CIVIL SOCIETY BRIEF
INDIA
Civil Society Overview
Definitions of Civil Society in India
Civil society in India is often considered synonymous with
the terms “voluntary sector,” “voluntary organizations,”
“nongovernment organizations” (NGOs), and “nonprofit
organizations” (NPOs), even though it encompasses a
larger group. The rise of social movements, NGOs, and
voluntary organizations in the 20th century led to the
conceptualization of the term “civil society.”1 It formally
entered the popular discourse in the 1980s2 and 1990s.
Multiple definitions are associated with civil society in
India given the vast and diverse nature of the bodies that
fall under its ambit.
One earlier definition was from Participatory Research in
Asia (PRIA) in 2000, describing civil society as “the sum
total of all individual and collective initiatives for common
public good.”3 This was an all-encompassing definition,
including formal and informal collectives along with
individual actions, and it provided a narrative boundary to
the term “public good.” Another definition was provided
by the Voluntary Action Network India (VANI), one of
the largest umbrella agencies for voluntary organizations
in the country, describing them as a group of like-minded
people who manage and plan activities for the betterment
Country Context
India is the largest country in South Asia. It shares
borders with Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, the
People’s Republic of China, Myanmar, Nepal, and
Pakistan. It is surrounded by the Arabian Sea in the
west, the Bay of Bengal in the east, and the Indian
Ocean in the south. It has a land area of 3.3 million
square kilometers. The capital is New Delhi.a
India gained independence on 15 August 1947. It is
a federal republic with a parliamentary system of
government that consists of three major branches.
The executive branch constitutes the President of
India as the head of the state and the Prime Minister
as the head of the government. The legislative branch
comprises the Lok Sabha (House of The People) and
Rajya Sabha (Council of States), forming the two houses
of the Parliament. The judicial branch constitutes the
Supreme Court of India as its apex body, followed by the
high courts. The Constitution of India is the main source
of the legal system in the country, which is considered
the largest democracy in the world. India is extremely
diverse and recognizes 22 official languages.b
continued on next page
 box continued

India is also the second-most populous country in

the world, with a 2018 population of 1.3 billion,c
two-thirds of which is in the age group of 15–64 years
and a quarter in the age group of 0–14 years.
The average life expectancy as of 2018 is 69.4 years.
The urban population is nearly 34% of the total. India
holds the status of a lower middle-income country
as of 2019 (footnote a), and the gross domestic
product growth rate was 5% in that year. Poverty
levels declined from 21.6% in 2011 to 13.4% in 2015,
based on the international poverty line (below $1.90
per day at 2011 purchasing power parity). However,
the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has
aggravated the vulnerabilities of the population and
increased the poverty headcount.d
 Workers plucking chilies from the fields in Raichur
The adult literacy rate has improved over the last district, Karnataka. As of 2019, the agriculture sector
decade, standing at 74.4% in 2018 (footnote d). employed 42.6% of the country’s workforce.
India’s latest Human Development Index ranking
(2020) was 131st out of 189 countries.e The country has seen a shift in its workforce: whereas in the early 1990s
the agriculture sector employed nearly 63% of the working population, by 2019 it employed 42.6%. The services
sector as of 2019 employed the second-largest proportion of the workforce at 32.3%, followed by industries at
25.1% (footnote a).

a
World Bank. India Database (accessed 15 July 2021).
b
Government of India. India at a Glance – Profile.
c
Asian Development Bank. Basic Statistics 2019. Manila.
d
World Bank. India - Overview.
e
United Nations Development Programme. 2020. Human Development Report 2020. New York: UNDP.

of the community, which requires a formal set up for
implementing those plans and activities.4
The Government of India’s Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation (MOSPI) uses the term
“nonprofit institutions” (NPIs). It also conducted the
largest and most recent survey available on NPIs, a large
subset of civil society, in India. It draws its definition from
the United Nations Handbook on Non-Profit Institutions
in the System of National Accounts, which refers to
“(a) Organizations that are (b) not for profit and, by law or
custom, do not distribute any surplus they may generate
to those who own or control them, (c) are institutionally
separate from the government, (d) are self-governing, and
(e) non-compulsory.”5
The laws in India define civil society primarily as the
nonprofit sector, based on the category of registration
such as societies, trusts, and not-for-profit companies.
There has yet to be a holistic definition of civil society
organizations (CSOs) in the country. This brief defines
CSOs as all nonprofit organizations independent from the
government and the market that operate around common
interests, purposes, and values. Given the immense
diversity in size, type, focus area, and structure of CSOs,
this definition remains fluid.
Brief History of Civil Society in India
India has had a long tradition of voluntary service, rooted
in the concepts of dharma (duty) and daan (giving).
These were part of the teachings across all religious
sections, encouraging people to help others in need.6
A major section also strongly believed in the concept of
karma (doing good in the present life will carry forward
into the next incarnation, and vice versa), drawing its roots
from the Hindu religion. Therefore, voluntary contribution
in the country took shape through the social and religious
movements of serving others.7 The pre-independence
era witnessed several reformers fighting against systemic
social injustices. This played a significant role in
challenging social norms of the time. It also gave rise to

2 Civil Society Brief: India

many organizations for the service of the disadvantaged,
such as Brahmo Samaj (1828), Theosophical Society
(1879), Ramakrishna Mission (1897), and Seva Samiti
(1914).8 However, voluntary groups in this period
remained largely unorganized and often leaned more
toward relief work. The Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School
of Social Work (now called the Tata Institute of Social
Sciences) played an important role in shaping civil
society in India as it led to the emergence of community
development as a scientific practice. It was the first
university of social work established in India that offered a
structured teaching of the subject. The early 20th century
also saw a considerable change in the momentum
toward voluntary action, driven by Mahatma Gandhi’s
philosophy of social welfare. Gandhi’s role in the country’s
development motivated the masses to assume social
responsibility. Based on the principles of self-reliance and
upliftment of the poorest, numerous organizations were
established during this period, guided by his teachings.9

Post-independence, India saw a continued rise in CSOs,
referred to as voluntary organizations or NGOs at the
time. The focus shifted from a pure welfare approach to
one of development, where organizations started to play
a bigger role in the public service delivery of basic goods.
With greater awareness of inequalities of caste, class, and
gender, many organizations came forward to contribute to
the upliftment of the marginalized. The goals pursued by
civil society witnessed a direction from the initiation of the
government’s 5-year plans.10 The first plan for 1951–1956
emphasized maximum cooperation between the state
and voluntary organizations. Subsequent 5-year plans
also provided CSOs with the information and platforms to
further their engagement. For instance, the Association of
Voluntary Agencies for Rural Development was set up as
a common platform for voluntarism on the issue of rural
development during the Second Five-Year Plan (1958).11
The National Service Scheme was initiated to encourage
voluntary service among students, as part of the Fourth
Five-Year Plan (1969).12 Later, decentralization through
the three-tier system in India provided the space for many
representative groups such as farmers, fisher unions,
and agricultural cooperatives to take shape.13 Thus,
institutionalized mobilization and cooperation became
more common.
Toward the end of the 20th century, India witnessed a
significant contribution of civil society through social
change movements. There was a shift from a pure
reform- and development-based approach to a rights-
and empowerment-based model. Some of the first such
movements were the Chipko Andolan for the protection
and conservation of trees (1973) and the Narmada
Bachao Andolan for the prevention of displacement of
 Students at a school in Guwahati, Assam. The civil
society movement contributed to the Right to Education Act
in 2009, which provides for free and compulsory education to
all children aged six to 14 years in India.
communities due to dam construction (1985). The last
2 decades have seen other major campaigns for the right
to food, work, primary education, health, and information,
all driven by various sections of civil society. In the same
period, CSOs have come to be recognized as important
development partners of the state and as recipients
of international and bilateral assistance.14 This has
increased the visibility of bigger organizations, groups,
and movements, with an often-reduced focus on solely
localized grassroots groups.
Civil Society Today
Today, civil society in India has expanded immensely,
covering a wide range of work. The nature of such work
is very diverse; therefore, this brief captures only larger
trends and statistics.
Types of Civil Society Organizations
Based on its composition, civil society in India can be
broadly categorized as follows:
(i) NGOs. CSOs are mostly synonymous with NGOs,
which are professional organizations that are
privately run, not for profit, self-governing, and
voluntary. They register with the government but
work independently.15 NGOs serve the communities
that they target and operate at different levels,
from local grassroots to national and international.

