Biology

Carol Standard Convent, Ichi Teacher: Mrs.
Ukachukwu
BIOLOGY
S.S. 2 3RD TERM WEEK 2
Conservation of Natural Resources.
To conserve something means to protect it and keep it in a healthy

condition. Conservation can also mean ensuring a high quality of life for
humans by the wise use of the environment. It can also mean the
planning and management of natural resources in order to ensure their
wise use and continuity of supply while maintaining and enhancing
their quality, value and preserving the original nature of the
environment.
Conservation is defined as the preservation of natural resources from

loss or waste or harm, through sensible use to ensure their continued use
or availability and to presser the quality or original nature of the natural
resources.
Natural resources can be divided into renewable and non-renewable

natural resource.
1. Renewable Natural Resources: These are those resources that can
be renewed or replaced or recovered by natural processes or good
management. Examples are:- water, air, food, forest, soil and
animals.
2. Non-renewable Natural Resources: These are resources that
cannot be replace in the foreseeable future. They are those
materials that are fixed and can easily be depleted. They are those
resources which when exhausted cannot be replaced or recovered.
Examples are; naturally occurring materials such as oil, coal,
petroleum, bauxite, tin, gas, copper, limestone etc.
Reasons for Conservation.

1. Natural resources help in carrying out research. For example,
forest, wildlife, minerals etc.
2. Conservation helps to prevent the natural ecosystem from being
destroyed thereby allowing the organism in the ecosystem to
survive
3. It helps in enhancing the recycling of some scarce natural
resources e.g water.
4. It helps to ensure the continuous use of natural resources for the
benefit of man
Carol Standard Convent, Ichi Teacher: Mrs. Ukachukwu
5. Forest which provides medicinal materials must be conserved to

ensure easy availability and continued existence.
6. It helps to prevent some valuable plants and animals from
extinction or destruction.
Method of Conservation
Methods of Water Conservation
1. Storage of water in tanks or wells
2. Treatment and recycling of used water
3. Saving of water by prompt repair of burst pipes or turning off taps
immediately after use.
4. Damming of rivers to allow more effective management of water.
5. Control of water pollution
6. By irrigation in order to reactivate areas that lack adequate water.
7. Adequate control and use of ground water.
Methods of Soil Conservation

1. Planting grasses, legumes and other cover crops
2. Crops must be planted on ridges across slopes
3. Practising shifting cultivation, bush fallowing/crop rotation
4. Avoiding or preventing bush burning
5. Addition of manure/fertilizer to the top soil
6. Spreading a layer of vegetable material on cultivated farmland or
mulching.
7. Constructing ridges across the slope of the land at intervals or
contour ridging
8. Planting trees/reafforestation
9. Preventing of over-grazing.
Methods of Forest Conservation

1. Establishment of a forest reserve.
2. Making of laws restricting falling of economic trees.
3. Recycling of papers and other forest products.
4. Conservation of soil, since it supports forest
5. By reaforestation
6. Efficient management of forest should be encouraged.
Methods of Fisheries Conservation

1. Water pollution must be controlled or avoided
2. Fingerlings should be stocked artificially
3. Dams, reservoirs and ponds should be construsted

4. Construction of fingerlings multiplication centres
Methods of Wildlife Conservation
1. Through restricted hunting
2. Making of laws in order to maintain the population of animals
3. Through game farming
4. Through artificial stocking
5. Bush burning should be discouraged as this may lead to migration
or displacement of wildlife.
Methods of Mineral Resources Conservation
1. There should be legislation against indiscriminate mining of
mineral resources.
2. Substituting fossil fuel with solar energy or water power
3. Over dependence on a particular mineral resources should be
discouraged as this can lead to the depletion of such mineral
resources.
4. Preventing accidental wastage of minerals e.g. oil spillage.
5. There should be effective and efficient utilisation of available
mineral resources for man’s use.
(A) Benefits of Conservation

1. Preserves timber and forest products
2. Checks erosion or preserves the soil
3. Controls desert encroachment
4. Preserves natural species
5. Encourages rainfall
6. It serves as sources of food supply e.g fruits, vegetables meat tec.
7. It provides medicinal herbs.
8. It serves as home or habitat of wild animals which can serve as
game reserves
9. It provides employment for some people e.g forest guards, lumber
men and hunters
10. Forest can serve as centres of tourism
11. It provides raw materials for industries e.g cotton, rubber, ropes,
twine, latex and timber.
(B) Benefits of wild-life Conservation
1. They are source of protein
2. Raw materials for industries are made available
3. They are source of natural species
4. They boost tourism education

5. It generates revenue for government
6. It can generate employment for some people
7. Wildlife may be used in ecological or scientific studies (research
work for scientists)
8. It encourages recreation
(C) Benefits of water Conservation

1. It provides food and protein e.g fish, prawn, crayfish
2. It provides water for agriculture and irrigation
3. Water is made available for domestic and industrial uses e.g
drinking, washing cooking etc.
4. It provides means of transportation
5. It is used for Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P) generation which
provides electricity e.g kainji dam.
6. Water provides employment for people e.g fishermen, canoe or
ship builder.
7. Water provides recreational activities like swimming.
(D) Benefits of Mineral Resources Conservation

1. It provides raw materials for industries e.g silver, copper, iron,
diamond etc.
2. Mineral resources provide fuel e.g coal, petroleum and natural gas
for use.
3. They are used for construction purposes.
4. It serves as a sources of common salt for food.
(E) Benefits of Soil Conservation

1. It maintains its fertility
2. It provides raw materials for industries e.g limestone, clay etc.
3. It is the home for some organisms.
4. It supports the growth of valuable wood for building and furniture
making
5. Buildings are erected on the soil
6. Mineral resources are obtained from the soil
(F) Benefits of Fisheries Conservation

1. Fishes are useful for scientific studies
2. It encourages education or recreation
3. It serves as a source of protein or food
4. It helps in preserving the natural species of fish
Problems and Difficulties Associated with Conservation

1. Insufficient land due to population explosion
2. Economic problems
3. Limited source of energy, hence forest destruction as firewood
4. Over-cropping, over-farming and over grazing
5. Constant bush burning
6. Lack of public awareness and good management
7. Soil erosion caused by natural wind, rainfall and run-offs.
8. Land, air and water pollution
9. Indiscriminate hunting, leading to eradication of wildlife.
10. There is problem of oil spillage which leads to loss of terrestrial
and aquatic life.
11. Indiscriminate fishing, leading to depletion of aquatic life.
12. Occurrence of natural disaster such as earthquakes and floods.
Efforts employed in the country to ensure Conservation of Natural

resources are as follows:- or effect of Nigeria to ensure conservation.
1. Nigeria has agencies for conservation examples include:-

a. Nigeria Conservation Foundation
b. Federal Environmental Protection Agencies (FEPA)
c. River Basin Development Authorities
d. PHCN-Power Holding Company of Nigeria
e Ministry of Agriculture
Under this ministry we have:-

i. Department of Agriculture
ii. Department of wildlife conservation
iii. Department of fisheries
f. Ministry of Energy Resources
g. National Environmental Sanitation Authority
2. Establishment of game reserves or forest reserves or afforestation.

