and coalescence

i. Read: https://www.ifr-magazine.com/weather/icing-revealed/
c. Understand the following terms:
i. The freezing level (also known as the melting level)
1. Be able to identify on a Skew-T chart
ii. Supercooled water
1. What temperature range can you expect supercooled water? (0 C to
-40 C).
iii. Diffusional growth
1. Deposition
2. Condensation
iv. Accretion
1. Riming
v. Aggregation
d. Terminal velocity and drop size
i. Stratus vs. Cumulus (which would you expect larger particles)
1. Stratus has weaker updrafts that support smaller drop sizes
2. Cumulus has larger updrafts that support bigger drop sizes

e. Precipitation Types (know their definitions)

i. Rain
ii. Freezing Rain
iii. Sleet
iv. Graupel
v. Hail
vi. Snow
vii. Vertical temperature profiles associated with different forms of
precipitation
1. Know the following figure very well!
2) Aviation Icing Topics
i. Idealized cloud phase and
potential icing threat
1. Know the 0C/-15C/-40C
thresholds and what is
important in these
layers as in the figure to
the right.
ii. Know Aviation Icing Types and
Intensities
1. Types and how/why
they differ.
a. Rime
b. Clear
c. Mixed
2. Intensities (Pilot Definitions)
a. Trace
b. Light
c. Moderate
d. Severe
iii. Icing and Fronts
1. Icing location with respect to fronts on a chart/map (see the following
figures):
 iv. Icing and Mountains
1. Figure from Lecture (that came from AC No: 00-6B)

3) Meteorological Wind – it is still important that you still know how to decode the
meteorological wind and properly infer what direction it is coming from.
a. Be able to decode the meteorological wind speed, direction and gust from a
METAR report.
b. Be able to plot the meteorological wind speed, and direction in a wind barb
format.
c. Be able to describe which way the wind is coming from after decoding a METAR
report. (e.g. 090 is a wind from the east).
4) Pressure and Winds AC 00-6B Chapters 5 and 7 and Lectures. See lectures:
AVS1201_Pressure_Altimetery_JUN2020_PA &
AVS1201_PressureAndWinds_June2020_PA
a. Understand that the atmospheric pressure at any point in
the atmosphere is the weight of the atmosphere above that Note that the
point. Study the following figure so you understand what highest sea level
would be a very high sea level pressure reading and a very pressure ever
low sea level pressure reading: recorded is 1092
mb and the
lowest is 870 mb.

Know the
pressure values
of the following:

• Strong high
pressure
• Standard
sea level
pressure
• Deep low
pressure
systems

Know that the

lowest sea level
b. Understand that the vertical distance between pressure levels pressure
is proportional to
the temperature (inversely proportional to density).
readings occur
with tropical
cyclones

DZ
larger DZ
smaller
 i. This is similar to the following figure in Meteorology Today regarding the
height of pressure surfaces:

The area shaded gray in the above diagram represents a surface of constant pressure, or
isobaric surface. Because of the changes in air density, the isobaric surface rises in warm, less-
dense air and lowers in cold, more-dense air. Where the horizontal temperature changes most
quickly, the isobaric surface changes elevation most rapidly.

c. Understand the difference in the assumed temperature used to calculate the

altimeter setting and sea-level pressure.
i. Altimeter setting uses standard atmosphere temperatures!
ii. Sea Level Pressure uses current temperature data.

d. Know the following for the standard atmosphere at Sea level:

i. Temperature (15 degrees C)
ii. Pressure 29.92 inches Hg or 1013.2 mb
iii. Know the standard atmosphere temperature lapse rate for the surface to
36,000 feet (approximate level of the tropopause):
1. -6.5 °C per kilometer
e. Know the (approximate) height in meters and typical flight levels (feet) for the
following pressure levels:

Pressure (hPa, meters Typical

mb) Flight Level
850 1457 FL050
500 5574 FL180
300 9164 FL300

f. Know the definition of the altimeter setting: “The altimeter setting is the value to
which the scale of the pressure altimeter is set so the altimeter indicates true
altitude at field elevation.”
g. Understand the issues with non-standard temperature (colder than or warmer
than) on the difference between the pressure altitude vs. true altitude and flying
from High Pressure toward Low Pressure. Understand figure 5-15 and figure 5-16
that follow from AC 00-6B:

h. Understand the pressure gradient force (PGF). Be able to properly draw the
pressure gradient force vector (red vector below). Note that the PGF is directed
from high to low pressure, it is perpendicular to the isobars, and is stronger the
closer the isobars are together.
i. Understand the Coriolis force.
i. It deflects horizontally moving objects to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere as in this figure from Meteorology Today:

ii. Know the following facts about the Coriolis Force (CF):
1. The Coriolis Force deflects horizontally moving objects to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere
2. The Coriolis Force is greater the faster an object is moving.
3. The Coriolis Force is a maximum at the poles and is zero at the
Equator.
j. Understand the geostrophic wind (including the geostrophic wind with friction).
i. The geostrophic wind is a balance between the pressure gradient force and
the Coriolis force.
ii. The geostrophic winds blows clockwise around highs (Northern
Hemisphere) and counter-clockwise around lows (Northern Hemisphere)
iii. Understand the following figure (8.24 in the text) which shows the
development of the geostrophic wind:
 1. The circled location above is the wind in Geostrophic Balance.
2. Given a pressure pattern (in the Northern Hemisphere) be able to
draw the following vectors at a location for the Geostrophic Wind.
Note that the PGF and CF are 180 degrees apart and that the
Geostrophic Wind is 90 degrees from both the PGF and CF.
a. The PGF (in red above)
b. The CF (in blue above)
c. The Geostrophic Wind (in purple).

iv. The geostrophic winds blow parallel to pressure (or height) contours. You
should be able to understand the following figure which shows geostrophic
wind at sea level, the contours are sea level pressure in millibars.
k.

i. Be able to determine which vector is the pressure gradient force, the

Coriolis force, the frictional force, and the geostrophic wind on a plot such
as the following plot
1. The pressure gradient force is directed from high pressure to low
pressure.
2. The Coriolis force is directed to the right of the motion.
3. The frictional force slows the wind and deflects it toward lower
pressure. (remember that the frictional force is more important near
the surface).
a. Note that the frictional force slows down the motion of the
wind, especially at low altitudes.
l. Understand that constant pressure charts use height contours instead of
pressure contours to evaluate wind flow (such as the geostrophic wind). Here is
an example of geostrophic flow at 500 mb (flow is parallel to height contours
instead of pressure contours):

i.
5) Understand the Jet Stream. Meteorology Today Chapter 10 and AC 00-6B Chapter 8.
Note the lecture: AVS1201_JETSTREAM_PA_JUNE2020.
a. Understand how temperature gradients tilt pressure surfaces and increase (or
decrease) the wind with height – reread lecture notes!
i. Understand a figure like the following (vertical cross section that runs
north/south).
ii. This figure is the “opposite” situation from our lecture notes (high pressure
to north) with winds blowing from the east and the east winds increasing
with height.

1.
iii. Be able to identify the jet stream using isotachs as in this figure and see
Figure 10.10 in the text (also shown).
b. Understand that polar jet stream is associated with the polar front and
tropopause . Be able to identify the Jet Core by using the isotachs.

c. Know this plot well! Know the three cells (Polar, Ferrel and Hadley) as well as the
location of the Polar Jet and the Subtropical Jet! Think about where Panama is on
this plot (Panama is at about 8.5° N).!