Civil Society Brief: India 3

 They work across a range of issues such as
sanitation, housing, women’s empowerment, and
mental health, among others.
(ii) Community-based organizations (CBOs). CBOs
are voluntary, bottom-up, grassroots organizations
located in specific communities that cater to
the local needs of the areas that they work in.
Their members are also beneficiaries of the
work. While they are mostly associated with rural
areas (e.g., women’s lending circles), they now
also have a considerable presence in urban areas
through resident welfare associations and other
neighborhood organizations.16 CBOs qualify as a
sub-set of CSOs.
(iii) Religious and faith-based organizations. These
are made up of people who pursue common goals
based on religious practices and teachings. In India,
until the 1970s, this was the most prominent part
of civil society, working in the areas of social welfare
such as education and health care. Examples
include the Ramakrishna Mission and Unani
medicine clinics.17
(iv) Membership associations. These are associations
based on self-selection by individuals, with the
goal of catering to the members’ interests. They
can be further divided into three categories:
(i) representative of different community
groups such as trade workers, peasants, fishers,
farmers (e.g., the Consortium of Indian Farmers
Association); (ii) representative of professionals
including doctors, teachers, and lawyers (e.g., the
Indian Medical Association); and (iii) sociocultural
for sports and recreational purposes such as youth
clubs (e.g., gymkhana clubs).18
(v) Research organizations and think tanks. These
are established with the primary goal of research
on a range of issues including social development,
politics, economics, and foreign security. India
has a long history of research organizations and
think tanks from the pre-independence era, both
born within the country and those that expanded
operations in India. For example, the Observer
Research Foundation was started in India to
undertake research on foreign policy, economy,
and development, among other areas, whereas the
Rockefeller Foundation expanded its base in India
to research on public health.19
(vi) Social movements. These constitute groups
of citizens that raise their voices for common
interests and causes. India has a rich history of
social movements, especially with its journey to
claim independence.20 Before 1947, the country
witnessed nationwide groups of citizens speaking
out for the welfare of the most disadvantaged
4 Civil Society Brief: India
sections of the society. More recent social
movements have addressed anticorruption,
secularism, civic rights, and women’s safety, among
others. Oftentimes, these movements are ignited
through one or a series of significant events in the
country. Several social movements have led to
outcomes such as the enactment of laws, protection
to disadvantaged groups, and other citizen-centric
reforms.
(vii) Youth and student organizations. These are
organizations that promote the welfare of youth
and students, most often also run by them. This
includes the All India Youth Federation, National
Cadets Corps, and several student unions. Many
bigger organizations also have their representative
wings among universities.
Given the variety of CSOs in India, this classification is
not exhaustive and can overlap. The categorization also
does not capture many hybrid and transient types of
CSOs, such as disaster relief committees and emergency
response groups.
Sector Representations
A 2019 study addressed the role of civil society as an
intermediary between constituencies and the state by
representing the voices of the poor and vulnerable groups,
articulating their needs, and facilitating change with and
for them.21 Civil society in India represents a wide range of
groups and sectors. This includes disadvantaged sections
such as the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, indigenous
groups, women and children, people with disabilities,
older people, and minority groups based on religion, class,
gender, and sexual identity, among other parameters.
Civil society also represents sectors based on (i) work
such as farmers, fishers, and traders; (ii) geography
such as urban and rural settlers; and iii) ownership and
working rights such as landless laborers, informal workers,
and migrant laborers. Many organizations undertake a
multisector approach by representing more than one of
these groups and often interlinked causes to promote
their welfare. CSOs, based on their sector focus, aim to
contribute to their groups’ social, economic, and political
empowerment.
Civil society’s work for these groups also evolves with
time. For example, during the 1980s, women CSOs
focused on broader social justice and income generation
programs. The Self-Employed Women’s Association is
one of the oldest and most prominent examples. During
the 1990s, the emphasis of women’s organizations
expanded to inclusion and empowerment.22 Therefore,
the model for many shifted from pure income generation
to microfinance and self-help groups. From the 2000s,

 Beneficiaries showing their housing lease documents
in Kolkata, West Bengal. Many CSOs have supported
public housing projects in India, making the process more
participatory and collaborative.
several of them also took up the more ingrained issues
behind women’s unequal place in the society, such as
gender-based violence, labor force participation, and
women’s safety.
Advocacies
In addition to representing different sectors, civil society
in India engages in advocacy. The focus areas are
widespread and address different levels of stakeholders.
Advocacy efforts can have the goal of legislation,
collaboration, resistance, community participation,
funding support, or other objectives. Advocacy takes place
at the local, subnational, national, or international level,
with varying degrees of influence. Civil society advocacy
initiatives typically convene different stakeholders
connected to the cause, such as the affected population,
activists, academics, technical experts, and policy makers.
It also deploys tools including mass movements, social
campaigns, task force, or policy action groups.23
The focus areas of civil society’s advocacy in India are
diverse, ranging from environmental protection, human
rights, resettlement, and rehabilitation, to poverty
eradication, gender equality, access to education, and
social inclusion. Certain civil society actors have specific
priority areas, while others undertake advocacy on
multiple causes. Some organizations specialize in specific
advocacies through their pre defined roles, such as the
HAQ: Centre for Child Rights. Some have a separate
branch within their larger operations, such as Save the
Children, while others undertake advocacy as needed.
India has witnessed many strong advocacy initiatives in
the past, which have contributed to significant national
legislation, including the Right to Information, Right
to Education, National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act, etc.24 Civil society initiatives have also led to wider
community participation on the crucial issues of women’s
safety, corruption, and constitutional rights, and thereby
strengthened related existing laws.
Nature of Work
CSOs in India have evolved with time and with changing
requirements. The research by PRIA captures this in its
reports published in 2000, 2011, and 2015. Earlier, in the
late 1990s and early 2000s, work by civil society could
broadly be elaborated as service delivery to enable access
to basic goods and services by citizens; mobilizing to
empower them to understand and demand their rights;
supporting other organizations in research, capacity
building, and networking; advocacy to raise voices
against injustice and demand legislative changes; and
philanthropy to gather and provide resources to grassroots
groups.25 While most of these civil society functions
continue to stay, the nature of work has evolved to also
focus on the following:
(i) Support service delivery. Given the expanded role
of the government in providing basic services, the
work by many CSOs has now shifted to extend
support toward effective and timely delivery
of these services.26 CSOs ensure this through
awareness generation, evidence, collaboration,
and advocacy. This has also broadened the focus
of the nonprofit sector from access to quality and
adequate services; therefore, many organizations
today have taken up supportive functions, such as
improving the reach and quality of public education,
health, and transport.
(ii) Drafting policy action plans and legislation. Many
CSOs today focus on stronger consultation and
collaboration mechanisms with the government
to support policy action plans and legislation.27
Through representative task force groups, civil
society has formally contributed to the drafting
of legislation, including the Right to Food Act and
Right to Information Act. With such mechanisms,
organizations now also have a defined priority
of working closely with policy makers to enable
structural and scalable changes.
Civil Society Brief: India 5
(iii) Research and evidence. With the growth of
research and evidence in the policy landscape
in India, civil society plays a significant role.
CSOs gather relevant data from the grassroots,
implement and refine programs, and drive decisions
rooted in evidence. Furthermore, think tanks and
organizations with a primarily research-driven role
have also found spaces in the policy discourse to
contribute to such change.
(iv) Innovation. Civil society in India is seen as a key
player to develop and scale innovative models of
change.28 Given the diverse range and scope of
CSOs, they have a unique strength to pilot test
models, share good practices, and replicate through
example. For instance, the State Government of
Karnataka scaled the Mysore Resettlement and
Development Agency’s innovative models of
self-help groups and watershed management.29
Apart from this, civil society continues its long-standing
tradition of mobilization on substantial issues. Civil society
in India also continues to provide formal and informal
platforms to facilitate dialogue on key issues, be it the
state of affairs, role of citizens, or government policies.30
CSOs in India therefore provide an integral space to bring
together diverse groups.
Statistics on Civil Society Organizations
There is a paucity of data on civil society in India.
MOSPI in 2017 recommended the development of an
appropriate mechanism to compile data on all NPIs
serving households, including NGOs at the national
and state level.31 Other stakeholders such as VANI and
the Ashoka Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy
(CSIP) have also strongly advocated the need for such
databases. Furthermore, due to the lack of a common
definition of CSOs in India, the current data vary based
on different interpretations of the term, such as NGOs,
NPIs, or voluntary organizations. Data have been most
commonly collected based on the legislation under which
the organization is registered.
The most comprehensive nationwide statistics on civil
society are from the report released by MOSPI in 2013.
The study captures statistics on NPIs,32 including all
institutions registered under the Societies Registration
Act (SRA) 1860, Bombay Public Trusts Act 1950 or its
state variants, and Section 25 of the Indian Companies
Act 1956.33 Most CSOs in India are registered at least
as societies under the SRA. The report includes data up
to 2008.34 To provide a more recent estimate, this brief
collates data from a diverse set of sources to explain the
statistics on civil society in India today.
6 Civil Society Brief: India
In 2015, after an order from the Supreme Court, the
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) mapped all the
registered NGOs in India. Their report in 2015–2016
disclosed 3.1 million registered NGOs in the country,
barring three states that had not submitted the data
by then. This figure is based on the NGOs registered
under the SRA.35 After including the data from the three
remaining states, the total number of NGOs in the country
will be more than 3.1 million. Out of these, only 8%–10%
had regularly filed their accounts with the Registrar
of Societies, detailing the receipt and expenditure of
funds.36 This highlighted the need for the government to
engage with organizations and ensure proper records are
maintained, including a higher compliance rate by CSOs in
filing their accounts.
Out of the 3.1 million NGOs, Uttar Pradesh has the
highest number with 548,148 organizations, followed
by Maharashtra with 518,437, and Kerala with 369,137.
Out of all union territories, Delhi has the highest
number of registered NGOs: 76,566.37 Figure 1 shows
the state-wise division of NGOs in India based on the
information submitted by the CBI to the Supreme Court
in 2015–2016. A table with the detailed figures for each
state and union territory has been provided in Appendix 1.
NGOs and, for the most part CSOs, can be categorized
based on the sector they work in or the purpose of
their organization. While the 2012 MOSPI database
divides organizations in 12 categories,38 there has been
no subsequent large-scale data collection exercise.
The current government has created a platform called
NGO Darpan for the registration of organizations to
promote collaboration with them. It provides sector-
wise focus areas of the 118,350 NGOs registered on
the portal39 (nearly 4% of the total in India). Figure 2
shows the division for the most commonly represented
sectors within this set of NGOs. The highest number
of organizations are focused on education and literacy,
followed by health and family welfare, children’s issues,
women’s development and empowerment, and vocational
training.40 Trends from this can be applied to the larger
set of CSOs in the country; however, more in-depth
research is required to verify this. The detailed table of
sector-based division from NGO Darpan is provided in
Appendix 2.
CSOs in India receive funding from a diverse set of
sources such as the government; foreign funding; and
domestic funding through individual donations, corporate
social responsibility, and philanthropy. The funds received
can be categorized into the broader heads of grants,
donations, income/receipts, and other sources. As per
 Figure 1: Geographical Distribution of the Total Registered Nongovernment Organizations in India
548,148
550,000 518,437