Examples are:-
i. Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi
ii. Obudu Cattle Ranch in Cross River State
iii. Borgu Game Reserve in Niger State.
Iv Olomu Forest Reserves in Kwara State
3. Reafforestation Programmes have been spear-headed by the

Federal Government.
4. Prohibition of the use of chemicals like Gammalin 20 in fishing
5. Hunting of certain species in certain areas is prohibited in order to
save some animals from going into extinction
6. Botanical and Zoological gardens are established to preserve
several species of animals and plants
WEEK 3
Pests and Diseases of Crops

Pest of crops
A pest can be defined as any organism capable of causing damage to
crop plants
Types of Crop Pest

(1) Insects (2) Birds (3) Rodents (4) Monkeys
(5) Man (6) Nematodes
Classification of Insect Pests

These can be classified into various groups based on their mode of
feeding.
These groups of insect pests include:-

1. Biting and chewing insects
2. Piercing and sucking insects
3. Boring insects.
Insect Pests Crops Nature of damages and Prevention and control

attacked economic importance measure
Stem borer Cereals, e.g i) Larvae bore holes into i) Uproot and burn
rice, maize stems infected plant
guinea corn ii) They eat up the tissues ii) Spray with
iii)They weaken the insecticide e.g
plant gammalin 20
iv) Reduced growth and iii) Early planting
yield iv) Crop rotation
Army Cereals e.g i) Larvae invade and eat i) Hand picking
worm maize up leaves and stem ii) spray with
ii) Reduced insecticides e.g DDT
photosynthesis
iii) Retarted growth
iv) reduced yield
Pod borer Legumes e.g i) Larvae bore into the i) Crop rotation
cowpea, soya- pod ii) Early harvesting
beans ii) They eat up the seeds iii) Spray with
iii) reduces yield insecticides
iv) introduce diseases
Aphids Legume e.g i) stunted growth i) Spray with
cawpea, soya- ii) Galls or swelling on insecticides to kill
beans leaves vestors
iii) Vectors of disease e.g ii)Uproot and burn
rosette mosaic disease of infected plant
cowpea
Leaf Beetle Legume e.g i) They eat up the leaves i) Spray with
cawpea, soya- ii) reduced insecticides
beans photosynthesis ii) Use resistant
iii) reduced yield varieties
Cocoa Beverages e.g i) They inject toxic saliva i) Spray with
Mirids Cocoa into the plant insecticides e.g
(capside) ii) They transmit fungal gammalin 20
diseases ii) Regular weeding
iii) Reduced yield
iv) stunted growth
Yam beetles Tubers e.g i) Bore holes into yam i) Dust yam sets with
yam tubers aldrin dust before
ii) Reduction in yield planting
iii) Reduction in quality ii) Crop rotation
and market value
Cassava Tubers e.g i) Twisting of stem and i) Early planting
mealybugs Cassava reduced internodes ii) Use resistance
ii) Swelling of shoots varieties
iii) Reduced yield iii) Treatment of

cuttings
iv) Spray with
insecticides
Green Tubers e.g i) They feed on the leaves i) Use of biological
spidermite Cassava ii) Reduced rate of control
photosynthesis ii) Spray with
iii) Reduction in yield insecticides
Variegated Tubers e.g i) Adults and larvae eat i) hard picking
grasshopper cassava, yam up the leaves stem ii) spray with
ii) Reduce the rate insecticides e.g Adrex
photosynthesis 40
iii) reduced yield
iv) Reduced growth
Cotton Cotton i) They perce and suck i) Hand picking
stainer sap from plants ii) Spray with
ii) Produce toxic saliva insecticides
iii) Reduce quality of boll
iv) Transmit diseases
v) Leaf distortion
Cotton boll Cotton i) Larvae feed on the i) Spray with
worm seeds of cotton insecticides to kill the
ii) Destroy the lint and insects
reduce its quality ii) Burn cotton plant
iii) Premature fall of debris after harvesting
cotton boll.
Thrips Vegetables e.g i) Browning of leaves Spray with insecticides
onion, tomato ii) wilting of plant
iii) Reduced yield
Leaf rollers Vegetables i) Rolling and twisting of Spray with insecticides
leaves e.g vetox 85
ii) Reduction in the rate
of photosynthesis
iii) Reduced yield
Leaf beetle Vegetables e.g i) They eat up the leaves Spray with appropriate
pepper, okro, and stem insecticides e.g vetox
tomato ii) Reduced 85.
photosynthesis
iii) Reduction in yield
and quality
Beam Stored i) Bore holes into grain i) Early harvesting
beetle, grain produce e.g and eat them up ii) Proper storage of
weevils rice, cowpea, ii) Reduce the quality of produce
maize stored produce iii) Proper cleaning and
iii) Reduce grains to fumigation of store

powder with phostoxintablets
iv) Reduce farmers or with lindane dust.
income
Birds Rice, maize, i) Reduction in quality i) Children to scare the
Millet, and yield bird
sorghum ii) Reduction in income ii) Use of scare crows
farmers iii) Early harvesting
Rodent e.g Rice, yam i) They feed on crops i) Use of traps
bush rabbit, cassava, fruits ii) They destroy whole ii) Wire or net fencing
rat, squirrel plant iii) Use of poison bait.
iii) Reduction in yield
iv) Increase in cost of
production
Monkey Cocoa, i) They eat up the fruits i) Use traps
banana, ii) They reduce the ii) Shooting with gun
orange quality of fruits where possible
iii) They cause loss to the
farmer
Life Cycle of Aphids

Aphids feed on the sap in the phloem tissues of plants. They use their
proboscis to penetrate into the plants, causing damage to the plant
tissues.
The life span of aphid ranges from 20 to 40 days. It reproduces by both

unfertilized and by fertilized eggs. Under favourable wheather and food
conditions, the female lays unfertilized eggs, which hatch into mainly
wingless females and few wingless males. Reproduction by unfertilized
egg is called Parthenogenesis.
When conditions are unfavourable, some winged males and females are
produced. These mate and the female lays fertilized eggs. The fertilized
eggs withstand adverse conditions and hatch to produce winged males
and females some of these move to fresh hosts. There, the females
reproduce by parthenogenesis once more to produce wingless females.
Aphids do much harm to crops in the following ways:-

1. They suck juice from the phloem tissue and thereby weaken the
crops and reduce their yield.
2. The piercing of the plant tissue causes physical damage.
3. As they suck juice from one plant to another, they transmit viruses
that cause diseases, such as swollen shoots of cocoa.
Aphid life cycle

