ROCK AND MINERALS
Earth’s materials include rocks and minerals. They exhibit characteristics features and have an economic value.
Earth’s rocks undergo transformation.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks got their name from Latin ignis, meaning “fire”. These makes sense because these rocks
are formed by volcanic activity.
It’s called igneous rocks because the rocks came from the magma of volcano
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
1. When a molten rock solidifies at the surface (lava), it is called extrusive igneous rock or volcanic rock.
magma solidifies inside the volcano
2. Most magma lava loses its mobility before reaching the surface and crystallizes at depth. Igneous rocks formed
at depth are referred to as intrusive igneous rock or plutonic rock.
magma that solidifies and cool down outside the volcano
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The process by which the sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rock is called lithification.
One of the most common processes in the rock cycle is compaction as piles of sediments accumulate; the underlying
materials are compacted by the weight of the overlying layers.
Complex of sand, soil, gravel (ex. Coal, limestone, deep ocean)
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. DETRIMENTAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – these rocks come from weathered rocks such as igneous rocks.
formed when igneous rock change because of temperature and weather
2. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – these rocks come from soluble materials produced largely by chemical
weathering. The basis for grouping is their chemical composition.
rocks are formed of chemical composition
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks came from pre-existing rock of igneous and sedimentary. The pre-existing rocks
may undergo changes in the mineralogy, texture (like grain size), and chemical composition by the action of heat,
pressure (stress), and chemical agents the transformation of parents rocks is called metamorphism.
Igneous and Sedimentary rock changes because of temperature/heat that formed
metamorphic rock transformation of rock to parent rocks is called metamorphism
changes of minerals to rocks (metamorphism)
MINERALS
Is the mineral the same as rock? Mineral is different from a rock. A mineral is a solid inorganic
compound, represented by a chemical formula. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. For example, coal is a
sedimentary rock composed of carbon.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES IF MINERALS
LUSTER – the appearance of light reflected from the surface of a mineral is known as luster. Minerals that have
the appearance of metals, regardless of color, are said to have a metallic luster.
appearance of metals
reflection of light
STREAK – a mineral’s streak is obtained by rubbing it across a streak plate (a piece of unglazed porcelain) and
observing the color of mark it leaves. Although the color of a particular mineral may vary from sample to
sample, its streak is usually consistent in color.
CRYSTAL SHAPES & HABIT – when they form in unrestricted environments, they develop crystals that exhibit
geometric shapes. For example, well-developed quartz crystals are hexagonal with pyramid-shaped ends, and
garnet crystals are 12-sided. (ex. quartz crystal are hexagonal with pyramid shaped ends)
COLOR – diagnostic property
least use of knowing physical properties of mineral
CLEAVAGE/FRACTURE – refers to the mineral’s resistance to being broken. It describes how a mineral breaks
along weakness plain. When broken, minerals that exhibit cleavage produce smooth, flat surfaces, called
cleavage planes, or cleavage surfaces.
DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY – density is defined as mass per unit volume and is expressed in grams per cubic
centimetre (g/cm³). Mineralogists also use a related measure called specific gravity to describe the density of
minerals. Specific gravity (SG) is a number representing the ratio of a mineral’s weight to the weight of an equal
volume of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1.
HARDNESS – resistance to scratch scratch test – when you scratch the minerals, there should be no
scratch/unscratched
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
These are external processes that occur at or near the surface of earth.
It is part of the rock cycle. They are responsible for transforming rock into sediment.
This includes degradation processes (weathering, mass wasting, erosion and transportation) and aggradation
processes (deposition).
DEGRADATION PROCESSES
WEATHERING
This is the physical breakdown and/or chemical alteration of rocks at or near Earth’s surface.
It is a degradation process that does not involve movement of materials.
TWO TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. MECHANICAL WEATHERING
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Also called Disintegration
This is the breaking up of large rocks into smaller fragments without changing the rocks mineral composition.
There are physical processes that occur in nature that break rocks into smaller pieces. These includes frost
wedging or frost weathering, insolation weathering or thermal stress weathering, unloading or pressure
release, and biological activity.
FROST WEDGING OR FROST WEATHERING
It occurs in regions where temperature fluctuates above and below freezing point, resulting in a
freeze-thaw cycle.