500,000
450,000
400,000 369,137

350,000
548,148
550,000 292,144
300,000 518,437
500,000 234,000
250,000
450,000 155,000
200,000 140,000
400,000 369,137
136,978
150,000 97,437
350,000 84,752
100,000 76,566
292,144 62,632
61,959 52,394
300,000 33,781
50,000 234,000 15,032
11,597 6,679 4,491 3,981 1,640
250,000 612 611 553 143 34
0 155,000
200,000 140,000
ar h
ra

P ala

tB h

hy il N l
Pr u
Ra esh

n
am

ab

ak i

ac Gu d

ra t
sh

eg ar

ar a

Tr d
N ura

nd d

La an h

ar ar p

Si a
M im
am
r

av d
a

l P ra

Jh lay

o
ah des

es es

a ad

ha

M ar
n

an

C alan

e
ks ipu
M a eng

H an
el
ht

M Bih
de

G
nj

N Da we

kk
ha

ha ja

i
hr Ker

ss

or
ip

ig

el
W rad

ad

136,978
D
st

kh
ha
as

150,000
Pu
a

iz
d
ag
ja

97,437
Pr

ha

ag d
ad m

ar

ha
84,752
ar

tt
T
tt

100,000 76,566
nd
U

62,632
im

61,959 52,394
A

33,781
50,000 15,032
Source: Generated based on data gathered from different sources listed in Appendix
11,597 1.
6,679 4,491 3,981 1,640 612 611 553 143 34
0
Education and Literacy
ar h
ra

P ala

tB h

hy il N l
Pr u
Ra esh

n
am

ab

ak i

ac Gu d

ra t
sh

eg ar

ar a

Tr d
N ura

nd d

La an h

ag d ep

Si a
M im
am
r

av d
a

l P ra

Jh lay

o
ah des

es es

a ad

ha

M ar
n

an

C alan

ks ipu
M a eng

H an
el
ht

M Bih
de

G
nj

N Da we

kk
ha

ha ja

i
hr Ker

Health and Family Welfare

ss

or
ip

ig

el
W rad

ad

D
st

kh
ha
as

Pu
a

ar ar
A

iz
d
ag
ja
Pr

ha
ad m

ar

ha
ar

Children
tt
T
tt

U
nd
U

im
A

Women's Development and Empowerment

Figure 2: Sector-Wise Registration of Nongovernment Organizations on the Darpan Portal
H

Vocational Training
Environment
Education and Forests
and Literacy
Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation
Health and Family Welfare
ArtsChildren
and Culture
Agriculture
Women's Development and Empowerment
Drinking
Vocational Water
Training
Youth Affairs
Environment and Forests
HIV/AIDS
Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation
Human
Arts and CultureRights
Labor and Employment
Agriculture
DrinkingAged/Elderly
Water
Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Fisheries
Youth Affairs
Differently
HIV/AIDS Abled

Human Rights 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

Labor and Employment
Aged/Elderly
Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Fisheries
1,500 Differently Abled
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
1,200
Source: Generated based on data gathered from the NGO Darpan website.

900
1,500

600
1,200 Civil Society Brief: India 7
300
 350,000
292,144
300,000
234,000
250,000
155,000
200,000 140,000
136,978
150,000 97,437
84,752
76,566
the 100,000
2012 MOSPI study, the division of funds received and
61,959Dasra,
62,632
52,394 individual philanthropic contributions
by NPIs was as follows: 53.5% from grants; 16.4% from
50,000 increased33,781
sixfold
15,032 from 2011 to 2016, whereas private
11,597 6,679 4,491 3,981 1,640 612 611
donations;0 16.2% from income or receipts of operations; donations increased from 15% in 2011 to 32% in 553 14344 34
2016.
and the remaining 13.8% from a combination of other The corporate social responsibility (CSR) corpus by
ar h
ra

P ala

tB h

hy il N l
Pr u
Ra esh

n
am

ab

ak i

ac Gu d

ra t
sh

eg ar

ar a

Tr d
N ur a

nd d

La an h

ag d ep

Si a
M im
am
r

av d
a

l P ra

Jh lay

o
ah es

es es

a ad

ha

M ar
n

an

C alan

ks ipu
M a eng

H an
el
sources including membership subscription, rent, interest,
ht
companies contributed to the sector on critical issues

M Bih
de

G
nj

N Da we

kk
ha

ha ja

i
hr Ker

ss

or
ip

ig

el
M rad

W rad

ad

D
st

kh
ha
as

Pu

ar ar
A

iz
d
ag
ja

ha
P

etc.41 While there is a lack of recent data on the proportion

ad m
such as health, nutrition, and rural development,

ar

ha
ar

tt
T
tt

U
nd
U

of funds received from each, statistics exist on certain among others. Furthermore, impact investment for

im
A

H
related aspects. social entrepreneurship increased from 2010 to 2016.45
While these are positive developments in the social sector,
The number of NGOs that receiveEducation and Literacy
foreign funds reduced specific data are required to assess the extent of domestic
from 18,304 in 2016–2017 to 18,235 in 2017–2018
Health and Family Welfare funding channeled to CSOs in India.
and 17,540 in 2018–2019. In terms of states and union
Children
territories, Delhi received
Women's the maximum
Development foreign funding
and Empowerment The 2012 MOSPI report captured the workforce
in these years, followed by Tamil Nadu.42Training
Vocational Furthermore, composition of NPIs in the country. A total of 18.2 million
the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) website people were engaged in working with these institutions,
Environment and Forests
provides data on the number of associations registered out of which less than 15% were paid workers and the
Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation
for foreign funding every year along with those active rest were volunteers. The gender composition of the
Arts and Culture
today. The difference in the two categories reflects the workforce was skewed, with 72% males and 28% females.
associations canceled or deemed expired. As of July
Agriculture The average workforce engaged was highest in the fields
2021, the total FCRA associationsDrinking
registered
Waterto date of law, advocacy, and politics, followed by environment.46
are 49,988; with 22,683 (45.4%) active Youthtoday,
Affairs 20,673 These numbers might look different today, necessitating
(41.4%) canceled, and 6,632 (13.3%) deemed HIV/AIDSexpired.
43
an updated database.
Figure 3 shows the trends in FCRA Human registration
Rights
and active
associations from 2012 to 2021. While multiple sources provide a wide understanding
Labor and Employment
of civil society, specifically NGOs and NPIs in India,
Aged/Elderly
On the other hand, domestic funding for the development there are many gaps that need to be filled through
Animal
sector and likely Husbandry,
CSOs Dairying, and
has increased in Fisheries
the same decade. future data collection exercises. There should be a more
According to a 2017 report by Bain and Company,
Differently Abled comprehensive survey to capture all types of CSOs under
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

Figure 3: FCRA Associations in India, 2012–2021

1,500

1,200

900

600

300

0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

FCRA Associations Registered Associations Active Today Linear (FCRA Associations Registered)

FCRA = Foreign Contribution Regulation Act.

Source: Generated from the list of FCRA registered associations on the FCRA website.

8 Civil Society Brief: India

a common definition, including both formally registered
under the law and informally operational. Additionally,
regular surveys are required to understand the current
status, magnitude, types, nature, needs, and funding of
these organizations, both at the national and state level.
With such information, there can be better collaboration
and support to the civil society sector.