Rice Weevils
Rice weevils are pests commonly found in rice grains. They also feed on
other types of stored crops such as maize. They have a life span ranging
from seven to eight months and reproduce sexually.
After mating, the female weevil will lay only a single egg in a grain of
rice. The egg hatches into the larvae which feeds on the grain for about
three to five weeks before changing into the pupa stage. It takes about
one week, after which they emerge from the grain as adults
Life cycle of rice weavil

Grasshoppers.
Grasshoppers feed on grasses and the leaves of plants. They usually
destroy the leaves of a plant causing greater damage to crops.
Grasshoppers have a lifespan of about two months. They reproduce

sexually. The female grasshopper lays its eggs in the soil near the base of
plants. The eggs are coated with a sticky substance which hardens to
form an egg pod. When the temperature is warm enough the eggs hatch
into nymphs which have to burrow their way out of the ground and
crawl up the plants.
The nymphs spend most of their time feeding. They grow very quickly
and need to moult about three to five times before reaching adult size.
Life Cycle of grasshopper
Methods of Pest Control

Pests can be prevented or controlled through the following:-
1. Physical control
2. Cultural control
3. Biological control
4. Chemical control
Effects or Economic Importance of Insect Pests in Crop Production

1. They cause reduction in the viability of stored produce
2. They increase the cost of production during the course of
controlling them
3. Insect pests destroy crops in the field through their biting, chewing
boring, sucking and defoliation activities.
4. Some are carriers of vectors of diseases
5. They render vegetables and fruits unattractive and unmarketable
6. Site of injuries by insect may cause disease attack to crops
7. They can cause total death of crop plants.
8. The profit of farmers are reduced
9. They reduce the quality of produce either in the store or in the
field
10. They reduce the yield of crop generally.
Diseases of Crop
A plant disease can be defined as a departure of deviation of the plant
from the normal state of health, presenting marked symptoms or
outward visible signs.
Causes of Crop Diseases

(1) Viruses (2) Bacteria (3) Fungi (4) Nematodoes
(5) Nutrient deficiency
S/N Name of Causative Method of Symptoms and Prevention and

Disease organism transmission economic control measure
importance
1 Maize Fungus i) Air borne i) Reduced yield i) Destroy
smut (Ustilago ii) Spores ii) Galls on diseased plants
Maydis) deposited on leaves which ii) Use resistance
fruits later turn black varieties
iii) Seed
treatment
2 Rice Fungus i) Air bone i) Small i) Use clean seeds
blight (Pirucularia ii) Spores longitudinal red ii) Avoid heavy
Oryzea) deposited on spots on leaves use of nitrogen
leaves which turn grey fertilizers
or brown iii) Use resistant
ii) Reduced varieties
yield
3 Maize Fungus i) Air borne i) Red spots on i) Early planting
rust (Puccinia ii) Spores leaves ii) Crop rotation
Polysora) deposited on ii) Reduced iii) Planting
leaves yield resistant varieties
iii) Death of the
crop
4 Cercopora Fungus Through wind i) Reddish- i) Spray with
-a leaf brown spot on fungicides
spot of leaves ii) Crop rotation
cowpea ii) Lesions on iii) Planting
leaves resistant varieties
iii) Chlorosis
iv) Dropping or
falling of leaves
5 Rosette Virus By piercing i) Yellow leaves i) Early planting
disease of and sucking with mosaic ii) Crop rotation
groundnu insect (Aphid) mottling iii) Use
t ii) Stunted plant insecticides

with curled iv) Uproot and
leaves burn infected
iii)Wilting and plants
death of plant v) Use resistant
iv) Shortening varieties
of internode.
6 Cassava Virus i) Through i) Mottling of i) Use resistant
Mosaic piercing and leaves. varieties
sucking insect. ii) Stem/leaf ii) Uproot and
(whitefly) distortion burn infected
(Bemisia iii) Mosaic plant
nigerensis). pattern on iii) Spray with
leaves insecticides to kill
iv) stunted plant the vector.
v) Reduction in iv) Use disease
yield free stem
7 Leaf Bacterium i) infected i) Blighting of i) Use of resistant
blight of Xanthosmo cuttings leaves. varieties
cassava ras ii) Rain ii) Falling off of ii) Use of disease
Manihotis. splashing. leaves free cuttings.
iii) Insects iii) Wilting of iii) Early planting
iv) Tools plants. iv) Practise crop
iv)reduced yield rotation
v) Die-back of
stem
8 Cocoa Fungus i) Rain splash i) Brown spots i) Remove and
black pod phytophtho ii) Insect on pod. destroy infected
disease ra ii) Rottening of pods.
palmivora pods. ii) Regular
iii) Entire pod weeding
turn black iii) Spray with
iv) Low yield Fungicides e.g
Bordeaux
mixture
iv) Avoid
overcrowding of
cocoa plant.
9 Coffee Fungus i) By wind i) Yellowing or i) Planting seeds
leaf rust. ii) By rain brown spot on from healthy
splash leaves. plants
ii) Orange ii) Use resistant
powdery mass varieties
on the leaf. iii) Spray with
iii) reduction in copper

yield fungicides
iv) Dropping of
leaves.
10 Black arm Bacterium i) Through i) Angular spots i) Seed dressing
(bacterial leaves on leaves and ii) Uproot and
blight of ii) Stems near stem burn infected
cotton) the ground ii) Boll rot plants.
iii) Exudates iii) Use resistant
from affected varieties
leaves. iv) crop rotation
iv) Retorted
Growth and
death of plant
11 Root knot Nematode Nematodes in i) Knotting or i)Soil sterilisation
of tomato soil galling of roots ii)Crop rotation
/okro ii) Reterted iii) Use resistant
growth varieties
iii) Reduction in iv) Early death of
yield plant
v) Uproot and
burn infected
plants.
12 Damping Fungus Infected soil i) Retarded i) Spray with

off growth copper
disease of ii) Cells become fungicides.
okro water-logged ii) Use resistant
iii)Gradual varieties
wilting of plants iii) Sterilisation of
iv) Death of soils.
plant
13 Onion Fungus i) Infected soil i) Twisting of i) Crop rotation
twister ii)water splash leaves ii) Use resistant
disease iii) Infected ii) Grey patches varieties
bulb. on leaves iii) Spray with
iii) Reduction in fungicides
yield
iv) Death of
plant
14 Stored Fungus i)Infected seed i) Black mould i) Proper drying
produce or fruits. on seeds and of seed before
mould fruits. storage
ii) Pungent ii) Pray with
smell. fungicides
iii) Sour taste. iii) Maintain low
iv) Decay of humidity in store
seeds and fruits iv) Remove
in store. contaminated
seeds before
storage
General Effects of Disease on Crop Production

1. Diseases generally reduce the yield or productivity of crops
2. They also reduce the quality of crops
3. Their activities cause retorted growth in crop plants
4. They cause the malformation of plants
5. They cause reduction in the income of the farmer
6. They can kill or cause the death of plant.
General Control of Plant Diseases.