INSOLATION WEATHERING OR THERMAL STRESS
It results from the expansion and contraction of rocks caused by temperature changes.
UNLOADING OR PRESSURE RELEASE
It occurs when the overlying rock is eroded away, causing the outer rock layer to expand more
than the layers underneath. This expansion may separate the outer rock from the rock body.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
It decomposes rocks through chemical change.
The process involved here includes the following: Oxidation, Hydrolysis, Carbonation and Solution, and
Biological Action.
OXIDATION HYDROLYSIS
Oxygen dissolved in water will oxidize some materials. Water is perhaps the most
important Reddish-brown rust will appear on the surface of iron-rich agent of chemical weathering.
It affects silicate. materials which easily crumbles and weakens the rock.
CARBONATION AND SOLUTION
Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H 2CO3) and reacts with carbonate rocks
(CaCO3) to form a soluble product (calcium bicarbonate).
Example:
CO2(g) + H2O H2CO3(aq) CaCO3 + H2CO3
Ca (HCO3) 2(aq) carbon dioxide water carbon acid calcium carbonate
carbonic acid calcium bicarbonate
BIOLOGICAL ACTION
Some plants and animals may create chemical weathering chelating and, audifying compounds that
react with some minerals in rocks. Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids and, when dissolved in
water, may cause chemical weathering.
MASS WASTING
It is the mass movement of rocks, soil, and regolith.
It is the step that follows weathering and is also a degradation process.
Its driving force is gravity. There are other factors that influence or trigger the down slope movement of
materials with water, such as over steepening of slopes beyond the angle repose, removal of anchoring
vegetation, and ground vibration from earthquakes.
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
There are different types of mass wasting. Each process is defined by the type of materials involved and
the velocity and nature of the movement.
1. ROCK and DEBRIS FALLS
2. LANDSLIDES
3. FLOWS
ROCKS AND DEBRIS FALLS
ROCK FALLS occur when a piece of rock or mass of rocks
become dislodged and makes free-fall along a steep cliff.
DEBRIS FALL is similar to rock fall, except that it involves
a mixture of soil regolith, vegetation, and rocks.
TALUS – the accumulation of fallen materials at the base
of the cliff.
LANDSLIDES
They are sudden fast movement of cohesive mass of soil,
rock or regolith. They occur in two types: translational
and rotational slides.
TRANSLATIONAL SLIDES involve the movement of mass of
materials along a well-defined surface, such as bedding
plane, foliation surface or joint surface.
ROTATIONAL SLIDES or slumps occur when the descending
materials move en masse along a concave, upward curved
surface.
FLOWS
It may be slurry flows of granular flows.
SLURRY FLOWS consist of a mixture of rocks and/or a
regolith with 20% to 40% water. They are considered
as water-saturated flows.
GRANULAR FLOWS contain 0 to 20% water. They are
not saturated with water.
EROSION AND TRANSPORTATION
WEATHERING
The physical breakdown and/or chemical alteration of rocks by several elements in the environment.
EROSION
The process of transporting weathered sediments by agents of erosion to different places.
AGENTS OF EROSION
Weathered materials are removed from the original site and transported away by natural agents. These
agents derive the energy from the sun through the water cycle and differential heating.
WATER – running water is the primary agent of erosion on Earth.
GLACIER – this is a thick large mass of ice formed hundreds or thousands of years mostly in remote areas like in
the poles or in high mountains.
WIND – it is formed by differences in pressure due to differential heating of the atmosphere by the sun. It
carries dust, sand, and volcanic ash from one place to another.
TRANSPORTATION
SOLUTION – materials are dissolved in water and carried along by water.
SUSPENSION – the suspended particles are carried by a medium (air, water, or ice).
TRACTION – particles move by rolling, sliding, and shuffling along eroded surface. These movements occur in all
erosional agents.
SALTATION – particles move from the surface to the medium in quick repeated cycles. The repeated cycle has
enough force to detach new particles.
AGGRADATION PROCESSES
DEPOSITION AND DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
The process of weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are responsible for the continued
reshaping of Earth’s surface.
DEPOSITION
The aggradation or accumulation of weathered sediments to create different landforms.