Challenges Faced by Civil Society Organizations

CSOs in India face multiple challenges. These include
transparency and legitimacy with respect to the level
of information expected of them and the degree of
scrutiny that they are subject to, specifically around
funding.47 This issue is exacerbated by the tightening of
regulations. Apart from this, given that a high portion
of financial sources are external grants and donations,
this increases the dependency of organizations and
often questions their sustainability. Furthermore, many
grants by the government and international donors are
tied to specific projects, making it difficult for CSOs to
focus on their core long-term functions. There is also
more competition within civil society in India now. Over
the last decade, the sector has seen the entry of diverse
players in the development space, such as managerial
consulting firms and CSR foundations, which also focus
on supporting the poor and vulnerable groups. While this
has brought a greater diversity of groups, it has increased
the competition for many existing CSOs, specifically
grassroots organizations, due to a decline in the share of
resources allocated to them. Largely, the space for civil
society, particularly for local community organizations and
NGOs, is seen as shrinking by some CSO leaders.48
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has also posed
serious challenges to civil society in India. As per a survey
by CSIP in 2020, about 30% of the surveyed organizations
did not have financial resources to last them beyond
6 months, and 54% only had such support to cover fixed
costs for another year. Organizations reported considering
drastic measures such as the termination of their core
programs and reduction in team strength if they failed
to gather more funding.49 From the data in the 2020
survey, about half of the surveyed organizations were
dependent on financing from CSR by companies. Much
of this financing has been directed to COVID-19 relief
funds set up by various governments. Furthermore, the
impact on the economy is expected to diminish resources
for donors; thereby burdening civil society in seeking
funds.50 It will be crucial for all stakeholders to support the
CSOs in regaining their strength, both for COVID-19 relief
work as well as their core programmatic areas. This will
ensure that India continues on a path of recovery and the
achievement of development outcomes both during and
after COVID-19.
 Temperature checks outside Medanta Hospital,
Gurgaon. Numerous CSOs were involved in extensive relief
and awareness work during the COVID-19 crisis.
Civil Society Organizations’ Role in COVID-19
Civil society has played and continues to play a significant
role in mitigating the impact of COVID-19 in India. It is
one of the finest examples of CSOs’ role and impact.
Their contribution can be divided based on the activities
undertaken to cope with the two major COVID-19 waves
in India until mid-2021, along with the overarching
support provided toward the country’s recovery. In
the first wave in 2020, CSOs in India provided more
direct support to the affected population and indirect
support to institutions working on recovery.51 Their direct
support included measures of immediate relief such as
the last-mile delivery of essential items; food and ration
provisions; sanitation awareness and kits; livelihood
support; counselling services; direct cash transfers;
rehabilitation to the distressed communities; and support
to specific vulnerable groups such as migrant workers
for travel, shelter, and other basic needs. Their indirect
support involved helping institutions including the local
government, state administrations, public machinery at
large, philanthropists, and other resource providers to
strengthen their provisions, and channels for the affected
groups.52 A June 2020 report by CSIP highlighted that
75% of the surveyed organizations were actively involved
in COVID-19 relief work, leveraging their unique local
presence in communities as strength. Furthermore,
one-third of the organizations were involved in relief work
without any additional financial support.53

Civil Society Brief: India 9

Civil society played an equally important role during
India’s second COVID-19 wave, one that saw a massive
devastation in terms of lives and livelihoods. India
recorded more than 400,000 daily cases, the highest
in a single day for any country.54 It overwhelmed the
health-care system and governance as never before,
causing this period to be possibly the worst that most
had witnessed in their lifetimes. In such daunting times,
India’s civil society did its part. CSOs provided oxygen
support and critical supplies such as personal protective
equipment kits and masks; connected citizens to
health-care services; conducted mass awareness
campaigns on precautions and response; provided
ration, food, and essential items; and encouraged
and strengthened vaccination coverage, among other
lifesaving support. They also ensured that these services
reach the rural belts of the country through initiatives
such as the Rapid Rural Community Response.55 A key
factor behind CSOs’ effective response was the local
community leadership nurtured by them over the decades.
Since the 1970s, local organizations have nurtured nearly
20 million active civic leaders in the communities.56 In
these crucial times, CSOs were able to call on them and
mobilize their support to address the rising challenges.
Civil society continued to undertake this work despite
several challenges such as their own members suffering in
the pandemic and the shrinking financial resources.
Throughout the COVID-19 period, CSOs in
India have also exhibited support on other fronts.
Larger organizations leveraged their national networks
to coordinate services and support mechanisms.
Civil society worked with health missions of the
government to induce behavior change communication
in vernacular languages.57 They raised issues on behalf
of the lesser represented groups such as nomadic tribes
and unorganized sector workers to ensure adequate
health-care provisions for them.58 Organizations shared
recommendations with the government on policy and
legal changes to overcome the impact of COVID-19 on
specific vulnerable groups. These included consultations
on the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act and the Board
of Construction Workers Act, among others.59 As India is
yet to see the end of the pandemic, civil society continues
to provide overarching support and leverage its local
presence to aid relief and recovery efforts in the country.
The government recognized civil society’s extensive
support during this period. In 2020, the National
Institution for Transforming India (commonly known as
NITI Aayog), the primary think tank of the Government
of India, invited over 92,000 CSOs across the country to
join an empowered group of stakeholders: government,
10 Civil Society Brief: India
private players, and international organizations, with
a common goal to collaborate on relief efforts for
COVID-19. This invitation highlighted the role of CSOs
thus far in the key areas of providing basic services,
setting up health camps, assisting the disadvantaged,
creating awareness on prevention, and scaling low-
cost solutions. Their community-oriented approach of
adapting communication to vernacular languages was also
appreciated by the government.60 In 2021, NITI Aayog
also sought support from 110,000 CSOs in increasing
community adherence toward COVID-19 protocols and
encouraging the uptake of vaccination. The government
also appreciated the organizations’ timely and effective
response during the pandemic.61 Such initiatives have been
an important milestone in the government’s outreach and
collaboration with civil society to work together in the
fight against the pandemic. With such partnership, the
government and civil society can rebuild better to support
the development of the country.
Umbrella Networks and Coordinating Agencies
Civil society includes certain organizations that act as
intermediaries to coordinate with other agencies and
build networks of collective strength. Such entities
may be focused on a specific sector, such as rural
development (e.g., the Association of Voluntary Agencies
in Rural Development), or health (e.g., the Voluntary
Health Association of India). They may work in specific
geographies, such as the Maharashtra Voluntary
Action Network, or may have operations countrywide
including VANI.62 Such organizations, also referred to
as coordinating or umbrella agencies, provide forums
to collaborate; share experiences; and disseminate
information, resources, and opportunities for other similar
organizations. VANI is the largest such group and is
recognized as the apex body for voluntary organizations
in India.63 It provides a national platform for voluntary
organizations’ work across states, issues, and policy areas.
Certain organizations also undertake developing
directories of CSOs in India to provide information
relevant for any stakeholder interested in learning about
or working with civil society. Such directories include
NGOs India, which mapped NGOs based on geography
and focus areas; Credibility Alliance, which promotes
accountability in the sector and mapped organizations
by states and regions; and ProPoor, a database of NGOs
in South Asia which mapped them by region and type.64
The databases, while comprehensive, focus primarily on
NGOs and may lack information on when they were last
updated. Furthermore, such networking and coordination
among CSOs is on a voluntary basis.
Legal and Regulatory Framework
India’s civil society is governed by a complex legal and
regulatory framework. The laws govern three aspects of
CSOs’ existence: registration, taxation, and regulatory
compliance.65 The sections below provide details on the
registration and taxation rules, followed by an overview
of the most targeted policy for the voluntary sector in
India, and information on the relevant recent legislation
introduced in the country since 2010.
Overview of Registration
CSOs in India are not required to register with the
government. However, doing so provides a professional
and legal identity, enabling them to apply for grant-in-aid
schemes, receive domestic and foreign contributions, and
provide tax deduction incentives to their donors, among
others. The law in India provides for registration in three
categories, as societies, trusts, and companies.66 There is
no single law under which all development organizations
can be uniformly registered, resulting in a lack of
centralized database on such organizations.67 Following
are the key laws for registration under the three categories:
(i) Societies Registration Act 1860. It is a federal act
to register associations, which are nonprofit-making
entities, for literary, scientific, and charitable
purposes. Any seven or more persons associated
with such a common purpose can register
themselves as a society under the act. The act
has been adopted by many states and modified
into their own state-specific acts; therefore, one
can register either under the relevant state or the
national act.
(ii) The Indian Trusts Act 1882. It is a federal act
for the management of private trusts. However,
different states later adopted their own public
trust acts for the registration of trusts for public,
religious, or charitable purposes. Any two or more
persons associated with a common purpose and
property can register themselves under this act.
The first such state legislation was the Bombay
Public Trusts Act 1950. Today, other states
including Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh also have
their own public trusts act.
(iii) Section 8 of the Indian Companies Act 2013.
This section allows companies to be registered
as not for profit for a list of purposes, such as to
promote arts, science, education, social welfare,
and environmental protection, among others.
The revised act in 2013 expanded the scope of
activities covered, compared to the last legislation
in 1956. Any nonprofit company registered under
this must apply all its profits to achieve the set
objectives and cannot use it as personal gains.
Any society, trust, or Section 8 company must register
under section 12A to claim exemptions under the
country’s Income Tax Act 1961. This allows them to
take advantage of exemptions on the contributions
to form an organization and income generated or set
aside for the purpose. For individuals contributing to
these organizations as donors, they can take advantage
of tax deductions under Section 80G of the act. Such
contributions must not exceed 10% of the individual’s
gross income and allows for an exemption of up to 50%
of the amount donated. In certain cases, such as for
government-approved organizations, donors can take
advantage of 100% exemption on donated amount.
Overview of the National Policy
on Voluntary Sector 2007
In 2007, the Government of India approved the first-
ever nationwide policy on the voluntary sector, which is
attributable to civil society. It recognized the immense
contribution of the voluntary sector in “finding innovative
solutions to poverty, deprivation, discrimination, and
exclusion, through tools such as awareness raising, social
mobilization, service delivery, training, research, and
advocacy.”68 The policy was also aimed to institutionalize
the mechanisms for the sector’s participation and
collaboration with the state. It set out four main objectives:
(i) Create an enabling environment for voluntary
organizations (VOs) that stimulates their enterprise
and effectiveness, and safeguards their autonomy.
(ii) Enable VOs to legitimately mobilize necessary
financial resources from India and abroad.
(iii) Identify systems by which the government and VOs
can work together based on the principles of mutual
trust, respect, and shared responsibility.
(iv) Encourage VOs to adopt transparent and accountable
systems of governance and management.69
In December 2020, VANI released a report on the impact
of the National Policy on Voluntary Sector (NPVS) 2007.
Their analysis concluded most of the objectives have
not been met.70 NPVS advocated for safeguarding the
voluntary organizations’ autonomy and simplifying the
laws concerning them. However, with recent legislation
and the lack of a common law on voluntary organizations/
CSOs, there remains ambiguity on these provisions. NPVS
also advised for a formal mechanism to register complaints
and address the grievances of voluntary organizations.
However, such platforms have not been created yet.
Civil Society Brief: India 11
This is exacerbated by the lack of a central ministry or
department to address the voluntary organizations’
grievances. Largely, the provisions of NPVS 2007 have
not been implemented as envisioned.71 A study by CSIP
highlights the challenges toward meeting these objectives.
These include the negative perception of voluntary sector
in recent years, limited domestic funding, lack of support
from stakeholders such as the government, and lack of
collective initiative within the voluntary sector.72
VANI recommends73 strengthening NPVS 2007 and
increasing collaboration between the government
and voluntary organizations in India. This includes
identifying a central ministry to develop uniform
guidelines and a single registration window; review recent
legislation and amendments; and provide platform for
regular dialogue, with the goal to enhance the work of
voluntary organizations. They advocate for including the
contribution of voluntary organizations in the country’s
development through measurement of gross domestic
product and other nationwide platforms to recognize
their effort. VANI also reiterates the establishment of a
national accreditation council for the voluntary sector
to build common standards around the relevance,
effectiveness, and legitimacy of voluntary organizations.
Such accreditation can support funding decisions by
making the process more transparent. It can also provide
organizations with incentives for better performance
and governance. Such initiatives must be complemented
with adequate capacity-building efforts. While voluntary
organizations need to be sensitive to the laws governing
them, other stakeholders such as the government and
corporates need to be sensitive to their role. Therefore,
more focus is required on the institutions and platforms
that build such capacity. The collaboration between
the government and voluntary sector should be further
enhanced through voluntary organizations’ participation
in country strategy and national policies. The study also
advocates for voluntary organizations and their apex
bodies to take greater responsibility in solving issues
around credibility, accountability and transparency in the
voluntary sector. Lastly, VANI recommends simplifying
the funding provisions to enable an easier procurement of
funds for grassroots organizations so they can persist over
the long run.74
Recent Legislation
Foreign Contribution Regulation Act 2010
The Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) is
applicable to all NPOs, such as societies, trusts, and
Section 8 companies, which accept foreign contributions
for their work. The goal is to increase the transparency
and accountability of NPOs. Under it, these organizations
12 Civil Society Brief: India
must mandatorily register with the central government,
accept these payments through the list of designated
banks by the government, and maintain separate books
of accounts for these funds. Furthermore, the registration
for foreign contribution must be renewed every 5 years.
The organization must publish information about receipts
on its website on a quarterly basis and submit reports
to the Ministry of Home Affairs on an annual basis.75
Such reports require them to share all information about
these funds, i.e., the amount, purpose, source, mode,
and utilization. The act prohibits foreign contributions in
certain aspects, such as in areas considered political in
nature or those made directly to any public servant.
The FCRA has undergone amendments over the
last decade, the latest one in 2020. It now limits
the percentage of foreign contributions spent on
administrative expenses to 20% instead of 50%. It also
limits the transfer of funds from the recipient organization
to other partners and associated organizations. The
amendment mandates the use of the Aadhar card, a
national biometric identity card, for all office bearers.
Failure to adhere to these regulations can lead to the
cancellation of an organization’s registration.76
The amended FCRA clauses may affect NPOs.
Organizations have expressed their concerns about the
lack of flexibility in attracting and retaining high-quality
talent or spending on institutional strengthening due
to the revised cap on administrative expenses. A study
by VANI in 2020 captured the anticipated impact of
the amendment on a set of voluntary organizations. Of
the surveyed organizations, 68% said their employees
are likely to lose their jobs due to these changes.77
Furthermore, based on the amendment, larger
organizations may no longer be able to channel funding
to their many grassroots partner associations, likely
leading to downsizing of their operations. Of the surveyed
organizations in the 2020 VANI study, 75% mentioned
an impact on their operations, which also indirectly
affected the achievements of Sustainable Development
Goals in the long run.78 Due to these reasons, among
others, certain leaders in the civil society space in India
foresee changes on the level of cooperation, autonomy,
and flexibility for CSOs, thereby potentially affecting their
operations.79 However, understanding the true impact
requires further research.
Indian Companies Act 2013
The Indian Companies Act 2013 entails two provisions
related to the civil society sector. The first is for the
registration of nonprofit companies under Section 8
(see page 15). The other is on the provision of CSR under
Section 135 of the act. This is applicable to every company