d. The following is a version of the same figure from Meteorology Today. Know that
the subtropical jet tends to be situated over the subtropical high at the surface.
Know that the polar jet is over the polar front.
6) Wind Shear and Turbulence
a. Know the definitions of:
i. Vertical wind shear
ii. Horizontal wind shear
iii. Tailwind
iv. Headwind
v. Crosswind
b. Know the potential impacts of winds shear on takeoff and landing
c. Understand the three categories of turbulence (AC 00 6B Chapter 17). Know their
definitions.
i. Convective (17.2.1)
ii. Mechanical (17.2.2)
iii. Wind Shear Induced (17.2.3)
d. Know the weather phenomena typically associated with wind shear:
i. Frontal surfaces (zones)
ii. Jet streams
iii. Thunderstorms or convective clouds especially cumulonimbus or towering cumulus
iv. Mountain Waves
v. Microbursts
e. Know how to determine the location of the jet stream on the following chart as
well as locations of turbulence (including vertical levels): (see AC 00-45H Section
5.17.2 Mid-Level Significant Weather (SIGWX) Chart - be able to decode the
items circled below!)
 f. Know where to expect clear air turbulence (blue shaded area below) near the jet
stream in this vertical cross section. The jet core is highlighted (red J).

1.
7) Global Winds and Local Winds. See lecture
AVS1201_WINDS_JET_GLOBAL_LOCAL_PA_JUNE2020
a. Understand the large-scale atmospheric circulation pattern (Figure 10.2 similar to
the figure below in the more recent edition of Meteorology Today)
i. The 3 cells (Hadley, Ferrel, Polar Cells) see figure from earlier!
ii. Understand the location of the Subtropical and Polar High
iii. Understand the location of westerlies and Trade winds (and which way
these winds blow!)
iv. Understand the location of the ITCZ (or Doldrums or Monsoon Trough)

8)
a. Understand the impact of friction and stability on near surface winds. (less
friction will give a faster wind) as in figure 9.4 in the text.
i. Which is stable and smooth and which is unstable and rough? (a or b in the
figure below)?
b. Understand how winds change going over a lake
i. Identify where the winds will be divergent or convergent with respect to
the lake (due to speed divergence and speed convergence)

c. Understand thermally induced circulations

i. Know the sea-breeze/land-breeze
 ii. Mountain and Valley breezes are another good example of thermal
circulations.

d. Understand the following wind patterns

i. Rotation (vorticity)
1. Cyclonic (curvature)
2. Anticyclonic (curvature)
3. Cyclonic (shear)
4. Anticyclonic (shear)
ii. Divergence/Convergence
1. Diffluence/Confluence
2. Speed Divergence/Speed Convergence
iii. Deformation

9) Air Masses and Fronts and Mid Latitude Cyclones This will include most sections of the
Lectures: AVS1201_AIRMASSES_FRONTS_PA_JUNE2020 and
AVS1201_EXTRATROPICAL_CYCLONES_PA
a. Understand the different air-masses in the Northern Hemisphere and where they
are typically located (cA,cP, cT, mP, mT). Be able to determine which air mass a
sounding represents.
b. Understand Fronts
i. Know the following criteria to identify a front on a surface weather chart:

1. Sharp temperature changes over a short distance

2. Changes in the air’s moisture content (typically using the dew point)
3. Shift in wind direction
4. Pressure and pressure changes
a. The front is typically at the pressure trough
ii. Understand the following figure about Cold fronts (cold air advancing into
warm air)
iii. Understand the following figures about warm Fronts (warm air advancing
into cold air) Note the wind shifts!
iv. Understand the following figure for occluded fronts:

v. Know the front symbols!

 vi. Understand how winds change with a frontal passage
1. How does the wind change as a warm front passes or a cold front
passes? See the figures in the lecture.

vii. Understand the typical configuration of fronts with low pressure systems
such as in the following figure:

viii. Understand the different stages of a low pressure system (extra-tropical

low pressure systems “a” through “f” in the following figure) from
beginning of the low pressure system through its decaying phase and the
typical areas of precipitation.
1. Know the progression from stationary front, to frontal wave, to open
wave, to mature (initial occlusion), to advanced occlusion, to cut-off
cyclone.
c. Here is a northern hemisphere view: Know these stages!
d. Understand the vertical motion associated with cyclones and upper level trough
as in the following figure
i. The surface low pressure is ahead of the upper trough in a region of upper
level divergence. Be able to identify upper level convergent/divergent
zones, sinking and rising air. The location of the surface low and high.

