FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

 Define feedback mechanism

 Mention the two types of feedback mechanism and define them
 List the characteristics of each type of feedback mechanism and explain them
 Give examples of each type of feedback mechanism and explain any one of them

INTRODUCTION

Physiology is the study of the mechanisms by which living systems function. Life itself is the
result of a complex management of energies – the different forms of energies are kept within
certain predetermined limits in different compartmentalized systems. Chemical, electrical,
heat, mechanical energies etc., are all used to produce and sustain life in a well-controlled and
organized manner.

In physiology, these energies often present themselves as physiological variables, that is,
factors or values that are subject to change. Whatever initiates a change (increase or
decrease) in such variables is called a STIMULUS (input). Such a change is detected, and
the details are sent to the CONTROL CENTRE (integrating centre) where all decisions are
made. Such decisions are packaged in form of a RESPONSE (output) to the stimulus, which
could either be an opposition (negative) to the change or a promotion (positive) of the
change. Therefore, the process whereby an output signal goes back to affect its input signal
either positively or negatively, is called a FEEDBACK MECHANISM.

TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

It is already obvious from the above that there are two types of feedback mechanisms which
function with the sole aim to maintain a dynamic constancy in the internal environment of the
body. Positive feedback is like praising a person for a task they do. This praise encourages
them to do more of that particular activity. On the other hand, negative feedback is like
reprimanding a person. It discourages them from performing the said task, and they do the
opposite instead. In the end, however, it all leads to homeostasis – maintaining a balance
within the body.

1. Negative Feedback: Negative feedback is one in which the system responds in such a
way as to oppose the change or reverse the direction of change. After receiving a
message, effectors send negative feedback signals back to the system. Now, the
system stabilizes its own function and makes an attempt to maintain homeostasis.

Characteristics of a Negative Feedback System

a) It is very common in nature.
b) It has no cut-off point.
c) Closely associated with stability and restoring homeostasis
 d) Resists change
e) Has a narrower range
f) Does not require external interruption

Examples: In the regulation of carbon dioxide concentration, a high concentration of

carbon dioxide in the extracellular fluid increases pulmonary ventilation. This, in turn,
decreases the extracellular fluid carbon dioxide concentration because the lungs
expire greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the body. In other words, the high
concentration of carbon dioxide initiates events that decrease the concentration toward
normal, which is negative to the initiating stimulus. Conversely, a carbon dioxide
concentration that falls too low results in feedback to increase the concentration. This
response is also negative to the initiating stimulus.
One of these, the baroreceptor system, is a simple and excellent example of a rapidly
acting control mechanism. In the walls of the bifurcation region of the carotid arteries
in the neck, and also in the arch of the aorta in the thorax, are many nerve receptors
called baroreceptors that are stimulated by stretch of the arterial wall. When the
arterial pressure rises too high, the baroreceptors send barrages of nerve impulses to
the medulla of the brain. Here these impulses inhibit the vasomotor centre, which in
turn decreases the number of impulses transmitted from the vasomotor centre through
the sympathetic nervous system to the heart and blood vessels. Lack of these impulses
causes diminished pumping activity by the heart and also dilation of the peripheral
blood vessels, allowing increased blood flow through the vessels. Both of these
effects decrease the arterial pressure, moving it back toward normal. Conversely, a
decrease in arterial pressure below normal relaxes the stretch receptors, allowing the
vasomotor centre to become more active than usual, thereby causing vasoconstriction
and increased heart pumping. The decrease in arterial pressure also raises arterial
pressure, moving it back toward normal.

Other examples include temperature regulation, control of blood glucose levels and so many
more.

2. Positive Feedback: Positive feedback is one in which the system responds in such a
way as to increase the intensity of the change in the same direction.
Characteristics of a Positive Feedback System
a) It is not so common in nature.
b) It has a cut-off point.
c) It is explosive, closely associated with instability, vicious cycle and even death.
d) Enhances change.
e) Has a wider range.
f) May require external interruption.

Examples: The heart of a healthy human being pumps about 5 litres of blood per
minute. If a person is suddenly bled 2 litres, the amount of blood in the body is
 decreased to such a low level that not enough blood is available for the heart to pump
effectively. As a result, the arterial pressure falls and the flow of blood to the heart
muscle through the coronary vessels diminishes. This scenario results in weakening of
the heart, further diminished pumping, a further decrease in coronary blood flow, and
still more weakness of the heart; the cycle repeats itself again and again until death
occurs. Note that each cycle in the feedback results in further weakening of the heart.
In other words, the initiating stimulus causes more of the same, which is positive
feedback.
Positive feedback can sometimes be useful. Childbirth is one instance in which
positive feedback is valuable. When uterine contractions become strong enough for
the baby’s head to begin pushing through the cervix, stretching of the cervix sends
signals through the uterine muscle back to the body of the uterus, causing even more
powerful contractions. Thus the uterine contractions stretch the cervix and the cervical
stretch causes stronger contractions. When this process becomes powerful enough, the
baby is born. If it is not powerful enough, the contractions usually die out and a few
days pass before they begin again.

Other examples where positive feedback can be valuable are generation of nerve signals,
formation of blood clot, LH surge etc