with a net worth of Rs5 billion or more, or turnover of
Rs10 billion or more, or net profit of Rs50 million or more.
Every such company should form a CSR committee of
its board and must spend at least 2% of its net profits
on related activities. The list of suggested activities
includes eradication of hunger, poverty, malnutrition; and
promotion of health, education, gender equality, among
other social development areas. The company is required
to disclose the details of the expenditure under this
provision.80
While on the one hand, this has increased the players in
the development space and created more opportunities
for some CSOs, on the other hand, it has shrunk the
space for others. As per a research report by PRIA, many
companies have set up their own CSR foundations to
undertake social work. This has likely affected the financial
and human resources available for existing CSOs as many
CSR foundations have hired experienced civil society staff.
Furthermore, the foundations’ collaboration with civil
society actors is mostly limited to certain types of work,
therefore not leveraging all their strengths.81 To foster
more collaboration, CSOs recommend that companies use
the experience and expertise of grassroots organizations
to meet the needs and priorities of the communities.
Such partnership between CSR representatives and civil
society can contribute to their common goals of society’s
development.
Capacity of Civil Society
Organizations
The capacity of CSOs is closely connected to their ability
to create impact, yet this is a less frequently studied area
of research. Civil society capacity in India has been part
of studies using a wide range of terminologies, such as
organizational development, institutional development,
or institutional strength. The strongest area of CSOs is
their grassroots presence, where they are best equipped
to reach the remotest areas and sections of the country.
Their ability and experience to reach out to the most
vulnerable groups are extremely valued, especially
when formal institutions may fail to do so.82 They also
possess specialized knowledge in these areas, given
their connection to the ground. Another major strength
of CSOs in India is their implementation of local best
practices and models. Governments have repeatedly
scaled up initiatives of multiple NGOs that have
demonstrated successful models of effective change,
be they in poverty eradication, financial inclusion, or
gender equality.83 Inputs from CSOs also help make
public infrastructure and other policies more inclusive,
specifically regarding responsiveness to the elderly,
women, children, people with disabilities, and transgender
groups, as they ensure their participation in government
planning. They have played a demonstrative role in
participatory engagement by including such public
interests into important discourse. Furthermore, CSOs in
the country are recognized for their immense commitment
and leadership in relentlessly supporting communities
despite all odds. Many organizations that work together
also utilize the potential to complement one another’s
strengths in diverse fields.84
While on the one hand, CSOs can make a positive
impact on society, on the other hand, many are resource-
constrained. The biggest crunch is in terms of financial
resources. Civil society in India has seen a systematic
reduction in the availability of funding, specifically due
to legislative changes. Furthermore, the entrance of
consulting firms and CSR foundations in the space has in
some cases reduced existing resources and opportunities
for local organizations in the area.85 Therefore, there is
a greater need for funding partners to invest in CSOs in
India, specifically in the areas of research, advocacy, and
capacity building as opposed to only service delivery,
which is the emphasis right now. Additionally, more
financing should be directed beyond health and education
to other important issues such as climate change, human
rights, and gender equality. Funding also tends to be
concentrated in a few states of India, with Maharashtra
receiving the biggest portion of CSR funds (23%)
compared to Bihar (less than 1%) despite the latter having
worse development outcomes.86 Figure 4 substantiates
this point.
Thus, funding must be channeled to states and
geographies with greater development needs. Some
methods to better assess CSOs’ financial needs include
hosting a development marketplace, issuing calls for
grants and innovative programs, and building other
avenues to identify critical needs and solutions for and by
civil society.
Studies also show that local organizations often lack
the capacity to undertake rigorous research and
analysis, aspects which are valued by policy makers
and international partners.87 Since many CSOs are
born out of a passion to address social issues, they may
lack the skills or budget to undertake such work of high-
quality documentation or evaluation to match donor
expectations. Another area of capacity requirement is
the investment in organizations’ leadership development.
While CSOs in India are very supportive of the goal to
invest in their leaders, there is a gap in their efforts in this
area. As per a 2020 study by Dasra, nearly 50% of the
Civil Society Brief: India 13
 Figure 4: State-Wise Corporate Social Responsibility Spending
As a Percentage of Total Country Spending in FY 2020–2021
Gujarat: 9.88%
Maharashtra: 23.45% Karnataka: 8.66%
FY = fiscal year.
Source: Government of India, Ministry of Corporate Affairs. State-wise CSR Report (accessed 30 January 2023).
surveyed organizations have not received any funding or
other assistance to develop their leaders. They also do
not feel equipped to develop and transition their leaders
in due course.88 The most common reason identified
for the lack of such capacity is the gap between the
donors’ and organizations’ approach and investment
toward organizational strengthening.89 Another study by
Bridgespan in 2021 highlights the need for new funding
practices to build strong and resilient NGOs in India.
It advocates for donors to provide both financial and
non financial support for organizational development.90
Specifically, in light of COVID-19, a 2020 PRIA study
identified the specific needs of CSOs to be able to better
serve pandemic-affected communities in India. Based
on a survey of 160 organizations, the study identified the
largest need to be the timely access to information such
as health protocols, government measures, guidelines,
facilities, and support mechanisms. This was followed
by a need for support in better community facilitation.91
Most capacity needs expressed by the surveyed
organizations require a stronger engagement with the
government and other key stakeholders to complement
the work that is being done on the ground. A detailed
assessment of CSOs’ needs is given in Figure 5.
14 Civil Society Brief: India
Tamil Nadu: 7.84% Uttar Pradesh: 5.95%
Andhra Pradesh: 4.90%
Rajasthan: 4.50% Telangana: 4.27%
Delhi: 4.88% Odisha: 3.88%
Many resources already exist to identify and build the
capacity of CSOs, such as those provided by Dasra,
Asia Venture Philanthropy Network, and USAID. There
are organizations that provide similar targeted support,
including Charities Aid Foundation and Smile Foundation.
Furthermore, there are organizations that build CSOs’
capacity in specific areas of leadership and talent, board
and governance, monitoring, evaluation, and learning,
among others. Development partners can also support
the capacity building or organizational development of
CSOs in India by integrating it as an important aspect of
their financial support.92 More targeted research on the
capacity of organizations in India is required to further
support planning.
Government and
Civil Society Partnership
Government and civil society in India engage in multiple
ways at different levels. This includes collaboration to
design, implement, and monitor programs, policies, and
legislation. The government assigns many roles to CSOs
such as those of innovator, problem solver, implementer,
 Figure 5: Major Civil Society Organization Capacity Needs
70%
60% 58%
50%
43%
40% 36%
30%
22%
20%
12%
10% 9%
0%
Use of Technology
Accessing Information/Knowledge
Project Management
Access to Resources
Access to Human Resources
Community Facilitation
Source: Capacities that Can Make a Difference – PRIA 2020 Report.
trainer, service provider, mobilizer, and advisor. Similarly,
civil society can reach out to the government to support
its work, seek approval, and further its own and the
communities’ objectives. The state plays a significant role
for the CSOs through provisions for their legitimacy and
contribution to the country’s development.93 Therefore,
the government and civil society in India are key
stakeholders for one another. However, this engagement
varies based on the openness, willingness, and context of
such partnerships, as well as the alignment of goals and
interests. Largely, the government and civil society agree
on the need to work together, whereas the form of such
interaction is diverse.
In many ways, the space for civil society’s engagement
with the government has expanded to a formal level.
Several CSOs now work closely with different government
agencies. The most institutionalized setup for such
consultation by the government was the National
Advisory Council established in 2004. For many years,
the council provided a platform for numerous civil society
members to provide direct insights into key legislation and
policies of the country, such as the Right to Information
Act and the Forest Rights Act.
20%
14%
8%
6% 6%
Livelihood for Communities
Networking and Partnership
Advocacy and Engagement with Government
Monitoring of Community Entitlements
Did Not Respond Clearly
Subsequently, the National Policy on Voluntary Sector in
2007 was an important milestone to state the objectives
and mechanisms for state and civil society collaboration.
In 2010, the Ministry of Finance for the first time involved
CSOs in a pre-budget consultation.94 From 1951 until
2017, the government also provided guidance to civil
society’s work as part of its 5-year plans. Currently,
NITI Aayog provides support to civil society through its
NGO Darpan portal. NGO Darpan is a platform for NGOs
in India to register with the government and take part in
their initiatives. Apart from this, through multiple advisory
panels, task force groups, committees, and informal
platforms, the government and civil society engage on a
wide range of issues.
In other ways, the government’s engagement with civil
society is more nuanced. Government agencies may
engage with CSOs for selected areas and phases of
project cycles.95 Furthermore, given the diverse voices and
stakeholder groups, the outcome of such collaboration
might be different than that envisaged by certain civil
society members.96 While such engagement still leverages
the CSOs’ strengths, a sustained partnership can better
harness collective expertise. The government may also
Civil Society Brief: India 15
rely on aspects of credibility, perception, and experience
of the CSOs as a measure of their relationship. Therefore,
platforms that bridge the gap in such information on
organizations and provide direct communication channels
should be strengthened. Furthermore, civil society’s role in
strengthening the democracy and working as an important
partner in nation building can be recognized.97 Overall,
the approach between the government and civil society
in India varies, where a majority of the relationships are
complex but practical and forward looking. A greater focus
on mutual respect and trust between the two stakeholders
groups can enhance this relationship.
Cooperation with
Development Organizations
Several development organizations have a long history
with India, including the United Nations (26 agencies),
the Food and Agriculture Organization, the International
Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization,
among others. Most of these organizations have their
headquarters in Delhi, with field offices based on project
locations. A majority of these development organizations
build country-specific strategies in collaboration with key
stakeholders every 3 to 5 years. These strategies provide
details on their priority areas of work, customized to the
country’s needs. As part of them, these organizations work
closely with civil society in India, collaborating on a range
of issues. They also undertake workshops and participate
in platforms to engage with local organizations. CSOs
therefore help shape the organizations’ approach and
strategy for an inclusive and contextualized development.
Civil society leaders recommend such engagement
to emphasize more concrete long-term partnerships
than stand-alone projects. They also advocate for civil
society to be considered a strong ally to development
organizations and their goals. With the unique localized
experience and expertise of CSOs, development
partners can further amplify their voices and sustainably
work together.
Additional Resources
on Civil Society in India
Resource platforms:
(i) NGOs India. This provides key information on
NGOs in the country, such as on the registration
process, proposal guidelines, funding agencies,
NGO management, job opportunities, etc.
https://ngosindia.com
16 Civil Society Brief: India
(ii) VANI. VANI is the apex body for voluntary
organizations in India. It advocates for them and
provides resources through publications on the
legal and regulatory frameworks and on governance
and management, toolkits for CSOs, and state-wise
reports. https://www.vaniindia.org
(iii) PRIA. PRIA is a center for participatory research
and practice, with a focus on community
organizations. It has extensive knowledge resources
on civil society as a whole, specifically for India.
These involve research reports on the response of
CSOs toward COVID-19, institutional development
for strengthening CSOs, etc. http://pria.org
(iv) Oxfam India. Oxfam India undertakes research and
provides papers on civil society in India. Past ones
include those on the role of civil society, specific
sectors that they work in, and how they connect
with policy making, among others.
https://www.oxfamindia.org
Directories:
(i) NGO Darpan. An initiative by the current
government to build a database of all NGOs
in India based on those that register with them.
https://ngodarpan.gov.in/index.php/home/statewise
(ii) NGOs India also provides a directory of NGOs in
the country: https://ngosindia.com
(iii) GiveIndia. This aims to provide information and
insights on social impact in India. It brings together
CSOs on a common platform to connect and
collaborate with stakeholders. Currently, they have
more than 56,000 organizations on their website,
including NGOs, Section 8 companies, social
enterprises, impact investors, and informal groups.
https://gi.giveindia.org/certified-indian-ngos.aspx
and https://give.do/discover/
(iv) GuideStar India. This provides information on
a diverse set of CSOs. They currently have more
than 11,000 organizations on their portal.
https://guidestarindia.org/Default.aspx
Appendixes
Appendix 1: Total Number of Registered Nongovernment Organizations in India
The total number of registered nongovernment retrieved individually, even though they are a part of the
organizations (NGOs) reported by the Central Bureau of total figure. Such a state-wise division of NGOs or civil
Investigation (CBI) to the Supreme Court in 2015–2016 society organizations does not exist in any one place,
was 3.1 million, barring data from three states (Karnataka, therefore, the various sources for these figures have been
Odisha, and Telangana). Table A1 presents data curated explained in the footnote.98 Table A1 presents the number
for each state from a diverse set of sources. Data for of NGOs in a descending order.
certain states (Chhattisgarh and Haryana) could not be

Table A1: State-Wise Registered Nongovernment Organizations in India

State Number of Registered NGOs State Number of Registered NGOs

Uttar Pradesh 548,148 Jharkhand 11,597
Maharashtra 518,437 Tripura 6,679
Kerala 369,137 Nagaland 4,491
Andhra Pradesh 292,144 Chandigarh 3,981
West Bengal 234,000 Manipur 1,640
Tamil Nadu 155,000 Lakshadweep 612
Madhya Pradesh 140,000 Dadar and Nagar Haveli 611
Rajasthan 136,978 Goa 553
Assam 97,437 Sikkim 143
Punjab 84,752 Mizoram 34
Delhi 76,566 Chhattisgarh No data found
Uttarakhand 62,632 Haryana No data found
Gujarat 61,959 Karnataka No data found
Himachal Pradesh 52,394 Odisha No data found
Bihar 33,781 Telangana No data found
Meghalaya 15,032
NGO = nongovernment organization.
Source: Gathered by author from sources as follows:
Source 1: Data for Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Assam, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur, Goa, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep: H. V. Nair. 2015.
90 Per Cent of NGOs Do Not File Annual Statement: CBI to SC. India Today. 19 September.
Source 2: Data for Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttarakhand and Bihar: D. Mahapatra. 2015. India has One Cop for Every 940 People,
an NGO for 535. The Times of India. 6 January.
Source 3: Data for Mizoram, Jharkhand, and Sikkim: The Hans India. 2015. Telangana defaults on NGOs details: SC. The Hans India.
6 January.
Source 4: Data for Madhya Pradesh: D. Mahapatra. 2014. India Witnessing NGO Boom, There Is 1 for Every 600 People. The Times
of India. 23 February.
Data could not be found Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Karnataka, Odisha, and Telangana.

Civil Society Brief: India 17

Appendix 2: Sector-Wise Registration of Nongovernment Organizations on NGO Darpan Portal

The current government created a platform called NGO
Darpan for the registration of organizations to promote
collaboration with them. NGO Darpan provides sector-
wise focus areas of the 118,350 NGOs registered on
its portal (nearly 4% of total NGOs in India). Table A2
presents the data curated for each sector from the portal
in July 2021. An NGO can register under more than
one sector and most organizations are registered under
multiple sectors. The figures are presented in descending
order, with the most-represented sector mentioned first.

Table A2: Sector-Wise Registered Nongovernment Organizations on NGO Darpan portal

Sector Number Sector Number

Education and Literacy 66,846 Food Processing 15,864
Health and Family Welfare 44,423 Civic Issues 15,862
Children 41,841 Dalit Upliftment 15,806
Women’s Development 40,083 Urban Development 15,282
and Empowerment and Poverty Alleviation
Vocational Training 32,083 Sports 15,177
Environment and Forests 30,632 Microfinance (Self-Help Groups) 15,055
Rural Development and Poverty 29,481 Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises 14,861
Alleviation Minority Issues 14,718
Arts and Culture 29,329 Nutrition 14,262
Agriculture 27,617 Tribal Affairs 13,937
Drinking Water 22,910 Panchayati Raj a
13,032
Youth Affairs 20,550 Water Resources 12,764
HIV/AIDS 20,373 Science and Technology 12,413
Human Rights 20,264 Biotechnology 10,213
Labor and Employment 20,163 Right to Information and Advocacy 9,745
Older People 20,019 New and Renewable Energy 9,675
Animal Husbandry, Dairy, and Fisheries 19,536 Housing 9494
People with Disabilities 18,643 Land Resources 8,598
Any other category 18,046 Tourism 7,834
Information and Communication 17,891 Scientific and Industrial Research 6,794
Technology
Prisoner’s Issues 4,279
Legal Awareness and Aid 17,721
Skill Development 1,483
Disaster Management 17,468
NGO = nongovernment organization.
Note:
Panchayati Raj is a form of government at the village level where each village is responsible for its own activities. Source:
a 

Government of India, Ministry of Minority Affairs. Government Mechanism

Source: Compiled by authors from NGO Darpan – Sector-Wise NGO Directory (accessed 7 July 2021).

18 Civil Society Brief: India

Appendix 3: Number of Registered and Active Associations on the FCRA Portal

The Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) website associations canceled or deemed expired. Table A3
provides data on the number of associations registered presents the data collected from the FCRA website and
for foreign funding every year along with those active plotted in Figure 3 in the main document.
today. The difference in the two categories reflects the

Table A3: Number of Registered and Active Associations on the FCRA Portal

FCRA Associations Registered Out of Those Registered,

Year in That Year Associations Active Today
2012 1,540 758
2013 1,296 490
2014 1,108 339
2015 564 164
2016 635 533
2017 1,012 782
2018 521 493
2019 683 683
2020 165 165
2021 116 116
FCRA = Foreign Contribution Regulation Act.
Source: Ministry of Home Affairs. FCRA Online. List of FCRA Registered Associations
(accessed on 7 July 2021).

