Basic Microwave PPT - V2.2

INTRODUCTION TO
BASIC MW AND
TRANSMISSION
ENGINEERING
AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 1

Course Progression
1. Microwave parameters and
system architecture
2. Modulation, Bandwidth, and
Capacity
3. ATPC and XPIC
4. Antennas
5. Microwave Path Design
6. Radio Wave Propagation
7. Interference
8. Data
9. Microwave link performance
calculation
10. Protection and Diversity
2 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

MODULE 1
MICROWAVE
PARAMETERS AND
SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE

Basic Microwave Principles
• Aviat Networks designs, manufactures, and sells point to point

microwave radio systems
• Point to Point MW links transport data between two points in full duplex
• This is accomplished with a pair of carrier frequencies
• The pair of frequencies are digitally modulated to carry data
• The distance the link will cover is a function of the frequency, but many other
variables effect total length
• Long Haul: Generally, frequencies below 11GHz
• Short Haul: Generally, frequencies above 11 GHz
• Most Aviat radios are in licensed (regulated) frequency bands, which
ensures interference free, and therefore error free, operation

Basic Microwave Parameters
• Frequency
• The center frequency of the signal to be transmitted, expressed in MHz or GHz
• Channel Bandwidth
• The amount of spectral space the modulated signal occupies
• Channel Plan
• Regulatory Agency plan for the allocation of Frequencies, T/R spacing, and Channel BW
• T/R Spacing
• The difference between the TX and RX frequencies
• TX Hi/Low
• States which end of the link transmits the higher or lower frequency of the pair

Basic Microwave Parameters
• Tx Power
• The output power of the transmitter, usually specified at the Waveguide port
• Power is expressed in Watts or dBm
• dBm is a logarithmic ratio of power referenced to 1mw. 0dBm = 1mw
• For every 3dB change, power is either doubled or halved
• Power levels less than 1mw are expressed as a negative number in dBm
• RSL (Receive Signal Level)

• The power of the signal at the receiver after transmission over the path. Expressed in Watts or dBm
• RX Threshold (or Sensitivity)

• A specification of the receiver which states the minimum RSL needed to be above a certain Bit Error
Rate (BER), usually 10-6 or 10-3 . There is also an upper limit for RX overload.
• System Gain
• The difference between the maximum TX power and the Threshold of a radio terminal

Microwave Frequencies
• Microwave frequencies are generally considered to be from
300MHz to 300GHz but for communications purposes they
range from about 1GHz to 100GHz

Microwave Frequencies “Radio spectrum”

• Wavelength is defined as the distance one cycle travels at the
speed of light. The higher the frequency the shorter the
wavelength

300 000 km/s
• Wavelength calculation • Wave speed calculation
• Wavelength calculation C (m/s)
• v (m/s)
v (m/s) n
λ (m) V : is the Wave speed
ƒ (Hz)
𝚲 : is the Wavelength n : is the Refractive Index ≈1
in the air.
V : is the Wave speed
c : is the light speed
ƒ : is the wave frequency
If n ≈ 1 the Wave speed = the light speed ≈ 300000 Km/sec (186,411,358 Miles/s)
• ≈ Wavelength calculation
c (m/s)
λ (m)
ƒ (Hz)

300 000 km/s
• Wavelength example
Frequency band Wavelength (Metric) Wavelength (Imperial)
1 Ghz 300 mm 11.81"
8 Ghz 37.50 mm 1.476"
18 Ghz 16.60 mm 0.6535"
23 Ghz 13.30 mm 0.5236"
38 Ghz 7.89 mm 0.3094"
60 Ghz 5.00 mm 0.1969"
80 Ghz 3.75 mm 0.1476"
100 Ghz 3.00 mm 0.1181"
AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

11

Microwave Channel Bandwidth
• Bandwidth
• Is the continuous part of
spectrum used to transmit
the Data over the air.
• It is typically measured in
Megahertz
• It’s typically given at -3 dB
from the top of the
spectrum ANSI (US and Canada) BW: 2.5, 3.75, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 80MHz
ETSI (International) BW: 3.75, 7, 14, 28, 56,112MHz

Microwave Channel spacing
• Channel spacing
• Is the difference between the
Transmit frequencies.
• It is defined by the ETSI and
ANSI standard
• Equal the difference between
the two channel is the
Bandwidth for the adjacent
channel.
• Ex 40 MHz channel used in
U6 band

Microwave T/R spacing
• T/R spacing
• Is the difference between
the Transmit frequency
and the Receive
frequency.
• It is defined by the
diplexer used in the ODU
(Hardware Filters)

Microwave T/R spacing
• Typical T/R spacing defined by ETSI and ANSI

Microwave High / low
• Transmitting High or
Low?
• A MW link two different
frequencies TX and RX
• One end transmits the
higher frequency of the pair
Example site A
TX = F1 and RX = F’1
Mean Tx frequency is lower than RX
This is a low Band (TX Low)
transmitter
Example site B
TX = F’1 and RX = F1
Mean Tx frequency is higher than RX
This is a High Band (TX High)
transmitter

Microwave “Hi/low” Assignment
• At each site, make assignment in the low OR high sub-band
• Rings should have an even number of hops to avoid “buckling”
(hi/low violation) conditions. Ch. Lower sub- Higher sub-
8080 7780
band [MHz] band [MHz]
7810
8050 1 7750 8050
8110
2 7780 8080
8110
3 7810 8110
8050 Interference’s
7810
signal due to
Hi/Low violation
7750
TX low 7750
7750
RX Hi 8050

Microwave Transmit Power
• What is Transmit power
• The level of power that will be transmitted at the output of the radio (output interface)
• The power is controlled by the radio’s amplifier and may be adjustable
• Maximum Output Power Level is a specification of the radio
• It’s expressed in dBm or in Watts
• Conversion watt to dBm • Conversion dBm to watt

x dBm 𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑷 𝒘 Pw 𝟏𝟎exp(P(dBm)‐30)/10
dBm 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Watt 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Microwave Transmit Power
• Transmit power conversion
• Doubling the power will be increase the TX power by 3 dBm.

Watt 0.1 0.2 0.4 1 2 4 10
dBm 20 23 26 30 33 36 40
• Reducing the Power by 3 dBm will result of a loss of 50% of the power
dBm 30 27 24 20 17 14 10
Watt 1 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.01

Microwave Receive Signal Level
• What is Receive Signal Level (RSL)
• The level of power at the receiver interface, after transmission over the air
• Power level will be very low and will first need be amplified by an LNA (low Noise Amplifier)
• It’s expressed in dBm or in Milliwatts and the formulas are the same as with TX power
• Usually between -30 and -100 dBm (negative number means less than 1 mw)
• Conversion watt to dBm • Conversion dBm to watt

x dBm 𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑷 𝒘 Pw 𝟏𝟎exp(P(dBm)‐30)/10
dBm ‐30 ‐40 ‐50 ‐60 ‐80 ‐90 ‐100
Milliwatts 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001 0.0000001 0.00000001 0.000000001

Microwave Receive Signal Level
• RSL power.
• Increasing the RSL power by 3 dBm will double you incoming power.
• Missing 3 dBm on the RSL will result of a lost of 50% of the received power
 Note:
• It’s not because you have a good Receive Signal that mean the link is working well:
• The RSL (received signal Level) is just the level of the energy you are getting do not mean
the data inside are good!

Microwave Overload and Threshold
•Threshold
• Specification of the Receiver
• Minimum RSL at the receiver
• Based on a Bit Error Rate (BER), example 10-6
• Specification Varies, based on BW and Modulation
•Overload
• Specification of the Receiver
• Maximum RSL at the receiver
• Based on a Bit Error Rate (BER), example 10-6
• Specification usually fixed across all BW and Modulation options

Microwave Threshold

Microwave System gain
• System gain
• The sum of the TX power and the RX Threshold values
(absolute value)
• Sys Gain: TX power +|RX threshold|
• Example: for a link at 15 Ghz / 40 Mhz bandwidth / QPSK
modulation
• TX power : 26.5dBm
• Threshold : -86.75 dBm
• System gain = 26.5 + 86.75 = 113.25 dB

Example Capacity and System Gain specifications (30MHz BW)
Modulation Scheme Airlink Capacity System Gain

QPSK 38 mbps 116 dB
16 QAM 78 mbps 109.5 dB
64 QAM 135 mbps 101.5 dB
128 QAM 154 mbps 98.5 dB
256 QAM 178 mbps 94.25 dB

Example L6 Point to Point Link
TX Hi T/R Spacing 252.04MHz
TX Frequency: 6197.240 MHz
TX Low
TX Frequency: 5945.200 MHz
TX Power: 30dBm
TX Power: 30dBm RSL: -40dBm
RSL: -40dBm RX Threshold -70dBm
RX Threshold -70dBm

Power, RSL, & Threshold Example
TX Power: 30dBm, 1W
0dBm, 1mw
RX Overload: -22dBm
System
Gain
Normal RSL: -40dBm Receiver

Range
Fade
Margin
RX Threshold -70dBm

Microwave Radio Architecture
Microwave Path Microwave

Terminal Terminal
Data Data
TX TX
Radio Radio
MUX MUX
RX RX
Microwave Link or “Hop”

Microwave Terminal Block Diagram
Data
Line
Interface Multiplexer Modulator Transmitter
Unit
Antenna
Processor Coupling
Management Unit
Data
Line
Interface Demux Demod Receiver
Unit

Microwave Transmitter
Up Converter
Mixer Circulator
From Mux IF RF
Power
Modulator
Amplifier
Detector
Oscillator Oscillator To Receiver
A circulator is a passive electronic component with three or more ports in which the ports can be
accessed in such a way that when a signal is fed into any port it is transferred to the next port only,
the first port being counted as following the last in numeric order. When one port of a three-port
circulator is terminated in a matched load, it can be used as an isolator, since a signal can travel in
only one direction between the remaining ports.
Radio frequency circulators are composed of magnetized ferrite materials. A permanent magnet
produces the magnetic flux through the waveguide.

Microwave Receiver
Circulator From
Transmitter Down RSSI
Converter Voltage
RF Mixer IF
Demodulator
Bandpass AGC
LNA
Filter Amplifier
Oscillator Oscillator

Split-Mount Architecture
• Split-Mount Systems have an indoor mounted Signal Processing Unit
called an IDU (Indoor Unit) and a tower or antenna mounted RF Unit
called an ODU (Outdoor Unit)
• The IDU and ODU are connected together with coax cable which carries
DC voltage to power the ODU and medium frequency IF signals for the
transmit and receive data
• Typically, the coax cable also carries Telemetry signals for
communication between the IDU and ODU
• The medium frequency IF signals do not suffer from as much losses as
High frequency RF signals would.
• Because of the ability to amplify the IF signals with both the IDU and
ODU, maximum cable length is usually about 300 meters.

Split-Mount Architecture
ODU
Advantages:
•Low losses between the RF unit and the antenna
•Lower costs
Disadvantages:
•Lower maximum output power levels
•Difficulty in maintenance and replacement
Typically all higher frequency (above 11GHz) Microwave

Radios are split-mount
Coax
Cable
IDU

All Indoor Archetecture
• All Indoor Systems Have indoor mounted Signal Processing Units and
RF Units
• Because of high losses of microwave frequency signals in coax cables,
waveguides are used to connect the indoor mounted RFU to the
antenna
• Waveguides are hollow metallic tubes used as transmission lines for
microwave frequencies, which present very low losses and high power
handling capibilities
• The deminsions of waveguides determine the frequency handling
capabilities and are based on wavelength (frequency).
• Typically, waveguides are pressurized with dry air to keep moisture out
• Typically, losses are 1-2 dB per 100 ft (30 meters)

All Indoor Architecture
Advantages:
•Ease of maintenance and replacement of RF components
•Higher output power
Disadvantages:
•Higher costs of deployment (waveguide is expensive and
difficult to work with) Waveguide
•Losses between RFU and antenna
Typically, all indoor radios are 11GHz and below
RFU
Andrew Heliax elliptical Waveguide SPU

Elliptical Waveguide Loss (Andrew Heliax Standard)
Frequency Band Waveguide Type Loss dB/100 ft
1.85-1.99 GHz EW17 0.37
2.13-2.20 GHz EW17 0.34
3.700-4.200 GHz EW37 0.84
5.6-6.425 GHz EW52 1.199 (at 6.0 GHz)
5.925-7.125 GHz EW63 1.383 (at 6.5 GHz)
7.125-8.5 GHz EW77 1.792 (at 7.7 GHz)
10.2-11.7 GHz EW90 3.161 (at 10.6 GHz)
10.2-11.70 GHz EW90 3.036 (at 11.4 GHz)
Circular WG WC109 1.35 (at 11 GHz)

Nodal Architecture
• A Nodal System consists of a single SPU which is capable of interfacing with
multiple RF units
• Data that is needed at the site is dropped and inserted
• Data that is not needed at the site is cross-connected between the RF units
ODU/RFU 1 ODU/RFU 2
SPU
Cross-Connected Dropped Data
Data

Full Outdoor Architecture
• Full Outdoor configuration has everything integrated
WTM 4000
in one unit, which is installed directly to the back of fitted to tower
the antenna
• Zero indoor footprint
• Can be powered by external power or POE (Power

Over Ethernet)
• Data Cable (Fiber or Outdoor Electrical Ethernet)

connects to equipment at the base of the tower.

Full Outdoor Installation (With POE Power)
Note: The maximum ethernet cable length when using POE is 100m

FULL OUTDOOR installation (external DC power)

MODULE 2
MODULATION,
BANDWIDTH, AND
CAPACITY

Bandwidth, Modulation, and Capacity
• An un-modulated carrier signal (periodic waveform with no data) only
occupies it’s specific frequency (BW=1 Hertz) called carrier wave
• Modulation and De-Modulation is the process embedding data into a carrier

signal for transmission over the link and removing (detecting) the data after
reception
• The modulated signal consists of many varying frequencies both above and
below the carrier frequency and the bandwidth is the amount of space those
frequencies occupy (example, if the frequency varies +/- 15 MHz from carrier,
BW=30MHz)

Bandwidth, Modulation, and Capacity
• Since the 1980s, digital modulation schemes have been the standard for P-P
microwave systems
• Over the air capacity (in mbps) and system gain (in dB) are specified for
various modulation schemes within a fixed channel bandwidth
• Higher level modulation schemes provide higher capacities but at the

expense of system gain (Tx power and Rx Threshold)
• Lower-level modulation schemes offer higher system gain but at the expense
of capacity, allowing for longer links and/or smaller antennas

Modulation QAM
Modulation is a data transmission technique that transmits a message signal inside
another higher frequency carrier by altering the carrier to look more like the
message.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a form of modulation that uses two

carriers—offset in phase by 90 degrees—and varying symbol rates (i.e., transmitted
bits per symbol) to increase throughput.
The table in next slide describes the various common modulation levels, associated
bits/symbol and incremental capacity improvement above the next lower
modulation step

Digital Modulation Schemes
Modulation Scheme Number of states Bits per state

QPSK 4 2
16 QAM 16 4
32 QAM 32 5
64 QAM 64 6
128 QAM 128 7
256 QAM 256 8
512 QAM 512 9
1024 QAM 1024 10

QPSK
0,1 0,0
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Bits are paired to reduce bandwidth

4 states needed to describe 2 bits
Vector can jitter by +/- 90 degrees w/o error
1,1 1,0

QAM
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
As number of states increase, vector can tolerate less jitter
16 QAM 64 QAM

Constellation
256 QAM 2048 QAM

Digital Modulation
Gain from the capacity of the previous

modulation

Adaptive Coding and Modulation
• Adaptive Coding Modulation is a process by which the radio’s
modulation scheme can change “on the fly”, in response to
changes in Fade margin (fading), S/N (signal to noise) ratio,
or BER (Bit Error Rate)
• Prioritization of traffic is necessary because some traffic will

be lost or slowed down during the brief periods of time when
a more robust, lower capacity, modulation is necessary

• Hitless switching of modulation is necessary so that the
higher priority traffic is unaffected by the change
• Adaptive modulation allows for longer links, smaller antennas,

and/or more capacity because links can run with less fade
margin the vast majority of the time

Recent changes to FCC regulations allows for greater use of

Adaptive Modulation in the United States


MODULE 3
ATPC AND XPIC

Automatic Transmit Power Control (ATPC)
• Automatic Transmit Power Control (ATPC) is a feature of a
digital microwave radio link that adjusts transmitter output
power based on the varying signal level at the remote
receiver.
• ATPC allows the transmitter to operate at less than maximum

power for most of the time
• When fading conditions occur, transmit power will be increased

as needed until the maximum is reached.

• An ATPC equipped system has several potential advantages
over a fixed transmit power system
• Reduced average power consumption
• Extended mean time between failure (MTBF) of equipment
• Elimination of the receiver overload phenomenon
• Decreased outage due to the reduced influence of adjacent channel interference
• Tighter frequency reuse

The power is regulated individually on every link.
In this case, each link based on its propagation conditions will decide which power level should be
used depending only on its propagation conditions. Thus, during bad weather conditions, the link
will increase the power level in order to compensate for the fading.
• Parameter to define
• Local TX power range
• Remote Fade margin (called Fix margin)
• When the remote RSL decreases during fading,

reducing the defined fixed Fade margin, the
Local receiver will automatically send a
message to the remote unit to increase the TX
power to maintain the Fixed target margin
And reverse when RSL and Fixed margin value is
reached

XPIC: Concept
• CCDP: Co-Channel Dual Polarization (V and H). Two links of identical
capacity and modulation operate over the same path, on the same
frequency channel, by operating one link on vertical polarization, the other
on horizontal.
• XPIC: Cross Polarized Interference Cancellation. Used with CCDP to
eliminate residual interference between V and H signals.

XPIC: Antenna
• High performance dual polarized antennas with dual feed heads interfaces
• Require remote mounting of the ODUs and flex waveguide connection (or coax at 5
GHz) to the antenna V and H feeds.
• Such antennas are required where 1+1 protected or space diversity for CCDP
For 1+1 operation ODU are installed on a remote-mounted coupler
• Standard performance antennas typically exhibit 30 dB cross polarization

discrimination (XPD) whereas 40 dB is typical for high polarization discrimination
antennas.
• Correct end-end polarization alignment is essential to achieve a path XPD to closely

match the antenna XPD.
• XPD value read on Portal should be between 28 to 35 dB and equal on both path

MODULE 4
ANTENNAS

Antennas
• Used to efficiently radiate/receive the energy towards/from the far-end of
the link
• Important characteristics
– Gain (in dBi) / reciprocity / directivity / beamwidth
– Side lobe level
– Front-to-back ratio (F/B)
– Polarization (linear V/H, circular, dual V/H)
– Cross-polarization discrimination (XPD)
– VSWR
– Frequency operating range
– Mounting, weight, and wind loading

Reflector Antennas
Standard parabolic
Standard parabolic Shielded with radome
(with radome) (high performance)
Higher F/B ratio and
better XPD
Radomes protect the antenna and reduce windload
but do cause slight losses. Heated radomes are
Photos courtesy Andrew Corporation Available for extremely cold environments

Polarization
• Electromagnetic signals consist of both an electric and a magnetic
field, which are 90 degrees apart
• Antennas are designed or installed so that the electric field is either
vertical or horizontal and both ends of the link should match
• A cross-polarized link will suffer up to 30dB of attenuation
• Dual feed antennas have two feedhorns, one vertical and one
horizontal
H
y
. E
H
z
S
S
E
E
S x
H

PATTERN (RECTANGULAR)
3dB-Beamwidth
F/B Sidelobes
Radiation Pattern Envelope (RPE)
RPE are almost exclusively used for terrestrial microwave link design
AVIAT NETWORKS |
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64
PATTERN (POLAR)
Azimuth-plane Elevation-plane
MPRW49027 – 4.6 to 6GHz wideband parabolic reflector antenna - courtesy MAXRAD
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65
PATTERN (RECTANGULAR)
RPE Comparison at 6 GHz RPE Comparison at 2 GHz
0 0
Antenna Directivity - dB Down From Main Lobe

Ultra High Performance Antenna
Antenna Directivity - dB Down From Main Lobe

UHX Ultra High Performance Antenna
and UMX Multiband Antenna Standard Antenna
10 10 Grid Antenna
Standard Antenna
HP High Performance Antenna
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70 70
80 80
90 90
100 100
5 10 1520 40 60 80 100 120140 160 180 5 10 1520 40 60 80 100 120140 160 180
Azimuth Degrees From Main Lobe Azimuth Degrees From Main Lobe
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66
REFLECTOR ANTENNAS (60% EFFICIENCY)
Spillover Effect Scattering Effect Diffraction Effect
Standard parabolic
Standard parabolic
(with radome)
Shielded with radome
(high performance)
Higher F/B ratio
Photos courtesy Andrew Corporation
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REFLECTOR ANTENNAS (CONT’D)
Back-to-back antennas to minimize

wind loading and interference
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68
Antenna Alignment Issues
Correct antenna alignment
Antenna aligned on a side-lobe


MODULE 5
MICROWAVE PATH
DESIGN

Path Calculation
Antenna gain in dBi Free space losses Antenna gain in dBi
Waveguide Waveguide
losses in dB
Frequency band losses in dB
Add or Subtract all gains and losses after the

Transmitter to determine the RSL at the receiver
Transmit Power in dBm Receive Level in dBm

Free Space Loss
• When radio waves leave the transmitting antenna they spread out,
therefore the amount of energy reaching the receiving antenna is
much weaker
ANSI ETSI
FSL=36.6+20Log₁₀F+20Log₁₀D FSL=92.5+20Log₁₀F+20Log₁₀D
FSL: Free Space Losses FSL: Free Space Losses

F: Frequency in Mhz F: Frequency in GHz
D: Distance in Miles D: Distance in Kilometers

Antenna gain calculation
ETSI ANSI
ANT gain = ANT gain =
17.8+20Log₁₀F+20Log₁₀D 7.41+20Log₁₀F+20Log₁₀D
F: Frequency in Ghz F: Frequency in GHZ
D: Diameter in meter D: Diameter in feet

Example Path Calculation ANSI
Antenna gain=35 dBi Path Length 20 Miles Antenna gain=35 dBi
Waveguide Waveguide
losses 1.5dB losses 1.5dB
RSL = TXA - WG loss + AntgainA - FSL + AntgainB - WG loss B
FSL=36.6+20Log₁₀6000+20Log₁₀20
FSL= 138.2 dB
RSL = 30dbm-1.5db+35dBi-138.2db+35dBi-1.5dB= -41.2dBm
Tx Out=30dBm RSL=?
F=6.0 GHz -41.2dBm

Example Path Calculation ETSI
Antenna gain=35 dBi Path Length 50 KM Antenna gain=35 dBi
Tx Out= RSL=?
30dBm -41.2dBm
RSL = TXA + AntgainA - FSL + AntgainB
FSL=92.5+20Log₁₀6+20Log₁₀50
FSL= 142.0 dB
RSL = 30dbm + 35dBi - 142db + 35dBi = - 42 dBm

Why Transmission Engineering?
• While simple path calculations may be enough to roughly
calculate expected RSL levels, and links may be designed
with a high fade margin of 30dB or more, this does not
guarantee the high level of performance and availability that
most mission critical systems require.
• Many systems are designed to meet certain performance and
availability criteria, for example 99.999%.
• The job of a transmission engineer is to run calculations to
predict long term performance and availability of a link.
• Mistakes in Transmission Engineering, or lack there of, can
be very costly.

Five 9s
• 99.999% availability equates to 5 Minutes and 15 seconds of
downtime per year.
• Some systems are even designed to six 9s (99.9999%) which

equates to about 31.5 seconds.
• The purpose of transmission engineering is to design a

system that will meet the required performance objective

Five 9s
• Path Analysis uses modeling, statistics, climactic variables,
terrain variables, and running the numbers for worst case
scenarios, to predict path performance and availability.
• Path surveys may also be required, which greatly reduce the

chances of problems. “it worked on paper but not in the real
world”.
• Path analysis and design is often done with the help of

software.

Path Analysis and Design Software
• Some commercially-available Software Types:

– Pathloss – Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
– Micropath – Boulder. Colorado, USA
– Atoll (French)

Pathloss Link Budget Calculation
Terminal A Terminal B
xxx xxx
xxx

Path Profile Analysis Result (Pathloss)

MODULE 6
RADIO WAVE
PROPAGATION

Atmospheric and terrain effects
Rain Fades
Receiver
Transmitter
Atmospheric
Multipath Fades
Main
Obstruction
Fades
Diversity
Reflections
Microwave link propagation is influenced by REFRACTION, REFLECTION, and DIFFRACTION

Multipath Fading
• Multipath fading happens when the radio waves reach the
receiver by multiple paths, the direct path and reflected or
refracted paths
• Multipath interference causes outages due to the difference in
phase of the reflected/refracted signal and the direct signal
• Fading can be constructive or destructive, depending on the
phase relationship between the signals
• Multipath fading is generally more a problem on long links,
especially over water or flat terrain
• Slightly up-tilting antennas can reduce multipath fading events

Multipath due to refraction and surface reflections
Super refractive layer
Refracted signal
Direct signal
Space Diversity
Reflected signal
Receivers

k-Factor Variations
‐The K‐Factor is a variable used in calculations to predict how the RF signal will behave in various
climates
Variable k is considered as the LOS optical horizon is different from microwave horizon as modified by
the k which in turn gives the effective earth radius for microwave.
‐k is affected by geoclimatic factors local to the area traversed.
‐As the design value is based on expected k we need to consider its worst case in that area.
super-refraction
sub-refraction k>3
k<1
dry valleys
wetlands

Illustrating k-Factors
k= (follows Earth’s curvature)
k = 4/3rds Average Refractivity k>3, Superrefraction - Ducting
in Temperate Regions
k = 1 (dry, elevated, no refraction)

k<1, Subrefraction - Earth Bulge
k = 0.5
Obstruction
“Earth’s Bulge”
Obstruction
True Earth Radius

Sea Level
(6400 km)
87 AVIAT NETWORKS | October 2011 | Company Confidential

Illustrating k-Factor Fading
k = 2/3rds UPWARD (INVERSE) k = 1 STRAIGHT LINE OVER
BENDING, OFTEN WITH COLD FRONT CURVED EARTH; DRY HIGH
MIGRATION OVER WARM MOIST ELEVATION CLIMATE
TERRAIN, OBSTRUCTION FADE
STANDARD k = 4/3rds SLIGHT DOWNWARD
REFRACTION; INLAND,
TEMPERATE CLIMATE
Ray bending is
shown greatly k = 3 SIGNIFICANT
DOWNWARD REFRACTION;
exaggerated COASTAL, HUMID CLIMATE
DUCTING
k= PARALLELS EARTH’S
8
CURVATURE; HEAVY
DOWNWARD REFRACTION;
COASTAL, VERY HUMID CLIMATE
k = -1 DOWNWARD BENDING TO EARTH;

SEVERE DOWNWARD REFRACTION,
DUCT ENTRAPMENT, “BLACKOUT” FADE
TRUE EARTH’S CURVATURE

Fresnel Zones
• When designing Microwave links, simple Line of Site between antennas is not enough
• Fresnel zones are ellipsoidal zones around the antenna centerline axis which are widest at the
midpoint
• Various calculations are used to determine the radius at any point of any Fresnel zone
• At least 60% clearance of the first Fresnel zone is required, sometimes more

Path Attenuation vs. Clearance
FRESNEL ZONE NUMBERS RSL, dB FROM FREE SPACE
OBSTRUCTION ZONE +10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40
(Obstructed path) 54
Average
3 Terrain
2
1
0.6
GRAZING 0
GRAZING PATH 0.6
(6-20 dB LOSS) 1
0.6F1@k=1 PATH 2
3
54
CLEARANCE OR
CROSS-SECTION A-A Fresnel Zone Boundaries 0.6F1 PATH
INTERFERENCE ZONE
(Reflective path) A 0.6 1 2 3 4 5 CLEARANCE
= FREE SPACE
(NO LOSS)
Ray F1 = 180FT/56m DIAMETER

Rain Fading
• Rain fading becomes an issue at frequencies above 10GHz
• Rain fading increases as frequency increases
• Rain fading is directly proportional to path length
• Rain fading is two to three times worse for horizontally

polarized signals than vertical polarization

Rain Fading
• Rain fading is a function of rain rate and therefore is worse in
regions that typically experience extreme amounts of rain in
short periods of time than in regions that typically experience
light rain over longer periods of time
• Rain models (Crane and ITU-R P.530) are used to produce

rain region maps used for microwave path calculations

Typical Rain Fade Example
An increase in fade margin reduces the numbers of rain outage events
and their durations only minimally*
0
11 GHz
10
Attenuation, dB 20
30 13 min rain outage

(33 dB fade margin)
40
18 GHz
50
60
5 10 15 20 25
Time, Minutes
*Frequency, Polarization, and Path Length have much greater impact on Rain Outage

Rain Regions

Crane 1996 Rain Rates
% of Time CRANE 1996 RAIN REGION

Rain Rate
Exceeded
A B B1 B2 C D1 D2 D3 E F G H
0.1 2.5 5.7 4.5 6.8 7.7 10.3 15.1 22.4 36.2 5.3 31.3 66.5
0.03 5.5 11.6 9.0 13.9 15.6 20.3 28.6 39.9 62.4 11.8 55.8 125.9
0.01 9.9 21.1 16.1 25.8 29.5 36.2 46.8 61.6 91.5 22.2 90.2 209.3
0.003 17.5 36.1 27.8 43.8 50.6 60.4 75.6 93.5130.0 41.4 140.9 350.3
0.001 28.1 52.1 42.6 63.8 71.6 86.6 114.1 133.2176.0 70.7 197.0 542.6
These rain rates, in mm/hr exceeded __% of the time, are long-term averages over
perhaps a 10 year or longer period. Rain rates (and high-frequency access hop outage)
are likely different over shorter term periods

Atmospheric waves Absorption
According the frequency band used, we have some signal absorption in the air

MODULE 7
INTERFERENCE

Interference
• Interference is the reception of any unwanted signal which
may cause signal level degradation, errors, or outages
• Interference can be:

• Co-Channel – Within the same frequency channel
• Adjacent Channel – From an adjacent frequency channel
• Low level interference may not be noticed at normal RSL but

can affect threshold during fades and therefore performance.
Fade and mute tests can be performed to check for
interference

Interference
• Some Causes of interference:
• Accidental or intentional transmission of signals on the same or
adjacent frequency channels.
• Overshoot – The reuse of frequencies can cause overshoot

interference when two paths are in approximately the same direction.
• Terrain scatter – Interference caused by signals reflecting off of

buildings and other terrain.

Interference
• Some Causes of interference:
• Ducting – Some atmospheric conditions can allow RF signals from far
away to travel long distances causing occasional interference.
• RF leakage at the site – Loose waveguide or RF cable connections.
• Intermodulation in shared waveguide/antenna N+0 systems –

Unwanted products of two RF signals mixing together.
• Poor frequency planning.

Terrain Scatter Interference and ATPC
Metropolitan area Interfering

Station
Microwave signals,
scattered (reflected) from
buildings, tanks, trees, etc.,
not found in interference Frequency search
studies may degrade the reveals only this
threshold and, therefore, interference path
the fade margin of, digital and assigns a high-
radio receivers. performance antenna
Victim Station
High performance dish is to meet the
ineffective in rejecting forward interference objective
“common volume” interference
ATPC (Automatic Transmit Power Control): In some Metropolitan areas with large amounts of
microwave congestion, the FCC requires the use of ATPC on all links within certain frequency
bands. Everybody runs normally at a reduced power level but can automatically increase power
for short periods of time to overcome fading. This reduces the chance of interference for everybody

Frequency Re-use and Overshoot
• Single channel (two frequencies) assignment
F1’V
’ F1’H
’ F1V
F1
F1H
F1V Overshoot
F1’V

Intermodulation (2A-B) Conversion Products (Interference)
5974.85 TX A
6093.45 TX B
L6 GHz BAND CALCULATIONS:
All frequencies in MHz 2 X 6093.45= 12186.90 (2A)

-5974.85 (B)
6212.05 (2A-B)
6345.49 RXB 6226.89 (Receiver)
14.84 (Difference)
6226.89 RX A
6212.05 6226.89
•Two Transmit frequencies can mix together to form frequency

products that can interfere with a local Receiver
•Conversion products can be calculated by using the 2A-B formula

Microwave spectrum without interference

Microwave spectrum with interferences
Due to a reflection point Due to an Adjacent RF signal

MODULE 7
DATA

TDM
(Time Division Multiplexing)
AVIAT NETWORKS

North American Digital Hierarchy
VF/data/LAN/IP and
teleconferencing circuits
1.544 Mbps DS3
1 PCM (24 Ch) 6.312 Mbps
2.
.. Channel 1 (96 Ch)
Bank 2 M12 1
24 3 2
DS1 4 3 M23 44.736 Mbps
DS0 64 Kbps 4 (672 Ch)
DS2 5
6 DS3
7 3x or 4xDS3
1 M13
28x1.544 Mbps 2. 1
Radio
.. DS3 135 Mbps
T1 Trunks MX3 44.736 Mbps 2
28 MUX (2016 Ch)
(672 Ch) 3
or
180 Mbps
North American hierarchy is standard in the USA, Canada, Taiwan, (2688 Ch)
Korea (except in some new cellular links), and Japan (through DS2). All
other countries use the European CEPT (Conference of European
Posts & Telecommunications) 30 channel hierarchy. PDH -Plesiochronous
(asynchronous) Digital
DS1: Bipolar signal on a T1 trunk. Hierarchy

North American (ANSI) PDH Hierarchy (cont'd)
PDH - Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
Voice Line
Desig- # DS1 Bit Rate Line Channel Lengths,
nation Signals (mbps) Code Equivalent ft/m
DS0 24 = 1xDS1 0.064 AMI 1 -

DS1 1 1.544 AMI/B8ZS 24 655/200
DS2 4 6.312 B6ZS 96 1000/300
DS3 28 44.736 B3ZS 672 450/140
North American PCM Analog-Digital Quantizing Code is µ-Law
AMI, B8ZS, B6ZS, & B3ZS codes are bipolar. Cable

types: 100/110  Twisted Pair, 75  Coax Ref: ITU-T
G.703, G.704; Bellcore TR-TSY-000499

AMI coding
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) is a synchronous clock encoding technique that uses bipolar pulses to
represent logical 1. The next logic 1 is represented by a pulse of the opposite polarity. Hence a sequence of
logical 1s are represented by a sequence of pulses of alternating polarity. The alternating coding prevents the
build-up of a DC voltage level down the cable.
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) suffers the drawback that a long run of 0's produces no transitions in the data
stream and therefore does not contain sufficient transitions to guarantee lock of a DPLL (phase-locked loop).

B8ZS coding
Binary 8 Zero Substitution (B8ZS) works in a similar way to AMI by changing poles for each binary 1.
Moreover when it found 8 consecutive 0’s it replace them by ‘000VB0VB’. Here, V means violation (same to
previous non-zero bit) and B means Balancing (opposite of previous non-zero bit)

ETSI (CEPT) PDH Hierarchy
VF/data/LAN/IP and
teleconferencing circuits
1
2.048 Mbps
2 1st (30/31 Ch) 8.448 Mbps
.. 1
. Order M2-8 (120 Ch) E3
2
30/31 * 3
2nd 1 M8-34
E1 Order 2
34.368 Mbps
4
3 3rd (480 Ch)
PCM Channel Bank E2
4 Order
E4
*30 VF Channels with signaling channel or
31x64 kbps Data Channels (no signaling) 1 M34-140
140 Mbps
2 Radio
E3 3 (1920 Ch)
MUX
4
16x2.048 Mbps 1 M2-34
2
E1 Trunks ..
. Skip mux 34 Mbps
16 (480 Ch)
PDH - Plesiochronous
(~asynchronous) Digital
CEPT Hierarchy is the international TDM digital standard everywhere Hierarchy
except in North America (USA, Canada), Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.

ETSI (CEPT) PDH Hierarchy (cont'd)
PDH - Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
Voice
Desig- No. of Bit Rate Line Channel
nation E1 Trunks (kbps) Code Equivalent
E0 30/31 = 1E1 64 AMI 1

E1 1 2,048 HDB3 30
E2 4 8,448 HDB3 120
E3 16 34,368 HDB3 480
E4 64/63* 139,264 CMI 1920/1890*
ETSI (CEPT) PCM Analog-Digital PCM Quantizing Code is A-Law
AMI, HDB3, & CMI codes are bipolar *63 E1 (1890 VF ch) are mapped in
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
E1 Cable types: 120 Twisted Pair, 75 Coax/BNC

HDB3 coding
High Density Bipolar Order 3 Encoding (HDB3)
The code is a bipolar signaling technique, relies on the transmission of both positive and negative pulses.
It is based on Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI), but extends this by inserting violation codes whenever there is
a run of 4 or more 0’s.
This and similar (more complex) codes have replaced AMI in modern distribution networks.
Here, V means violation (same to previous non-zero bit) and B means Balancing (opposite of previous non-
zero bit)

CMI coding
CMI: Coded Mark Inversion is a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code.
It encodes zero bits as a half bit time of zero followed by a half bit time of one, and while one bits
are encoded as a full bit time of a constant level.
The level used for one bits alternates each time one is coded.
CMI doubles the bitstream frequency, when compared to its simple NRZ equivalent, but allows easy
and reliable clock recovery.

SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)
AVIAT NETWORKS

SONET and SDH
• The most common SONET (ANSI) signal to be transported by
microwave is OC3
• The most common SDH (ETSI) signal to be transported by microwave is
STM-1
• OC3 and STM-1 signals both run at 155.52mbps and most microwave
systems will transport either one with no changes in configuration
• Typically, OC3 or STM-1 microwave systems work in conjunction with
optical add/drop multiplexers (ADM), which handle circuit drops and
inserts, cross-connections, and route switching
• An OC3 is capable of carrying 84 DS1’s (VT1.5), 3 DS3s, Ethernet, or a
combination of the three
• An STM-1 is capable of carrying 63 E1s (VC12), E3s, Ethernet, or a
combination of the three

SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) Rates (ANSI)
Line Rate SONET Signal PDH Signal VF Transport

(Mbps) Electrical/Optical #T1 (1544 kbps) Channels
1.544 VT-1.5 1 24 Radio
or Fiber
44.736 DS3 28 672
51.84 STS1 28 672
155.52 OC3 84 2,016
311.04 2xOC3 168 4,032
622.08 OC12 336 8,064 N+1

Radio
2488.32 OC48 1344 32,256 or Fiber
9953.28 OC192 5376 129,024 Fiber

OC3 frame
The figure describes basic SONET STS-1 frame consisting of 9 rows and 90 columns. SONET
frame is composed of 810 octets (bytes). Transmission is carried out row wise from left to right and
from top to bottom. Bits are transmitted serially
The STS-1 frame of SDH is composed of

section overhead, transport overhead,
payload overhead and data part.
The frame starts with fixed A1/A2 bit

pattern of 0xf628 used for bit/octet
synchronization.
The first three columns of SONET frame is

referred as transport overhead.
The next 87 columns of the frame are

referred as Synchronous payload envelope

OC3 frame overhead
SOH section is change at each termination of the
section.
LOH section is change at each time the frame will

cross a multiplexed section.

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) Rates (ETSI)
Line Rate SDH Signal PDH Signal VF Transport
(Mbps) #E1 (2048 kbps)
2.048 VC - 12 1 30 Radio
or Fiber
34.368 VC - 3 16 480
51.84 Sub-STM-1* 21 630
155.52 STM - 1 63 1,890
311.04 STM - 2 126 3,780
622.08 STM - 4 252 7,560 N+1 Radio

or Fiber
2488.32 STM - 16 1,088 30,240
9953.28 STM - 64 4,032 Fiber

STM1 frame
The STM-1 frame is on the basic transmission format for SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy).
An STM-1 frame has a byte-oriented structure with 9 rows and 270 columns of bytes, for a total of
2,430 bytes. Each byte corresponds to a 64kbit/s channel.
The STM-1 base frame is structured with

the following characteristics:
•Length: 270 column × 9 row = 2430
bytes
•Byte: 1-byte = 8 bit
•Duration (Frame repetition time): 125
μs i.e. 8000 frame/s
•Rate (Frame capacity): 2430 × 8 × 8000
= 155.5200 Mbit/s
•Payload = 2349bytes × 8bits ×
8000frames/sec = 150.336 Mbit/s

OC3 frame overhead
RSOH section is change at each termination of
the section.
MSOH section is change at each time the frame

will cross a multiplexed section.

ETHERNET
AVIAT NETWORKS

Layer 2 Switch
• Ethernet transport on microwave is usually at the layer 2 level.
• Specified by throughput rate in mbps.
• Multiple user interfaces (Fast or Gigabit Ethernet) with
programmable switching fabric.
• VLAN options for traffic segregation.
• QoS options for prioritization and scheduling.
• Ring protection and Link Aggregation options

Ethernet frame
In computer networking, an Ethernet frame is a data link layer protocol data unit (Layer
2) and uses the underlying Ethernet physical layer transport mechanisms.
In other words, a data unit on an Ethernet link transports an Ethernet frame as its
payload.
A data packet on the wire and the frame as its payload consist of binary data.
 Ethernet transmits data with the most-significant octet (byte) first.
 Within each octet, however, the least-significant bit is transmitted first.
The internal structure of an Ethernet frame is specified in IEEE 802.3.
Some implementations of Gigabit Ethernet and other higher-speed variants of Ethernet

support larger frames, known as jumbo frames.

Ethernet frame (Layer 1&2) 1/2
The table below shows the complete Ethernet packet and the frame inside, as transmitted, for the
payload size up to the MTU of 1500 octets.
Preamble and start frame delimiter (SFD). (Layer 2)

The preamble consists of a 56-bit (seven-byte) pattern of alternating 1 and 0 bits, allowing devices on
the network to easily synchronize their receiver clocks, providing bit-level synchronization.
It is followed by the SFD to provide byte-level synchronization and to mark a new incoming frame.
10101010 10101010 10101010 10101010 10101010 10101010 10101010 10101011
Preamble SFD

Ethernet frame (Layer 1) 2/2
Payload (Layer 2 frame)
 The minimum payload is 42 octets when an 802.1Q tag is present and 46 octets when absent.
 When the actual payload is less, padding bytes are added accordingly.
 The maximum payload is 1500 octets.
 Non-standard jumbo frames allow for larger maximum payload size.
Interpacket gap (Layer 1)

 Ethernet devices must allow a minimum idle period 9.6 µs for 10 Mbit/s Ethernet,
between transmission of Ethernet packets. 0.96 µs for 100 Mbit/s (Fast) Ethernet,
 A brief recovery time between packets allows devices to 96 ns for Gigabit Ethernet,
prepare for reception of the next packet. 38.4 ns for 2.5 Gigabit Ethernet,
 While some physical layer variants literally transmit 19.2 ns for 5 Gigabit Ethernet,
nothing during the idle period, most modern ones continue 9.6 ns for 10 Gigabit Ethernet,
to transmit an idle pattern signal. 3.84 ns for 25 Gigabit Ethernet,
 The standard minimum interpacket gap for transmission is 2.4 ns for 40 Gigabit Ethernet,
96 bits times (the time it takes to transmit 96 bits of data 1.92 ns for 50 Gigabit Ethernet,
on the medium) 0.96 ns for 100 Gigabit Ethernet,

MODULE 9
MICROWAVE LINK
PERFORMANCE
CALCULATION

Definitions
• Two standards a used.
• G826
– This Recommendation defines end-to-end error performance parameters and objectives
for international digital paths.
– The objectives given are independent of the physical network supporting the path or
connection
• G821
– This Recommendation was the previous version for the link performance but is less used
as it’s was designed in the 80’ and the performance rule are almost the same as the
G826

Performance G826 (Terms and definitions)
 Errored block (EB): A block in which one or more bits are in error. A block is a set of
consecutive bits associated with the path, each bit belongs to one and only one block.
Consecutive bits may not be contiguous in time.
 Background block error (BBE): An errored block not occurring as part of an SES.
 Errored second (ES): It is a one-second period in which one or more bits are in error or
during which Loss of Signal (LOS) or Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) is detected.
 Severely errored second (SES): It is a one-second period which has a bit-error ratio ≥
1.10–3 or during which Loss of Signal (LOS) or Alarm Indication Signal (AIS) is detected.
 Available second (AS): It’s the number of second with no unavailability, but may have
some ES and SES in the count
 Unavailable second (US): It’s the number of Unavailable second on the link. (More
detail in another slide for the US calculation)

Performance G826 (Terms and definitions)
 Errored second ratio (ESR): The ratio of ES to total seconds in available time during a
fixed measurement interval.
 Severely errored second ratio (SESR): The ratio of SES to total seconds in available
time during a fixed measurement interval.
 Background block error ratio (BBER): The ratio of Background Block Errors (BBE) to
total blocks in available time during a fixed measurement interval. The count of total
blocks excludes all blocks during SESs.

Performance G826 (Unavailable second)
 How Unavailable seconds are calculated: Error free second
To start unavailable second:
Need to have 10 consecutives Severely Errored second ES
To stop unavailable second:
Need to have 10 consecutives non-Severely Errored second SES
Unavailable second
10 Consecutives 10 Consecutives
SES NON SES
Start of the Stop of the Start Stop
Unavailable count Unavailable count
How radio performances are seen by the system in term of Unavailable second

MODULE 10
MICROWAVE
PROTECTION AND
DIVERSITY

Definitions
• Protection Schemes provide a level of security from long-
term (>10 CSES/event – Consecutive Severely Errored
Seconds) outages and loss of data throughput, and
therefore improve Availability and reduce traffic
disconnects.
• Diversity Arrangements reduce the number and duration

of short-term (<10 CSES/event) outages (no traffic
disconnects) and therefore improve Performance.

Redundancy Protection – Hot Standby (1+1)
A C
ACTIVE ACTIVE
B D
STANDBY STANDBY
Used to provide hardware redundancy protection. Digital hardware is often also protected
Both A and B have the same frequency as well as C and D, as soon as A or C fails, B or D take over
Using an equal loss coupler, Revertive switching is not necessarily set but using an unequal loss
coupler, Revertive switching must be set for the low loss side

1+1 Monitored Hot Standby Terminal
RF Switch
Tx A
DATA IN ANTENNA
Tx B
-1dB
Rx A
ERRORLESS
DATA OUT SWITCH
-7dB RF
Rx B Splitter
Diagram is for typical all-indoor system, in split mount systems with coupler
mounted ODUs, the transmitter will also be fed to the RF Splitter/Coupler and
suffer the same losses (equal loss couplers also available)

Frequency Diversity
A C
ACTIVE f1
ACTIVE
f2
B D
ACTIVE ACTIVE
•A and B as well as C and D are active and working on different Frequency pairs
•Protects against frequency selective fading
•Rarely used in the US

Space Diversity
A A
ACTIVE ACTIVE
Tx and Rx Tx and Rx
B B
ACTIVE ACTIVE
Rx only Rx only
A is transmitting and receiving but B is receiving only
Protects against multipath and dispersive fading on long links, typically at long-haul frequencies
Typically used on paths over water or flat terrain
Both receivers are synchronized and the better quality receiver is switched online (hitless)

1+1 Monitored Hot Standby Space Diversity Terminal
RF Switch
Tx A
DATA IN MAIN
ANTENNA
Tx B
Rx A
Vertical separation:
3-30m (10-90ft.)
ERRORLESS
DATA OUT SWITCH
DIVERSITY
Rx B
ANTENNA
Multipath forms essentially in the vertical plane → the antennas

should always be placed vertically to achieve uncorrelated paths !

1+1 HS / SD with Split Transmitters for Antenna Protection
For Antenna/Feeder System Protection
Dual RF Switch
Tx A
DATA IN MAIN
ANTENNA
Tx B
RCS
Rx A COMMAND
ERRORLESS
DATA OUT
SWITCH
Rx B
DIVERSITY
ANTENNA
Split mount will have similar arrangement (each ODU mounts

to a separate antenna with no coupler losses)

Ring Protection
EAST WEST EAST
WEST EAST WEST
GATEWAY NODE

Types of E1/T1 Ring Switching
• Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring (UPSR)
– Each E1/DS1 trunk is dual fed CW and CCW (or East and West) to its
assigned destination site
– Provides “route diversity”
– Route selection is done at the destination site – switches away from a red
(local) AIS/LOF/LOS alarm or High Bit Error Rate
– Type of protection used by Larus loopswitches and most optical muxes
• Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring (BLSR)
– Drop-and-Insert (D&I) channels in the normal direction of the ring, CW or
CCW
– Provides protection only (no D&I) in the opposite direction
– The E1/DS1s are looped back at both red (local) and yellow (remote) alarmed
nodes
– Eclipse Super PDH Ring protection

“Self-Healing” Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring
UPSR Operation with a Hop Failure caused by a Rain Outage
T1 #4 T1 #4
T1 Switch T1 Switch
5 5 Thru
Repeater
6
6
T1 switched
in <50 msec
3 T1 7 Other T1s
Thru 3 7 Other T1s
Repeater
2 2 8
8
1 1
Thru Thru
Repeater Repeater
T1 Switch T1 Switch
T1 #4 T1 #4
a. Normal b. Failure between sites 5 and 6


“Self-Healing” Bi-Directional Line-Switched Ring
BLSR Operation with a Link Failure caused by a Rain Outage
DS1/E1 10 DS1/E1 10 Red Alarm
Rain
D&I
Outage
Thru
Repeater 5 Thru
5
Repeater
6 T1/E1
“Wraps” 6 Red Alarm
T1/E1 T1/E1
Normal D&I Protection-only
3 DS1/E1 3 7 DS1/E1 21
D&I 7 Direction
Direction 21 (no D&I)
2 2 8
8
1 1
Thru
Thru
D&I Repeater
Repeater D&I
DS1/E1 4, 10 DS1/E1 4, 10
a. Normal (CW rotation) b. Failure between D&I sites 5 and 7

Ethernet Ring Protection
• Ethernet networks cannot tolerate loops
and will go into a broadcast storm if they
are encountered E
• External Switches running Rapid
Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) will W
control loops to prevent broadcast storms
but also provide route diversity protection
• Some eclipse products have an enhanced
RSTP function called RWPR (Resilient
Wireless Packet Ring), which has an
internal rapid failure detection function for
ring protection, which is much faster to
converge than standard RSTP
• Advanced ring protection on the DAC
GE3 using EOAM and ERPS Router/Switch with RSTP

END
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INTRODUCTION TO

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 1

2 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 2

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 3

• Aviat Networks designs, manufactures, and sells point to point

4 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 4

5 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 5

• RSL (Receive Signal Level)

• RX Threshold (or Sensitivity)

6 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 6

7 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 7

8 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 8

9 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 9

10 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 10

1 Ghz 300 mm 11.81"

8 Ghz 37.50 mm 1.476"

18 Ghz 16.60 mm 0.6535"

23 Ghz 13.30 mm 0.5236"

38 Ghz 7.89 mm 0.3094"

60 Ghz 5.00 mm 0.1969"

80 Ghz 3.75 mm 0.1476"

100 Ghz 3.00 mm 0.1181"

AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 11

ETSI (International) BW: 3.75, 7, 14, 28, 56,112MHz

12 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 12

13 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 13

14 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 14

15 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 15

16 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 16

17 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 17

• Conversion watt to dBm • Conversion dBm to watt

Watt 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

18 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

AviatCare Educate | Mars 2021 | Copyright © 2021 | Basic Microwaves 18

• Doubling the power will be increase the TX power by 3 dBm.

Watt 1 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.01

19 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

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• Conversion watt to dBm • Conversion dBm to watt

dBm ‐30 ‐40 ‐50 ‐60 ‐80 ‐90 ‐100

Milliwatts 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001 0.0000001 0.00000001 0.000000001

20 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

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22 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave

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23 AVIAT NETWORKS | Basic Microwave