Diseases of crop plant can be controlled through:-
1. Cultural control
2. Biological control
3. Chemical control
WEEK 4
Reproductive Systems in Vertebrates.
Reproductive Systems in Fish
Fishes undergo sexual reproduction but fertilization is external. Their
reproductive system is found within the abdomen.
The male reproductive system of tilapia consists of two testes and a

male duct which leads to the genital opening. The two testes are very
long and are found in the abdominal cavity. They are joined at the back
as a single tube which opens to the outside as the genital opening.
The female reproductive system of tilapia is made up of two ovaries

which produce egg cells with a small amount of yolk. The two ovaries
are found inside the body cavity which leads into the oviducts and open
internally into the body cavity. The oviducts lead backward and open
again into the genital aperture (opening).
Reproductive System in Reptiles.

The male Agama Lizard has two testes which are located in the
abdomen. The right testis is higher in position than the left testis. The
sperm passes through tiny tubes called the vasa deferentia. This is
connected to the epididymis found along the outer edge of the testes.
The sperm cells finally pass into to two penes. The penis releases sperms
into the female for internal fertilization.
The female reproductive system is made up of two ovaries which are
found in the abdomen in the same position as the testes in the male. The
eggs are released into the abdominal space and from there they move
into the oviduct. As they move down the oviduct, albumen and shell
are deposited on the eggs. The oviduct leads into the cloaca. As mating
between the male and female lizard takes place, fertilization takes place
internally.
Reproductive Systems in Birds.
The male reproductive system of domestic fowl is made up of two large
testes which are attached to the outer edges of the kidney. From each
testis, a vas deferens leads towards the seminal vesicle which is the
expansion of the sperm duct. Birds do not have penis. Sperm accumulate
here during copulation and are transferred from the male to the female
when their cloaca come in contact.
The female reproductive system of domestic fowl has one functional

ovary at the right hand side. The ovary produces ova (eggs) in capsules
attached to the ovary by short stalks. The ovary also produces the yolk.
The infundibulum receives the yolk released by the ovary. Albumen
and Chalaza which hold the yolk and germ cell in position are formed in
the magnum. The two shell membranes and the shape of the egg are
formed in the isthmus. The egg shell is finally formed in the uterus after
which the egg is laid through the cloaca. Fertilization of the egg can take
place as soon as the egg enters the oviduct when spermatozoa are
present. Fertilization occurs before the formation of the albumen.
The Structure and Function of the Human Female Reproductive
System.
The female mammalian Reproductive System Consists of the Following
Structures:-
1. Ovaries: There are two ovaries in a woman located on the dorsal
surface of the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the vertebral
column. They produce eggs. In human beings, the ovaries release
one egg per month alternatively. Eggs are developed in the
outermost layer of the ovary called Germinal Epithelium. The egg
and the surrounding cells make up the mass of cells called
Graffian Follicle or the Ovarian Follicle. The cells of the graffian
Follicle ………….. a hormone called oestrogen.
The formation of the graffian follicle is closely related to the

menstrual cycle. Every month or usually every 28 days, an egg
begins to grow and a follicle begins to enlarge. Eventually, the
follicle protrudes from the surface, the egg cell contained in the
follicle is then released by a process called ovulation.
Functions:-
i) Ovary: produces the egg or ova
ii) It produces female sex hormones called oestrogen and
progesterone.
iii) It is also responsible for the development of secondary
sexual characters in girls.
2. Oviduct or Fallopian Tube: The Oviduct or Fallopian Tube is a
long narrow tube with a funnel-shaped opening which receives
egg (ova) released by the ovary. The oviduct links the ovary with
the uterus.
Functions:-
i) Fertilization takes place in the oviduct.

ii) It is the tube through which the egg or ovum passes from the
ovary to the uterus
3. Uterus or Womb: The uterus is a muscular organ in whose cavity
the zygote develops into a baby. If the egg is fertilized, it becomes
implanted in the walls of the uterus.
Implantation: This is the attachment of the embryo to the wall of
the uterus. The point at which the embryo attached to the uterus
develops into a placenta.
i) This is the part to which the embryo or foetus develops.
4. Vagina: The vagina is a muscular tube that leads from the uterus
to the outside of the body. The penis is inserted into the vagina
during mating, it therefore receives sperms. The vagina is also
referred to as the birth canal because the foetus also passes out
from here during birth.
Function:-
i. It receives sperms from penis during sexual intercourse.
ii. Foetus also passes out of the vagina during birth.
5. Vulva: The vulva is the collective name for all the external parts of
the female reproductive organ. The vulva includes the labia
majora and labia minora which are pairs of folds of skin
surrounding the vulva. The female reproductive system finally
opens to the outside world through the vulva.
Functions:-
i. It permits passage of foetus during birth
ii. It allows the passage of penis into the vagina
ii. It permits the passage of urine out of the body.
6. Clitoris: The clitoris is a small sensitive penis in the male. Like the
penis, it is erectile and becomes stiff on account of flow of blood
into it when stimulated.
Functions:-
i. It helps to stimulate the female during sexual intercourse
The Human Female Reproductive System

The Structure and Function of the Human Male Reproductive Organ.

Mammals have two oval-shaped testes, located inside two scrotal sacs.
in man, the two sacs unite to form the scrotum which contains the two
testes. Each testis has coiled tubes called Seminiferous Tubles. The
tubules unite to form another coiled tuble called the epididymis, which
is about six metres long.
The epididymis lies outside each testis and leads into a muscular
structure called sperm duct or vas deferens. The two vas deferentia
came together and open into the top of the urethra which is continuous
with the urinary bladder. A short and coiled tube called the seminal
vesicle branches from each sperm duct and opens into the base of the
urethra. Prostate gland is also found at the base of the urethra. The
Cowper’s gland is found on either side of the urethra and below the
prostate gland. The urethra is a narrow tube that extends into an erective
organ called the penis.
The Human Male Reproductive System
Functions of the Male Reproductive Organs.
1. Seminiferous Tubules: These are located within the testes. They

are composed of a mass of sperm-producing tubes.
Functions:- These are point where sperms are produced within the
testes.
2. Testes:- (i) They produce sperms (ii) They produce the male sex
hormones, testosterone which is responsible for the development
of secondary sexual characteristics.
3. Scrotum:- This is a special sac (bag) that contains the testes. It
protects the testes. The scrotum lowers the temperature of the
testes to encourage sperm production.
4. Epididymis:- It stores sperm temporarily until they mature.
5. Vas deferens:- it is a duct that conducts sperms to the urethra
6. Seminal vesicle:- It secretes a fluid (semen) in which sperm cells
are suspended.
7. Prostate gland:- It secretes part of the seminal fluid which
activates the sperm
8. Cowper’s gland:- It secretes part of the seminal fluid which acts as
an acid neutralizer. It neutralizes the reproductive organ of the
female which is normally acidic.
9. Urethra:- It is a canal in the penis through which the sperm
(seminal fluid) and urine pass out. Urethra is urinegenital in
function.
10. Penis:- Is an erectile organ.
Note: Semen is the secretion from the glands and the sperms. Semen
contains nutritive materials for the sperms. One complete
ejaculation of sperm has two to three hundred million sperm cells.
WEEK 5
Structures of the Mammalian Gametes.
The reproductive sex cells are known as gametes. The formation of