Civil Society Brief: India 19

Endnotes
1
The terms “civil society” and “civil society organizations” are used
interchangeably in the document.
2
N. Chandhoke. 2012. Whatever Has Happened to Civil Society?
Economic and Political Weekly. 47 (23). p. 39.
3
Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA). 2000. Defining the Sector in
India: Voluntary, Civil or Non-profit. New Delhi.
4
VANI. Regulatory Compliance: A Handbook to Understand the Laws of
the Voluntary Sector. Draft Report.
5
United Nations. 2003. Handbook on Non-Profit Institutions in the
System of National Accounts. New York.
6
NGOs India. Voluntary Organizations and Volunteerism. New Delhi.
7
Government of India, Planning Commission. 2002. Report of the
Steering Committee on Voluntary Sector for the Tenth Five-Year Plan
(2002–07). Delhi.
8
NGOs India. Voluntary Organizations and Volunteerism. New Delhi.
9
Government of India, Planning Commission. 2002. Report of the
Steering Committee on Voluntary Sector for the Tenth Five-Year Plan
(2002–07). Delhi.
10
NGOs India. Voluntary Organizations and Volunteerism. New Delhi.
11
NGOs India. Voluntary Organizations and Volunteerism. New Delhi.
12
NGOs India. Voluntary Organizations and Volunteerism. New Delhi.
13
Asian Development Bank. 2009. Overview of Civil Society
Organizations India. Manila.
14
Asian Development Bank. 2009. Overview of Civil Society
Organizations India. Manila.
15
V.G. Nandedkar. 1987. Voluntary Association: A Strategy in
Development. The Journal of Public Administration. xxxiii (3).
pp. 465–481.
16
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
17
R. Tandon. 2002. Voluntary Action, Civil Society and the State. Delhi:
Mosaic Books.
18
R. Tandon. 2002. Voluntary Action, Civil Society and the State. Delhi:
Mosaic Books.
19
A. Ravichander. 2018. India Think Tanks: A Historical Background.
20
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
21
M. van Wessel et al. 2019. Civil Society Dynamics: Shaping Roles,
Navigating Contexts. Civil Society Research Collective.
22
P. Kilby. 2010. NGOs in India: The Challenges of Women’s Empowerment
and Accountability. London: Routledge Contemporary South Asia
Series.
23
M. van Wessel et al. 2019. Civil Society Dynamics: Shaping Roles,
Navigating Contexts. Civil Society Research Collective.
24
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
25
Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA). 2002. Voluntary Action,
Civil Society and the State. New Delhi.
26
R. Tandon. 2015. Organizational Development in Non-Governmental
Organizations: An Overview. New Delhi: PRIA.
27
R. Singh. 2014. Civil Society and Policymaking in India: In Search of
Democratic Spaces. A Case Study. New Delhi: Oxfam India.
28
R. Tandon. 2015. Organizational Development in Non-Governmental
Organizations: An Overview. New Delhi: PRIA.
29
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
30
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
20 Civil Society Brief: India
31
Government of India. Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation. 7.4 Finding Out Ways & Means to Collect Data For
Emerging Areas.
32
NPIs definition in the report: “Non-profit institutions are legal
or social entities created for the purpose of producing goods and
services whose status does not permit them to be a source of income,
profit, or other financial gain for the units that establish, control or
finance them. In practice their productive activities are bound to
generate either surpluses or deficits but any surpluses they happen to
make cannot be appropriated by other institutional units.”
33
Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation. 2012. Final Report on Non Profit Institutions in India:
A Profile and Satellite Accounts in the framework of System of National
Accounts. Delhi.
34
It was gathered through survey-based information from all states and
further through a detailed physical verification process of a subset of
organizations.
35
U. Anand. 2015. India Has 31 Lakh NGOs, More Than Double the
Number of Schools. The Indian Express. 1 August.
36
H. V. Nair. 2015. 90 Per Cent of NGOs Do Not File Annual
Statement: CBI to SC. India Today. 19 September.
37
U. Anand. 2015. India Has 31 Lakh NGOs, More Than Double the
Number of Schools. The Indian Express. 1 August.
38
There are different groups for NPI classifications in the UN
Handbook, such as Group 1: Culture and recreation, which includes
culture and arts, sports, other recreation and social clubs, Group
2: Education and research, which includes primary and secondary
education, higher education, other education, and research. There are
12 such groups. More information available on: https://unstats.un.org/
unsd/publication/seriesf/seriesf_91e.pdf.
39
NGO Darpan. Sector-Wise NGO Directory.
40
NGO Darpan. Sector-Wise NGO Directory.
41
Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation. 2012. Final Report on Non Profit Institutions in India:
A Profile and Satellite Accounts in the framework of System of National
Accounts. Delhi.
42
Times News Network. 2021. Foreign Donations Received over 4 Years
by NGOs under FCRA totaled over Rs 51,000cr. The Times of India.
March 25.
43
Ministry of Home Affairs. FCRA Dashboard (accessed 21 July 2021).
44
Bain and Company, Inc. and Dasra. 2017. India Philanthropy Report
2017. The Individual Philanthropist’s Path to Full Potential. Bain and
Company, Inc. and Dasra.
45
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2019. Advocacy, Rights and Civil Society: The Opportunity for Indian
Philanthropy. CSIP.
46
Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation. 2012. Final Report on Non Profit Institutions in India:
A Profile and Satellite Accounts in the framework of System of National
Accounts. Delhi.
47
L. Dubochet. 2011. The Changing Role of Civil Society in a Middle-
Income Country. A case study from India. New Delhi: Oxfam India.
48
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
49
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2020. The Impact of COVID-19 on India’s Nonprofit Organizations:
A Snapshot Report. CSIP.
50
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2020. The Impact of COVID-19 on India’s Nonprofit Organizations:
A Snapshot Report. CSIP.
51
R. Tandon and R. Aravind. 2021. Source of Life or Kiss of Death:
Revisiting State-Civil Society Dynamics in India during COVID-19
Pandemic. Nonprofit Policy Forum. 12 (1). pp. 147–163.
52
Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA). 2020. Response of Indian Civil
Society Towards COVID-19. New Delhi.
53
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2020. The Impact of COVID-19 on India’s Nonprofit Organizations:
A Snapshot Report. CSIP.
54
R. Chengappa. 2021. When Will The Covid Nightmare End? India
Today. 24 May.
55
Rapid Rural Community Response is a collective of over 60 NGOs
that are working together since the pandemic hit India. They have
been supporting the planning in rural communities for an effective
response to COVID-19.
56
R. Tandon. 2020. Investing in Local Leadership Nurtures Social
Capital. The Times of India. 24 August.
57
R. Tandon and R. Aravind. 2021. Source of Life or Kiss of Death:
Revisiting State-Civil Society Dynamics in India during COVID-19
Pandemic. Nonprofit Policy Forum. 12 (1). pp. 147–163.
58
National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), India. 2021. NHRC
Meeting with Civil Society Organizations and Human Rights
Defenders Focuses on Forging Ties for a Collective Effective
Response to Deal with Covid-19 Pandemic. Press release. 11 May.
59
R. Tandon and R. Aravind. 2021. Source of Life or Kiss of Death:
Revisiting State-Civil Society Dynamics in India during COVID-19
Pandemic. Nonprofit Policy Forum. 12 (1). pp. 147–163.
60
A. Kant. 2020. Empowered Groups Have Joined Hands with
Government Against Covid. The Indian Express. 25 May.
61
The Indian Express. 2021. NITI Aayog seeks help from civil society
groups in fighting Covid. The Indian Express. 24 April.
62
R. Tandon. 2002. Voluntary Action, Civil Society and the State.
Delhi: Mosaic Books.
63
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
64
Asian Development Bank. 2009. Overview of Civil Society
Organizations India. Manila.
65
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2020. A Study on the Legal, Regulatory, and Grants-in-Aid Systems for
India’s Voluntary Sector. CSIP.
66
Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation. 2012. Final Report on Non Profit Institutions in India:
A Profile and Satellite Accounts in the framework of System of National
Accounts. Delhi.
67
M. Manku. 2015. Too Many NGOs or Too Little Classification. Mint.
4 August.
68
Government of India, Planning Commission. 2007. National Policy on
the Voluntary Sector.
69
Government of India, Planning Commission. 2007. National Policy on
the Voluntary Sector.
70
Based on primary and secondary data gathered by VANI, including
consultations with key stakeholders.
71
Voluntary Action Network India (VANI). 2020. Study Report on
National Policy on Voluntary Sector. New Delhi.
72
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2020. A Study on the Legal, Regulatory, and Grants-in-Aid Systems for
India’s Voluntary Sector. CSIP.
73
As mentioned in the study, these recommendations are based on
consultations with experts and multiple meetings within the voluntary
sector.
74
Voluntary Action Network India (VANI). 2020. Study Report on
National Policy on Voluntary Sector. New Delhi.
75
Council on Foundations. 2019. Nonprofit Law In India.
76
Government of India, Ministry of Law and Justice. 2020. The Foreign
Contribution (Regulation) Amendment Act, 2020. New Delhi.
77
Voluntary Action Network India (VANI). 2020. Study Report on
National Policy on Voluntary Sector. New Delhi.
78
Voluntary Action Network India (VANI). 2020. Study Report on
National Policy on Voluntary Sector. New Delhi.
79
G.V. Bhatnagar. 2020. Leading NGOs Believe FCRA Changes Will
‘Kill’ Voluntary Sector. The Wire. 22 September.
80
Government of India, Ministry of Corporate Affairs. 2014. Chapter
XII – The Companies (Corporate Social Responsibility Policy) Rules,
2014. New Delhi. 27 February.
81 89
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil
Society in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
82
Society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA). 2002. Voluntary
Action, Civil Society and the State. New Delhi.
83
R. Tandon. 2015. Organizational Development in Non-Governmental
Organizations: An Overview. New Delhi: PRIA.
84
M. van Wessel, et al. 2019. Civil Society Dynamics: Shaping Roles,
Navigating Contexts. Civil Society Research Collective.
85
D. Goswami, R. Tandon, and K. Bandyopadhyay. No date. Civil Society
in Changing India: Emerging Roles, Relationships and Strategies.
New Delhi: PRIA.
86
S. Bera. 2020. Civil Society Gears up for Big Funds Squeeze. Mint.
15 October.
87
L. Dubochet. 2011. The Changing Role of Civil Society in a Middle-
Income Country. A case study from India. New Delhi: Oxfam India.
88
P. Venkatachalam and D. Berfond. 2017. Building the Bench at Indian
NGOs: Investing to Fill the Leadership Development Gap.
The Bridgespan Group.
89
Dasra. 2019. Ready, Set, Grow; Effective Capacity Building for NGOs and
Funders Who Dream Big. Mumbai: Dasra.
90
The Bridgespan Group. 2021. Building Strong, Resilient NGOs in India:
Time for New Funding Practices. Bridgespan.
91
K. Bandyopadhyay and S. Shikha. 2020. Capacities that Can Make a
Difference. New Delhi: PRIA.
92
P. Sharma. 2016. Building Capacity of NGOs Needed. The Asian.
24 June.
93
M. van Wessel, et al. 2019. Civil Society Dynamics: Shaping Roles,
Navigating Contexts. Civil Society Research Collective.
94
L. Dubochet. 2011. The Changing Role of Civil Society in a Middle-
Income Country. A case study from India. New Delhi: Oxfam India.
95
S. Ganguly. 2016. Deliberating Environmental Policy in India:
Participation and the Role of Advocacy.
96
Ashoka University Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy (CSIP).
2020. The Impact of COVID-19 on India’s Nonprofit Organizations:
A Snapshot Report. CSIP.
97
Voluntary Action Network India (VANI). 2020. Study Report on
National Policy on Voluntary Sector. New Delhi.
98
Source 1: Data for Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu, Rajasthan, Assam, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur, Goa, Chandigarh, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep: H. V. Nair. 2015. 90 Per Cent
of NGOs Do Not File Annual Statement: CBI to SC. India Today.
19 September.
Source 2: Data for Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttarakhand and Bihar: D.
Mahapatra. 2015. India has One Cop for Every 940 People, an NGO
for 535. The Times of India. 6 January.
Source 3: Data for Mizoram, Jharkhand, and Sikkim: The Hans India.
2015. Telangana defaults on NGOs details: SC. The Hans India.
6 January.
Source 4: Data for Madhya Pradesh: D. Mahapatra. 2014. India
Witnessing NGO Boom, There Is 1 for Every 600 People. The Times of
India. 23 February.
Data could not be found Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Karnataka, Odisha
and Telangana.
Civil Society Brief: India 21
 Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO)
© 2023 ADB. The CC license does not apply to non-ADB copyright materials in this publication.
https://www.adb.org/terms-use#openaccess http://www.adb.org/publications/corrigenda
Publication Stock No. BRF230147 DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/BRF230147 pubsmarketing@adb.org

All photos are from ADB.

The cover photo represents children after school. There is a growing focus on improving key development outcomes in India
and the civil society has a critical role to play in that.

22 Civil Society Brief: India