e. Understand the low-level jet (this is in the lecture notes – read them) This feature
is important in terms of low-level wind shear.
i. Vertical wind shear associated with this jet
ii. Where this jet typically occurs relatively to a low pressure system
1. Especially for the southerly low-level jet
iii. Typical altitude and speed of the LLJ as in this figure:
1. About 5000 feet in altitude
2. 40 to 60 knots.
 f. Note that there is a Caribbean Low-Level Jet as that can influence the weather
near Panama.

10) Radar, Thunderstorms and Convective Systems. See the lectures:

AVS1201_RADAR_INTRO_PA_JULY2020 &
AVS1201_Thunderstorms_ConvectiveSystems_PA_JULY2020

a. Introduction to Weather Radar (from lecture AVS1201_RADAR_INTRO_PA_JULY2020 & AC 00-

6B).
i. Wavelength of radiation used for precipitation radar
1. about 10 cm! (microwave radiation)
ii. Doppler Radar basics
1. Radar reflectivity. Know the following.
a. Relation to hydrometeor size (D6)
b. Units (dBZ)
i. Know that this is a logarithmic scale!
c. Qualitative Precipitation Intensity (know this table):
 2. Radar (know the following terms and their importance)
a. Cone of Silence
b. Radar Beam
i. Beam Blocking
ii. Ground Clutter
iii. Beam ducting
1. Inversions
2. Anomalous propagation
c. Base reflectivity
d. Composite reflectivity
e. Importance of understanding time delay issues in radar data delivery

b. Know the following thunderstorm hazards:

i. Lightning
ii. Adverse Wind
iii. Downburst/Microburst
iv. Turbulence
v. Icing
vi. Hail
vii. Rapid Altimeter Changes
viii. Static Electricity
ix. Tornado
c. Know the 3 ingredients for thunderstorms and severe thunderstorms and be able
to use weather maps to assess that these conditions are present (as in your group
discussion)
i. Moisture
ii. Instability
iii. Lift
iv. Vertical wind shear (severe thunderstorms only)
d. Know the typical location of thunderstorms in relation to low pressure systems
and fronts/dryline
e. Know the three stages of the thunderstorm life cycle as in this figure:

f. Microbursts
i. Understand what atmospheric conditions (Skew-T) help produce the classic
Dry Microburst.
1. What important process helps create the negative buoyancy that
drives the microburst downwards?!Q
ii. Understand the impacts of flying through a Microburst as in the following
figures:
 g. Be able to identify a thunderstorm outflow boundary as in the following figure:

11) Tropical Weather and Tropical Cyclones. See the lecture:

AVS1201_TROPICAL_WEATHER_AND_CYCLONES
a. Be able to identify tropical waves, tropical cyclone, the monsoon trough, the ITCZ
and subtropical highs on surface weather charts.
b. Understand easterly waves (or African easterly waves).
i. Where they originate
ii. What direction they move
iii. What portion of the wave is typically drive and which portion is typically
rainy?
c. Know the dates for the official hurricane season in the north Pacific and north
Atlantic.
d. Know the following criteria for defining tropical cyclones:
i. Tropical disturbance: a mass of thunderstorms with slight wind circulation
ii. Tropical depression: winds 20 to 34 knots and closed isobars about its
center on a surface weather map
iii. Tropical storm: winds 35 to 63 knots
1. Becomes a named storm
iv. Hurricane: winds over 64 knots (74 mi/hr)

e. Know the 4 conditions needed for tropical cyclone formation

i. Light winds (low wind shear)
ii. High humidity through the troposphere
iii. Surface sea temperatures (SST) of > 80 F over a large area
iv. Low level wind convergence
f. Know what conditions hinder tropical cyclones
i. Surface friction over land
ii. Cold water temperatures
g. Hurricane anatomy. Understand the following 3 figures: