Foundation of Education

GTEC-------Garowe Teacher Education College
GAROWE TEACHER EDUCATION COLLEGE
DIPLOMA IN IN-SERVICE SECONDARY TEACHERS
Foundation of Education
July 2013
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First published 2013
Garowe Teacher education College

In-Service Program
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UNİT ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY
INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the concepts of education and it discusses the different types of
education.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 define the term education;
 explain the three types of education.
 define the term philosophy in classical and technical senses;
 explain the meaning of philosophy of education;
 identify the three basic philosophical questions that every philosopher has to learn.
Meaning of Education
One of the meanings of education is a process that enables one to acquire and develop desired new
knowledge, skills and attitudes. The word process underlines the fact that education is a continuous
activity that never ends. The learner has to be actively involved in the learning process if the desired
knowledge, skills and attitudes are to be acquired.
Types of education
There are three types of education. Thus; Formal education, non-formal and informal education.
1. Formal education
 Where learning takes place in special institutions such as schools, colleges, universities, etc.
 With the purpose of carefully structured by means of syllabus or course outline which have
contents method and timetables.
 With the intention of teaching supervised and teachers well trained and paid to teach.
 That has the outcome assessed by use of tests, examinations and achievement recognized by
award of certificates.
2. Non-formal education
 Is less planned, prepared or structured and has flexibility in choice of content and methods.
 Has an open membership and has flexibility in its timetables and meeting places.
 Is often organized outside the usual formal time in the school. It may be seen to take the
forms of adult education, community awareness, seminars, workshops, and union or
association activities in schools and so on so forth.
 Learning may be evaluated or not evaluated at all.
 Is designed at specific learning needs of a particular group of people in the programs.
3. Informal Education
 Is a form of education that is not structured and takes place anywhere and any time.
 Learning takes place almost unconsciously.
 Education takes place haphazard and there is no award of certificates.
 Learning engages what pupils learn as they interact with family members, peers, teachers,
community centers and the mass media.
 This form of education leads to the acquisition of good or bad habits and behaviors during
interactions.
Conclusion
Education is a term often used to refer to formal education. However, the word’s broader
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meaning covers a range of experiences, from formal learning to the building of understanding
and knowledge through day to day experiences. It is widely accepted that the process of
education is lifelong.
Formal education takes the lion’s share of the time spent on learning. The teaching of the
subjects in a syllabus by the teachers is planned or programmed in the schools’ timetables.
Tests and examinations are used to determine the levels of achievement, and certificates are
awarded to indicate the individual’s performance at the end of the course. Non- formal
education usually takes place having through different sessions or activities such as: Youth
organizations activities, organizing communities and conducting such seminars, workshops or
other activities. The level of performance or achievement is occasionally indicated.
Individuals receive informal education from a variety of sources such as: Family member, peers,
books and mass media have a strong influence on the informal education of the individual.
Therefore, some worthwhile behavior, knowledge, skills, attitudes and values are acquired either
consciously or unconsciously.
? 1. What is education in your own words?

2. Describe the following terms:
a) Formal education.
b) Non-formal Education
c) Informal Education
d) Knowledge
e) Skill
f) Attitude
Meaning of Philosophy
In a classical sense, the word philosophy can be traced to the Greek word “philosophia” which is
made up of two words “phileo” (love) and “Sophia” (wisdom). Therefore, the literal meaning of
philosophy is “love of wisdom.” In a modern sense, philosophy refers to a systematic search for
reality, knowledge, and values. According to the teacher, philosophy can be defined as an
intellectual discipline which examines highly general and fundamental issues in all modes of study
in quest for clarity, consistency and reasonableness.
Technical definition
 Cleridge defined philosophy as the science of sciences
 Cisero called it the mother of all arts and the true medicine of mind.
In all, it appears that there are two broad concepts of philosophy:
• It is concerned with most general types of problems and also examines them more critically.
• It is not merely the intuitive experience of reality, it is an intellectual attempt to interpret and
understand the universe.
Philosophical concepts
Philosophy is a conceptual activity.
A philosopher is concerned with the ideas (concepts) that people employ, the assumptions they
make and the arguments they advance about observations. In short, it is belief about something.
Three basic philosophical questions

The object matter of philosophical thought has traditionally revolved around 3 basic questions:
i) What is real?
ii) What is true?
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iii) What is good?
What is real?
The investigation of what is real described as a study of existence or being is usually identified in
philosophy as metaphysics (Meta means search and physics is the world that the scientists study
on). Various attempts to provide answers to the question of nature of reality have introduced
knowledge that has influenced the direction of knowledge. Any thorough going analysis of the
major aim or goals of education will inevitably raise metaphysical questions.
What is true?
How accurate are the statements we put forward about reality? Some degree of confidence in the
beliefs we hold about reality is a pre-requisite of defence claims concerning the nature of what it is.
In short how do we know what we claim to know and how do we validate this knowledge? This is
the study of epistemology.
NB: Not all knowledge is knowledge because human beings are complex and they are capable of
deceiving. Therefore we need to validate our knowledge.
What is good?
This is identified as the study of value (axiology). It is sub-divided into two: right conduct (ethics)
and the nature of beauty (aesthetic).
Although many teachers do not deal explicitly (openly) with their operating values, they are never
the less involved constantly in and acting in accord or in opposition to various value system.
Whether we encourage cooperation or competition, whether we accept or reject cheating exams,
quarrelling or chatting etc. we are pursuing certain values which can be identified, analysed and
discussed.
? a) What is philosophical concept?

b) Which are the three basic philosophical questions that a philosopher must explain?
c) Outline at least five values that teachers can instill into the learners that are approved
by your society:.
Philosophical foundations
Philosophy deals with the concepts of reality, knowledge, and values. These three aspects are
denoted as the three branches of philosophy viz; metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology.
Metaphysics deals with the questions relating to the nature of reality and its manifestations.
Cosmology, which deals with the nature of the universe, is treated as a sub-category of metaphysics.
The branch which deals with the theory of knowledge, its processes, sources and validation, is
known as epistemology. Axiology is concerned with questions of values. Every educational activity
involves questions of metaphysics, epistemology and axiology. Thus philosophical foundations of
education may be summarized as follows:
1. Metaphysical foundations: The metaphysics, in brief, deals with reality in man, world, and
hereafter (Cosmos). It deals with questions concerning man. For instance, who is man? What makes
man? What happens to man when he dies?; It also deals with questions about the nature of the
world. For example, was the world created or did it evolve? The metaphysical attitude provides the
educationists the proper perspective for devising aims and ideals of education. The concept of world
is directly concerned with the individual’s relationship with society and nature. While Indian
philosophy emphasizes harmony between man and the world the western philosophers have made
too much of man’s desire to overpower nature.
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2. Epistemological foundations: Epistemology is the branch of philosophy which is concerned

with the discussion of the problems concerning knowledge. For instance, how do you know what
you know? What do you know? How much do you know? Its subject matter is the process,
methods, objects, characteristics, conditions, validity and fallacies of knowledge. Epistemology is
the philosophical discussion of all these problems. Since epistemology deals with the knowing
process, its product, validation and structure, it is bound to affect the structure and spirit of the
educational activities.
3. Axiological Foundation: Axiology is that branch of philosophy which deals with values and the
process of valuation. It is a pertinent question as to how and what values are to be aimed at.
Axiological enquiry provides an answer to these very questions. Normally, there are two sub-
categories – ethics and aesthetics. Ethics deals with human conduct and moral order and aesthetics
with the norms of beauty and art. In spite of several controversies, this much is true that education
and value formation cannot be separated.
? a) What do each of the three concepts/ branches of philosophy entail?

b) Following the Axiological view, how and what values are to be taught to people/
learners?
Relationship between general Philosophy and Education

People believe that general philosophy sketches the broad outlines from which educational
principles might be developed, but leaves to the educational experts the task of devising policies
and practices suited to the times. Thus the basic purposes of life and the nature of the educand will
be derived from the field of general philosophy, but the tasks of deciding on the role of the school,
of devising the specifics of the curriculum, of setting administrative policies, and of determining
means of evaluation and methods of teaching will be left to the educational experts in the
professional schools, the administrators, and the teachers on the job.
Philosophy of Education
Philosophy of education referred to a set of beliefs about life and schooling. Philosophy of
education is one of the oldest yet one of the newest disciplines. It is one of the oldest since Plato-the
philosopher of ancient times. He devoted considerable attention to the nature, purpose, and content
of education. It is one of the newest since philosophy of education began to emerge as a separate
discipline only in the 20th century.
The current interest in educational philosophy has produced many approaches to the subject. They
use assumptions or presupposition, in areas of metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology for each of
the philosophical systems, like realism, idealism, and pragmatism.
The importance of educational philosophy

1. It helps in formulating educational policy. It answers questions like what are the directions
and limits of public education in a liberal pluralist society. How can we best assure an
equitable distribution of educational opportunity? Should public schools undertake moral
and religious education?
2. It helps us to formulate aims of education. What are the proper aims of Education? e.g.
Scientific progress, Artistic creativity, Individual salvation, Empowering individuals to
choose wisely, etc.
3. It helps to streamline who should take the responsibility to formulate educational policies.
Who should bear the primary responsibility for formulating educational policy?
(Philosophers, religious authority, rulers, scientific elite, parents, etc).
4. Helps to plan for citizens’ education. Who should be educated? (Everyone equally?
Everyone according to his potential? Each according to his need?) etc.
5. It helps to formulate the curriculum. Hat interest should guide the choice of a curriculum?
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How should the intellectual, spiritual, civic and moral, artistic, physical and technical
dimensions of education be related to one another?
6. It guides in formulating what values to be imparted to learners and how they are to be
imparted.
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UNİT TWO
PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES AND THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the different philosophies that have different interpretations of reality,
knowledge and values.
 Define the term different philosophical systems according to metaphysics,
epistemology and axiology;
 Relate these philosophical systems to education;
1. Idealism
Idealism as a branch of philosophy began with Socrates in the western world. Some philosophers
also studied and perfected it, e.g., Plato, St Augustine, etc.
Metaphysics
Reality
According to the idealist, reality is spiritual (eternal). It is spiritual rather than physical. Reality is
nothing but a world of mind. Man’s mind dictates what man knows. They believe that God and the
universe are intimately related.Plato made it clear that the world revealed to us by our senses is not
the real world but only an imperfect copy of it.
Man: Who is man?

They maintain that man is dual in nature. Man is made up of two parts; the body and the soul. The
body depends on mind. Actions are determined by one’s thinking. The human mind can interpret
reality, since it was given this capacity by God.
Socrates believed the excellent human being is one whose actions are governed by reason.
Axiology: What is value?
To them, value is universal. They are part and parcel of reality. We value things because they are
realistic (reasonable). E.g. they believe that truth, goodness, justice and beauty are universal
(eternal). Idealism has God as the standard of goodness. Moral persons seek God’s principals.
Beauty is described as the reflection of God (ie people strive to become morally good by imitating
God).
Epistemology
They believe that faith is a way we come to know certain things. Faith suggests people firmly
accept their beliefs as knowledge, despite arguments against them (prophetical knowledge).
Intuition is another theory of knowledge, ie, knowledge can come to us intuitively (through deep
thinking).
Idealism and education
Aims of education include to:
1. Cultivate truth, beauty and goodness
2. Develop inventive and creative powers
3. Conserve, promote, and transmit cultural heritage. Man created his culture only at a great cost of
time and suffering. So it is important to preserve it, promote it and transmit to the young ones.
4. Fully develop the personality of the child.
5. Develop moral sense of learner. This will help them enjoy healthy mental life. It can help him
choose between right and wrong, good and evil. He will also appreciate truth, goodness and beauty.
6. Education should develop love sentiments to bring about goodness, beauty and truth.
7. They lay great stress on the exaltation of human personality. E.g. self-realization. This means full
knowledge of the soul. It is the real nature of man. Man has to know his real form in order to live a
perfect life. Therefore, in Idealism, the major aim of education is to enable each child to realize the
soul, recognize his real form and proceed towards self-knowledge.
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Idealism and curriculum

They believe that the mind is the primary reality. Truth is permanent and unchangeable. This
permanent and unchangeable truth is the soul. The aim of life is the realization of this immortal and
unchangeable soul. To realize this aim, the curriculum emphasize on:
a) The development of sense of appreciation of truth, beauty, and goodness. By development of
these aspects, one can develop spiritual perfection.
b) Training of moral, intellectual, and aesthetic activities in order to achieve spiritual perfection.
Therefore their curriculum includes:
i) Poetry, fine art, religion for moral development
ii) Science, social studies, mathematics and languages for intellectual development
iii) Physical education for development of the body.
Idealism and method of teaching

They speak of general methods of teaching
-Dialogue method (Socrates)
-Conversational method (Plato)
-Inductive and deductive method (Aristotle)
-Self-activity method (Pestalozzi)
-Discussion and debate (Herbort)
Idealist did not regard any particular method to be superior. However, what is important is
that the way should not be tedious so as to fail learner achieve the objective or aim set.
Idealism and discipline

Self-realization is the goal of life and aim of education. To achieve this aim, they believe that strict
discipline is necessary for self-realization. Therefore, teacher should impose discipline upon the
pupils. They should create an environment which will help pupils to realize the higher values of life
through self-discipline.
Teacher should act as guide at every step of child life and inspire his pupils to achieve higher values
of life.
Idealism and teacher

The teacher occupies a very high place in the teaching learning process. If he is perfect and
achieved self actualization, the students will also follow suit. Therefore a teacher should attain self-
realization and should help his students to do so.
Characteristics of Idealist teacher:
 They should be exemplary e.g. show good virtues which students can imitate
 They ought to be friendly to all students
 They should show love to all students
 They should help students to learn
 They should awaken in the learner the desire to learn.
? 1. State the seven aims of education according to idealism.

.
2. What are the characteristics of an idealistic teacher?
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2. Naturalism
Metaphysical views of Naturalism
Reality: What is reality?

All naturalists believe that what is real is that which is physical, perceivable and empirical. They
maintain that nature is reality and reality is nature. Some maintain that nature is the physical world.
The naturalists coincided with the emergence of the Newtonian worldview. Isaac Newton (1642-
1727) had postulated a natural law theory based on the law of gravitation.
Man: Who is man?
Man is an offspring of nature. He has oneness with nature. This is known as ecological (biological)
naturalism.
 Man functions in cooperation with other beings of nature.
 They believed man is naturally good. They believed that man can use his reason to progress.
 Man is self conscious, self actualising
 Man is a being which excel all other beings in nature.
 Pestalozzi observed human nature is distinguished from brute nature by possession of
intellectual, moral, and physical powers (Gutek, 1995).
 Man matures gradually from infancy to adulthood and requires protection and guidance.
 Man develops according to natural laws. Man is born empty and it is nature which creates its
impression on it. Rousseau observed, “We are borne capable of learning but knowing
nothing and perceiving nothing.”
 Man’s personality is fashioned by endowment (talent) and environment
Epistemology: How do we learn?

Nature is the source of knowledge. Knowledge is empirical (can be proved). It can be obtained
through; Observation, Experimentation, Experience, Examinations.
 Senses are the gate ways of knowledge.
 Therefore through natural education, people could be restored to their original goodness and
be given the stimulus and preparation to live scientifically, rationally, and progressively.
 Pestalozzi observed that man is a moral, intellectual, and physical being who, regardless of
the contingencies of time, place, and culture, possesses a common human nature.
 Knowledge acquired by instruction, psychologically arranged according to the “art”
 Knowledge resulting from the human desire to know.
 Knowledge acquired by working.
 Knowledge acquired by use of analogy/comparison, and contrasts.
Axiology: What is value?

Values are built in nature. They are built in the utilization and hedonistic point of view. Those
things which are in harmony with him are of value to him.
Naturalism and Education

1. Education is embedded in nature and is based on experiences, actual life observations, etc.
2. Education therefore should lead the child to select intelligently and enjoy the beautiful things in
nature.
3. Education should be harmonious. E.g. develop all the aspects of human being which they
consider to be; intellectual, moral, and physical.
4. Rousseau believed man is good by nature. Therefore through natural education, people could be
restored to their original goodness and be given the stimulus and preparation to live
scientifically, rationally, and progressively.
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Naturalism and the method of teaching

 Create emotionally secure educational environment for the child. The success of the method
depends on a love relationship between teacher and student.
 Pestalozzi’s general method emphasized emotional security as the foundation for all human
moral, social, religious, and aesthetic values.
 Instruction should begin with known to unknown. Instruction was to begin with the learner’s
direct experience with concrete objects found in the environment.
 Instruction should begin with the near to the far. It referred to the literal distance of the
perceiver from the object.
 Pestalozzi recommended that instruction to move from the simple to the complex. Role play
 Use of dialogue
 Joint search e.g. both teacher and learner to bring other people’s ideas on board
Naturalist teacher
 Teachers should be like parents. They should help the students to realise their possibility, help
them discover what these are and how to achieve them.
 The teacher should be a counselor and a guide
 Teacher should make the student independent and courageous enough to act on them and accept
full responsibility for such decisions.
 Should know every child as an individual and by what each one is capable of doing. Should not
only concentrate on academic part, other talents should be brought up.
 Should be keen on assessment because this will help to determine how much learning is taking
place.
 Teacher should allow freedom of opinion and discussion in his classroom.
 Teacher should create conducive class room atmosphere for learners e.g. tolerant, motivative,
etc
 Teacher should be personally involved in the lives of his learners e.g. sharing joy, sorrow, hopes
and aspirations.
? 1. Explain the epistemological view of naturalism
3. Islam as an ideology
Islam is the total submission to the will of Allah. It is religion of nature. It begun with Prophet
Adam the first man created by Allah until the end of the world. The last prophet is Muhammad
(PBUH). There are many Muslim philosophers like Al-Farabi, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd etc.
Reality according to Islam

Creation of Earth
Indeed, your lord is Allah, who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and then He rose over
the throne (really in a manner that suits His majesty) (Q. 7:54).
And He it is who has created the heavens and the earth in six days and His throne was on the water,
that He might try you, which of you is the best in deeds (Q 11:7).
And it is He who spreadout the earth, and placed there in firm mountains and rivers, and of every
kind of fruits He made Zawjain ithnain (two in pairs). E.g. black and white, sweet and sour, small
and big, etc. Verily, in these things, there are Ayat (proofs, evidences, lessons, signs, etc) for a
people who reflect.
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Man
O mankind! Be dutiful to your lord, who created you from a single person (Adam), and from him
(Adam) He created his wife Haawa and from them He created many men and women, and fear
Allah through whom you demand your mutual rights, and do not cut the relations of the wombs
(kinship). Surely, Allah is ever an All-watcher over you (Q 4:1).
Man is both soul and body, he is at once physical being and spirit (integrated). His soul ought to
govern his body as God govern the universe.
Values
In Islam value is judged according to the Quran and Hadith. Things which do not contradict the
Quran and Hadith are of value.
Epistemology
In Islam, the pursuit of knowledge is a form of worship or Ibadah leading to recognition of Allah as
the supreme God of mankind (most high).
Knowledge is of two kinds:
 Allah given e.g. quran, hadith, shariah etc
 Acquired e.g. experience.
Since the first kind of knowledge is absolutely essential for man’s guidance and salvation,
knowledge about it is necessary and obligatory to all Muslims (Fardu ayn). It is comprised of
religious sciences (theology) e.g. quran, hadith, fiqh, etc.
The acquisition of the second kind of knowledge which includes the rational, intellectual, is
obligatory to some Muslims only (fardu kifaya) e.g. human sciences, natural sciences, applied
sciences, technological sciences etc.
Purpose of knowledge
Knowledge has two purposes to serve: the divine and mundane (worldly).
The divine purpose is to recognize Allah. If you study nature carefully, you would find numerous
instances pointing to the invisible hand that guides and controls all worldly happenings. This hand
is the hand of the Almighty.
The mundane purpose of knowledge is to enable a person to live successfully and usefully by
utilizing this knowledge for the benefit of individuals and the the societies they live in. E.g.
Engineers help us to make roads, doctors treat the sick, teachers teach people, etc.
Our sole purpose of seeking knowledge should not be just for worldly purposes. Rizq (sustenance
and provision) is destined for all creatures (Al-Ankabut 29:60).
Sources of knowledge according to Islam