gametes or gametogenesis takes place in the gonads.
Male Gametes
The male sex cells or gametes called sperms are produced in the testes b
a process called Spermatogenesis. The gamete is unicellular in nature.
The sperm or spermatozoan consiste of a head which contains the

nucleus, a middle spiece and a whip-like tail or flagellum. A human
sperm is about 0.05mm long and microscopic and is usually smaller than
the egg (ovum)
The sperm
Functions of the Sperm Cells

1. Acrosome:- Acrosome is located at the anterior end of the head
which contains lytic enzymes or agents use to dissolve the egg
membrane or its improves penetration of the egg during
fertilization.
2. Middle-piece:- The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria
which generates the energy used by the sperm cell to swim
towards the egg.
3. Long Whip-like tail or Flagellum:- It helps to move or propel the
sperm cell.
4. Nucleus:- It is found in the head of the sperm cell and contain
genetic materials which fuses with the nucleus of the egg or ovum.
Female Gametes
The female sex cells or gametes called the eggs or ova are produced in
the ovaries by a process called Oogenesis. The human female gametes
are larger than 0.1mm in diameter. It is made up of the cytoplasm, a
nucleus in the centre, granules and yolk droplets. The yolk provides a
source of nourishment for the embryo, especially at the early stages of
development.
The cytoplasm in the ovum is surrounded by two membranes. The outer

one is called the vitelline membrane while the inner one is surrounded
on the outside by a jelly coat made of glycoprotein. The nuclei of the
sperm and ovum contain chromosomes (thread-like materials) which
carry the genes. The genes are responsible for the transmission of
characteristics from parents to offspring.
The Ovum or egg

Similarities and Differences between the Male and Female Reproductive

System
Similarities
i. Both have tubes through which the gametes pass.
ii. Both produce gametes
iii. Both have external openings
iv. Both gonads act as ductless (endocrine glands)
v. Both contain gonads (testes and ovaries)
Differences
S/N Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System.
1 There is absence of vulva There is presence of vulvas
2 It produces sperms It produces eggs or ova
3 Seminal vesicle is present Seminal vesicle is absent
4 Prostate gland is present Prostate gland is absent
5 The gonads are located outside the The gonads are located inside the
body body
6 There is no oviduct There is oviduct
7 There is presence of sperm duct Sperm duct is absent
8 There is no uterus Uterus is present
9 There is presence of Penis Vagina is present
10 Ovaries are absent Ovaries are present
11 Cervix is absent There is presence of cervix
12 Sperms pass out through the Ova pass out through the vagina if
urethra unfertilized
13 Vas deferens is present Vas deferens is absent
14 There is presence of testes Tests are absents
15 There is presence of cowper’s land Cowper’s gland is absent
Difference between Sperm and Egg

S/N Sperm Egg
1 It is not visible to the naked eye It is visible to the naked eye.
2 It is motile or active It is not motile
3 There is absence of vitelline Bitelline membrane is present
membrane
4 It has smaller cytoplasm It has larger cytoplasm
5 Tail or flagellum is present Tail or flagellum is absent
6 Food reserves/yolk is absent Food reserve/yolk is present
7 There is presence of head Head is not present.
WEEK 7
Structural Differences in the Eggs of Vertebrates

Eggs of fishes and Amphibians. Fish eggs are surrounded by a thin
membrane that allows the diffusion of gases and waste.
In fishes, the embryo is nourished by yolk that is present in a sac within
the egg
In Amphibians, the eggs contain yolk for the growing embryo. They are
covered by a layer of jelly which makes them unpalatable to other
animals.
Eggs of Birds and Reptiles
Birds, reptiles and some mammals such as the platypus lay their eggs on
land.
Their eggs allow the embryo to develop in a terrestrial environment. The
egg is made up of the following.
A porous shell which allows for gaseous exchange. It also provides
shelter and protects the egg against mechanical damage and desiccation.
Shell membrane which is the site of gaseous exchange.
The embryonic membranes are made up of the chorion, amnion,
allantois and yolk sac.
The chorion is the outer layer that surrounds both the embryo and the
yolk sac.
The amnion is the inner layer that surrounds the embryo.
The amniotic cavity is made up of a fluid known as amniotic fluid. This

fluid provides cushion for the developing embryo and protects it from
knocks embryo and protects it from knocks and bumps.
The allantois is responsible for gaseous exchange and the removal of

waste.
The Yolk contains a high level of protein and fats and provide food
essentials for embryonic growth.
The egg white or albumen is made up of water and protein albumen.

The egg of a bird
In birds, fertilization is internal

Birds lay few eggs. The developing embryo in the egg feeds from the
yolk, albumen and shell placenta is absent in birds. The development of
the embryo into a click is external. Birds show parental care for their
young ones. Such cares are feeding guarding and brooding them until
they are able to fly and fee for themselves.
Parts of the bird’s egg and their functions.

1. Air Space: It stores air for the egg.
2. Germinal Disc (embryo): It develops into the embryo
3. Chalaza:- It suspends the yolk and the germinal disc in the centre
of the egg to avoid damage.
4. Shell: It protects the egg and allow the exchange of gases.
5. Double membrane: It protects the egg and acts as a semi-
permeable membrane.
6. Albumen: It provides protein, food and water for the embryo. It
also absorbs shock for the embryo.
7. Yolk: It provides food for the embryo. Yolk membrane keeps the
yolk air tight.
Eggs of Mammals.
Most mammals develop a placenta during pregnancy except the egg
laying mammals called monotremes and marsupials. The eggs of the
monotremes have soft shells and are similar to those of the reptiles and
birds. The allantois and yolk sac become modified for the umbilical cord
and together with the chorion, they make up the placenta.
The placenta is the site in the uterine wall where dissolved nutrients and
food substances are transferred from the mother’s blood circulation into
the embryonic blood stream by diffusion.
Comparison of Reproduction in Fish, Reptiles and Mammals.

S/N Vertebrates Number of Mode of Parental
eggs laid fertilization care.
1 Fishes Millions External None
2 Amphilbians Hundreds External None
3 Reptiles Few Internal Almost none
4 Birds Few Internal High
5 Mammals None, except in Internal Very high
monotremes
i. Oviparous Animals: These are animals that lay eggs and their
eggs develop externally. Eg. Insects, fishes, birds, emphibians,
reptiles, few mammals like the duck, billed platypus
(manotremes).
ii. Viviparous Animals: These animals give birth to their young ones
alive. The embryo depends upon the mother for its nourishment
until birth e.g mammals.
iii. Ovoviviparity: In some animals, the eggs are retained within the
mother’s body until they are ready to hatch. Hatching occurs just
before or as the eggs are being laid. After hatching, the “Live”
offspring are released from the body of the mother. The embryo is
not nourished by the placenta but nutrients from the yolk present
in the egg.
Ovoiviparity occurs in many aquatic animals such as sharks,
fishes, reptiles, like snakes and lizards as well as in insects.
Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female gamete to form a
zygote. In humans, fertilization is internal, it occurs inside the female
parent.
During sexual intercourse (coition), the penis of the male is inserted into
the vagina of the female. At orgasm, sperms are ejaculated into the
vagina. A single discharge or ejaculation contains an estimated two to
three million sperms.
Sperms are motile. That is, on release into the vagina, they swim actively
in the fluid present in the vagina upwards into the uterus and further
still into the fallopian tubes.
The two ovaries release one egg every alternate month. That is an ovary
releases on egg every two months.
When an egg is released by an ovary, it moves through the oviducal
funnel into the oviduct. Then it begins to move down in the oviduct. An
egg takes several days to move down through the oviduct.
As the egg moves down the oviduct, the sperms swim up the oviduct of
an estimated two to three million sperms ejaculated into the vagina, only
one penetrates an egg with its head. All others die in the process of
trying to reach or enter the egg.
The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg, while the
cytoplasm of the sperm fuses with the cytoplasm of the egg. That is what
is called Fertilization. The product of fertilization is a single cell called
zygote.
Development of the Zygote.
The zygote, which is initially a single cell begins to grow by cell division
(binary fission). This growth occur as the zygote is still moving down
the oviduct. By the time the zygote arrives in the uterus it is in the first
stage of the embryo, which is a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst.
After arriving in the uterus, the embryo becomes attached to the soft
wall of the uterus. The part of the uterus where the embryo is attached
becomes thickened and develop into an organ called the Placenta.
The process of attachment of the embryo to the uterus is called
implantation.
The embryo, from about 10 weeks of age, is called the foetus. A human,
when all stages of life are considered, undergoes the fast rate of growth
in the womb. The foetus grows and develops rapidly.
The beginning of the circulatory system, the limbs, head, trunk and
other parts can be observed in the early foetus.
Survival adaptations of the human foetus.

The new human remains in the womb for about forty weeks before it is
born. This period is known as the gestation or pregnancy period. The
human egg is very small and contains little food store, in the form of
yolk until it is born. Therefore there are adaptations for the survival of
the foetus until the baby is born.
These adaptations include:-

1. Placenta
2. Umbilical Cord
3. Amniotic fluid and
4. Birth
1. Placenta: The placenta is an organ formed in the uterus, at the

point where the embryo is implanted. At the placenta, the blood
capillaries of the foetus and those of the mother mesh closely
together. This situation makes it possible for the placenta to
perform the functions of enabling the exchange of materials for life
between the foetus and the mother.
Functions of the Placenta.

1. Digested food substances such as amino acids, glycogen and
fatty acid, sugars, vitamins and mineral salts, as well as
oxygen, diffuse from the blood of the mother into the blood
of the foetus at the placenta.
2. Carbondioxide, urea and other excretory products diffuse
from the blood of the foetus into the blood of the mother’s
body through the mother’s kidney, skin or other excretory
organs.
3. The placenta secretes a hormone called which stops
ovulation in the mother, during the period of pregnancy.
4. It allows the passage of drugs or vaccines and alcohol from
mother to foetus.
5. It prevents the passage of some pathogens from mother to
foetus.
6. It converts glucose to fructose.
7. It prevents the mixing of foetal and mother’s blood.
8. The placenta allows passage of ingredients or antibodies that
protects the developing foetus against infection.
9. The placenta attaches the foetus to the uterine wall of the
mother.
2. Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord connects the placenta in the

mother’s womb (uterus) to the navel of the foetus. Through the
umbilical cord, blood vessels of the mother travel to the placenta
where they closely mesh together with the blood capillaries of the
foetus, thus making the exchange of food, oxygen and excretory
products between the foetus and mother possible.
3. Amniotic Fluid: Early in the development of the foetus, tow

membranes called the amnion and chorion grow out of the foetus,
then over and around it. These membranes enclose a fluid called
the amniotic fluid that surrounds the foetus.
The amniotic fluid has the following functions.
They are as follows:-
a. It protects the foetus from shock.
b. It protects the foetus from sudden changes of temperature.
c. It allows the movement of the foetus.
d. It provides a sterile environment for development .
4. Birth: When the pregnancy period is over and the baby is due to
be born, the muscles of the uterus begin rhythmic contraction
called labour pains. The amnion and chorion tear and the amniotic
fluid is lost. As a result of the labour pains, the foetus is pushed
out of the uterus, head first.
When the foetus comes out of the mother, it is now called a baby.
The baby is still connected to the mother by the umbilical cord.
The umbilical cord is tied so as to control bleeding. It is then cut to
separate the baby from the mother.
As the labour pain continues after the birth of the baby, the
placenta is also pushed out.
Care of the Young
Animals that bear their young ones alive are said to be viviparous.
Human babies are weak, fragile and must be fed and cared foe. The
ministry of healthy emphasises post-natal health care for mother and
child, feeding in the early stages at least with mother’s milk, careful
sanitation and child spacing for mother’s health.
Care of the young in humans continues even though the amount
decreases, until the individual comes an adult.
WEEK 8
Reproductive Systems in Flowering Plans
Structures and Functions of the Reproductive Organs of Plants
A flower is an organ of sexual reproduction in a flowering plant. It
contains the male and female sex organs which enable them to undergo
sexual reproduction.
Fertilization inside the flower can lead to the production of seeds which
are capable of germinating into new plants.
Longitudinal Section of Hibiscus Flower.

Parts and Functions of a Flowering Plant
1. Pedicel: It attaches the flower to the stem
2. Receptacle: It carries and holds together the other parts of the
flower.
3. Sepals (calyx): They enclose and protect the other floral parts
when the flower is in the bud stage. If brightly coloured, they
make plant food (photosynthesis).
4. Petals (corolla): The attract insects which pollinate flower.
5. Filament: It holds or carries the anther.
6. Anther: It contains the pollen grains
7. Pollen grains: They produce the male gametes that fertilise the
ovules.
8. Stigma: It receives pollen grains at pollination
9. Style: It connects the stigma to the ovary and it is the passage for
the pollen tube to reach the ovules.
10. Ovary: It contains the ovules, develops in fruit.
11. Ovules: It produces the female gametes, develops into seeds.
The flower is made up of four floral parts: Theses are:

i. Calyx ii. Corolla iii. Androecium iv. Gynoecium
i. The Calyx: It is made up of sepals which are usually small and
green. This protects the flower which is in the bud. Coloured
sepals are called petaloid. Free sepals are described as
polysepalous while fused ones are called gamosepalous
ii. The Corolla: It is made up of the petals. In many plants, they are
the eye catching parts of the flower. Most flowers have four to ten
petals which may be separated (polypetalous) or joined to form a
tube (gamopetalous). Petals are brightly coloured and scented

which attract pollen-transferring animals. (Pollinators). When both
the petals sepals look alike e.g lilies, they are collectively known as
Perianth
Functions:-
1. The petals are brightly coloured and attract insects for
pollination
2. The petals produce scent or perfume for the attraction of
insects for pollination.
3. The petals produce nectar or sweet juice for the insects.
Note: The sepals (calyx) and the Petals (Corolla) form the non-
essential parts of the flower, while the stamens
(androecium) and Carpels or Pistles (gynoecium) form the
essential parts
iii. Androecium: The androecium are the male reproductive organs of
a flower. It is made up of the stamens. A stamen is made up of a
stalk, the Filament bearing the anther.
iv. Gynoecium: The gynoecium are the female reproductive organs of

a flower. The female part of the flower is the pistils or carpel. The
base of the carpel consists of the ovary which contains the ovules
on top of the ovary is a long style with the stigma. The carpels may
be free (apocarpous) e.g rose flower or fused (Syncarpous) as in
Hibiscus. The carpel may be single (monocarpous) as in crotolaria.
A flower with two or more carpels is known as (Polycarpous)
Types of Ovary
The position of an ovary in the receptacle dictates how it is classified. An
ovary can be described as superior, inferior and half-inferior.
1. Hypogynous Flower: This is a flower with a conical receptacle and

have the ovary located on top of the cone. Other floral parts are
arranged below the position of the ovary. The ovary of a
hypogynous flower is described as superior e.g hibiscus flower.
Superior Ovary
2. Perigynous Flower: This is a flower with a cup-shaped receptacle

with the ovary located at the centre of the cup. The other floral
parts are arranged at the edge of the cup. The ovary of a
perigynous flower is described as a superior e.g rose flower.
Half Inferior Ovary

3. Epigynous Flower: This is a flower in which the ovary is sunk into
the fused with the receptacle. The position of the ovary is below
those of the floral parts. The ovary of an epigynous flower is said

to be Inferior e.g the flower of guava.
Inferior Ovary
Terms Used in Describing Flower

1. Complete and Incomplete Flowers: A complete flower has all the
four floral parts (sepals, petals, stamens pistils or carpels) e.g a
flamboyant flower. An incomplete flower does not have one of the
floral parts e.g euphobia hirta.
2. Unisexual and Hermaphrodite Flower: A unisexual or dioecious
flower is a flower with only the male part (stamen) or the female
part (pistils or carpel) e.g paw-paw. A flower with both male
(stamen) and female (pistil or carpel) is referred to as a
monoecious or hermaphrodite flower e.g hibiscus, oil palm, maize
etc. A hermaphrodite flower is also a bisexual flower.
3. Regular and Irregular Flower: A regular or actinomorphic flower
is a whorl on it. ie petals are identical in shape and size and are
evenly arranged on the receptacle. Such a flower can be cut
vertically into similar halves through any one of several vertical
planes (radial symmetry) and is described as actinomorphic flower
e.g Hibiscus.
An irregular flower is one in which the members of a whorl, e.g
petals are not similar either because some parts are fused, some
are smaller than others or because one or more parts are mission.
The flower can be cut vertically into two similar halves through
only one plane (bilateral symmetry) and is described as
zygomorphic flower. E.g pride of Barbados and Delonix.
4. Perfect and Imperfect Flower: A flower with both the male part
(Androecium) and the female part (gynoecium) is called a perfect
flower e.g a flamboyant flower. A flower that has only the
androecium (male part) or gynoecium (the female part) is an

imperfect flwor e.g guinea grass flower or paw-paw flower.
5. Inflorescence: It is a group of flower which attach themselves to a

common stalk or axis e.g pride of Barbados.
6. Solitary Flower: It is one that is attached single either to the leaf

axis or to the tip of a branch e.g hibiscus and paw-paw flower
Placentation in Flowering Plants.

Placentation is the arrangement of ovules within an ovary. It is also the
arrangement of seeds in a fruit. The part of the ovary where the ovules
are attached is called placenta.
Kinds of Placentation
1. Axil Placentation: This is the type of placentation in which the
ovule are arranged at the central axis e.g tomatoes, oranges and
pepper.
2. Parietal Placentation: In parietal placentation the ovules are

arranged along the inner walls of the ovary e.g paw-paw.
Paw-paw
3. Marginal Placentation: In this type of placentation, the ovules are
attached to the inside margin of the ovary wall or along the joined
edges of a single carpel. Eg. flamboyant, crotalaria.
4. Free Central Placentation: In this type of placentation, the ovules

are borne on a knob which projects from the base of the ovary e.g
pear.
5. Basal Placentation: In this placentation, the ovule develops at the

base of the ovary e.g sunflower.
WEEK 9
Pollination in Plant
Pollination is the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of one
flower to the mature stigma of the same flower or another flower of the
same plant or closely related species. Pollination leads to fertilization.
Types of Pollination
There are two type of pollination. These are self pollination and cross
pollination.
i. Self Pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower of the
same plant e.g tomatoes, pea, cotton, guinea grass.
ii. Cross pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of another flower in another plant
of the same species.
Cross pollination is more common and more helful to plants than
self pollination. Cross pollination introduces variations in the
characters of plants. Examples of cross pollinated plants are
hibiscus, flamboyant.
Features of Self Pollinated Flower
i. The stigma is located below the anther
ii. Anthers and stigma mature at about the same time. The situation
is described as HOMOGAMY.
iii. The stamen and pistil of some flowers are enclosed in the corolla
that never open. Such a condition is described as CLEISTOGAMY
iv. The filaments are longer than the styles. Therefore the filaments
can recoil.
Features of Cross Pollinated Flowers

1. Male and female flowers are located in different plants (Dichogamy)
a. In protandrous flowers, the androecium (male part) ripens
before the gynoecium (female part). Examples are crotalaria
and sunflower.
b. In protogyny flowers, the gynoecium or female part (pistil or
carpel) ripens before the androecium or male part (stamens) e.g
water lettuce.
2. Unisexuality: Unisexuality is a situation in which some plants bear

only male or female flowers and not both on the same plants. E.g
paw-paw. Such plants are said to be dioecious plants. Cross
pollination may occur under this condition.
On the other hand, in a monoecious plant, the male and female
flowers are borne by the same plant, the female flowers are usually
situated higher than the male flowers so that pollen grains may not
reach the stigma of the female flowers. Hence, they will be received
only by stigmas of female flowers of other plants.
3. Self Sterility: It refers to situation in which some plants make

themselves sterile. The presence of pollen on their stigmas is
injurious to further development of the plant for example, they may
wither and die. However, when pollen grains come from other
plants, fertilization can take place in such plants. Examples are found
in passion flowers and tea.
Agents of Pollination.
Pollination is brought about by insects e.g butterfly, moth, bees, winds,
water, birds, snails and other animals. Insect pollinated flowers are called
entomophilous flowers. Such flowers are hibiscus, pride of Barbados,
flamboyant etc.
Wind pollinated flowers are called anemophilous flowers. Surch flowers
are maize, rice, millet, wheat etc.
Characteristics of Wind Pollinated Flowers. (entomophilious Flowers)

1. The flowers are small, dull in colour and inconspicuous e.g guinea
grass.
2. The flowers do not produce scent.
3. The flowers do not produce nectar
4. Pollen grains are small, smooth, light and not sticky
5. They have small, inconspicuous petals/sepals.
6. Large quantity of pollen grains are produced.
7. Anthers are attached to the flower in such a way that they readily
swing in the air and release the pollen grains.
Examples of wind pollinated flowers are maize, guinea grass, rice,
millet and wheat.
Characteristics of insect pollinated flower

Insect pollinated flowers also called anemophilous flowers have the

following characteristics:-
1. They possess scent.

2. They have large conspicuous petals/sepals
3. Nectar is also present
4. Flowers are usually brightly coloured
5. Petals are shaped and arranged to enable visiting insects become
dusted with pollen grains.
6. Pollen grains are rough, sticky and relatively few.
7. The stigma is flat with sticky surface to enable it receive pollen
grains. Examples of insect pollinated flowers are pride of Barbados.
Differences between Self and Cross Pollination
S/N Self Pollination Cross Pollination

1 Self pollination takes place only Cross pollination takes place in
in bisexual plants unisexual and bisexual plants.
2 Only one parents is involved Two parents are involved
3 Pollination may occur without anThis requires external agents e.g
external agent insect and wind.
4 It does not ensure new varieties. It results in the formation of new
varieties
5 Pollen grains are effectively Much of the pollen grains are
utilised wasted
Differences between Insect and Wind pollinated flower

S/N Insect Pollinated Flowers Wind Pollinated Flowers
1 Flowers are usually large and Flowers are usually small and
conspicuous inconspicuous
2 Lowers are usually brightly Flowers are usually dull coloured.
coloured.
3 There is presence of scent There is absence of scent.
4 Nectars are present Nectars are absent.
5 Pollen grains are rough, sticky Pollen grains are light, smooth and
and relatively few very numerous.
6 Anthers may or may not be Filaments are long so that anthers
enclosed by the petals. hang outside the flower.
7. Flowers may or may not be Flowers are carried above the
enclosed by the petals leaves where they are exposed to

the wind.
8. Stigma is flat or lobed with sticky Stigma is large and feathery
surfaces for easy adherence of hanging outside the flower
pollen grains providing large surface area for
easy trapping of pollen.
9. The shape and floral parts are There is particular adaptive shape
such that they enable insects get as flowers are small and exposed.
dusted with pollen grains during
visiting.
Advantages of Self Pollination.

v It is a sure way of ensuring pollination especially in bisexual flowers.
v It may not waste pollen grains.
Disadvantages of Self Pollination

v It leads to the production of weak offspring as a result of continuous
or repeated self pollination
v The offspring or individuals produced are less adapted to the
environment.
Advantages of Self Pollination.

v Cross pollination leads to the production of healthier offspring than
self pollination.
v It also produces viable seeds.
v Offspring or individuals produced are more adapted to the
environmental conditions.
v It also leads to the formation of new varieties with good
characteristics
Disadvantages of Self Pollination

v It relies on external agents such as wind and insects whose presence
at the right time cannot be guaranteed.
v It may lead to wastage of pollen grains especially pollination by
wind.

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Carol Standard Convent, Ichi Teacher: Mrs.

To conserve something means to protect it and keep it in a healthy

Conservation is defined as the preservation of natural resources from

Natural resources can be divided into renewable and non-renewable

Reasons for Conservation.

5. Forest which provides medicinal materials must be conserved to

Methods of Soil Conservation

Methods of Forest Conservation

Methods of Fisheries Conservation

3. Dams, reservoirs and ponds should be construsted

(A) Benefits of Conservation

4. They boost tourism education

(C) Benefits of water Conservation

(D) Benefits of Mineral Resources Conservation

(E) Benefits of Soil Conservation

(F) Benefits of Fisheries Conservation

Problems and Difficulties Associated with Conservation

Efforts employed in the country to ensure Conservation of Natural

1. Nigeria has agencies for conservation examples include:-

Under this ministry we have:-

2. Establishment of game reserves or forest reserves or afforestation.

3. Reafforestation Programmes have been spear-headed by the

Pests and Diseases of Crops

Types of Crop Pest

Classification of Insect Pests

These groups of insect pests include:-

Insect Pests Crops Nature of damages and Prevention and control

iii) Reduced yield iii) Treatment of

iii) Reduce grains to fumigation of store

Life Cycle of Aphids

The life span of aphid ranges from 20 to 40 days. It reproduces by both

Aphids do much harm to crops in the following ways:-

Aphid life cycle

Life cycle of rice weavil

Grasshoppers have a lifespan of about two months. They reproduce

Life Cycle of grasshopper

Methods of Pest Control

Effects or Economic Importance of Insect Pests in Crop Production

Causes of Crop Diseases

S/N Name of Causative Method of Symptoms and Prevention and

t ii) Stunted plant insecticides

iii) reduction in copper

12 Damping Fungus Infected soil i) Retarded i) Spray with

General Effects of Disease on Crop Production

General Control of Plant Diseases.

The male reproductive system of tilapia consists of two testes and a

The female reproductive system of tilapia is made up of two ovaries

Reproductive System in Reptiles.

The female reproductive system of domestic fowl has one functional

The formation of the graffian follicle is closely related to the

i) Fertilization takes place in the oviduct.

The Human Female Reproductive System

The Structure and Function of the Human Male Reproductive Organ.

The Human Male Reproductive System

Functions of the Male Reproductive Organs.

1. Seminiferous Tubules: These are located within the testes. They

Structures of the Mammalian Gametes.

The reproductive sex cells are known as gametes. The formation of

The sperm or spermatozoan consiste of a head which contains the

Functions of the Sperm Cells

The cytoplasm in the ovum is surrounded by two membranes. The outer

The Ovum or egg

Similarities and Differences between the Male and Female Reproductive

Difference between Sperm and Egg