Knowledge can be acquired through:
 Revelation
 Reason (man’s power of evaluation and judgement)
 Senses
 Distinguished authorities e.g. quran, religious books, etc
 Nature e.g. observation, experiments, experience, discussions etc
Methods of teaching according to Islam

 Memorization
 Explanation
 Reflection
 Observation
 Lecture
 Experiment, Etc
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Taxonomy of learning
 Memorization
 Understanding- meaning of the quran is translated and explained to learners
 Articulating- Make it more clear-e.g. Tafsir
 Internalizing- Deep understanding e.g. experience, observation, reflection
 Manifestation- Put in practice
Islam and a teacher

To reflect the faith and obedience in their career development, teachers should consider the
following approach:
1. Develop a career with the desire to seek Allah’s blessing. Such an intention will prevent the
practice of any form of unethical behavior. The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “A deed
must be accompanied by intention, and every man will only acquire what he makes his
intention to be” (Yusoff, 2001).
2. The work of teaching should be conducted according to the Islamic Principles of teaching.
Al-Attas observed that Islamasation of Knowledge involves mastery of fard al-ayn and fard
al-kifayah knowledge. He noted that fard al-ayn is a dynamic aspect. It is not limited to the
basic knowledge of the essentials in Islam. It increases according to the intellectual and
spiritual abilities of the individual as well as his social and professional responsibilities. For
the teachers therefore, it is their duty to master the principles of a teacher. Al-Ghazali taught
the following duties to be observed by teachers:
Kindness and sympathy to students and to treat them like his own children, to protect students from
hell fire, to guide the students, to be role model, to not belittle the value of other sciences before his
students, and to teach the students up to the power of their understanding, extra (Fazul-ul-Karim,
1978).
Al-Ghazali defined a teacher as, the teacher of the sciences of the hereafter or the sciences of the
world with the object of the hereafter. He further noted that a teacher ruins himself and also his
students if he teaches for the sake of the world (Fazul-ul-Karim, 1978).
The teacher should also perform her duty efficiently and honestly. Allah says in the Quran that
“whoso is unfaithful, he shall, on the Day of Judgment, restore what he misappropriated “(Q Al-
Imran 3: 161). Therefore the teacher should perform her duty to the best of her ability and it is
beneficial to say what he/ she can rightfully serve. Therefore teachers may pursue their career with
an intention to please Allah. . The work should not prevent them from fulfilling their spiritual
obligations, especially the mandatory ones, such as praying five times a day.
? 1. How is knowledge gained in Islam?

2. Explain how the different methods of teaching are applied according to Islam.
The characteristics of a good Islamic Teacher have been defined as thus:
• Love for children.

• Love for the profession of knowledge.
• Humility/modest without weakness.
• Health and energy of the body.
• Psychological health and emotional balance.
• Neatness, cleanliness and good appearance.
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• Intelligence and good understanding.

• Understanding students and their needs.
• Strong command of the subject.
• Broad and deep reading and knowledge.
• Punctuality and respect of time.
• Cooperation with the school system and policies.
• Being polite with students and fellow teachers.
• Socialization with the people and no isolation.
• Knowledge and practice of Islam.
• To stay away from questionable saying.
• Sincerity
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UNIT THREE
MAJOR PHILOSOPHERS IN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the prominent philosophers who have different significant influence on
education.

 Explain westren philospher’s views about education.
 Discuss how each of the identified philosopher’s views contributed to the field of
education.
Western Philosophers in education
1. John Dewey (1850-1952)

According to Dewey, education is the art of giving shape to human powers and adopting them to
social service.
Children came into the world neither as tabula rasa upon which teachers might write whatever they
chose, nor as limbs of Satan, whose wills must be curbed to make them ‘apt for society’ (Ryan).
Dewey feared that his emphasis on the need to take the child’s abilities and interests seriously had
been taken to license to abandon teaching entirely. ‘Child-centred’ education had come to mean that
it did not matter what the teacher did. Ryan (1998) noted that progressive education’ later came to
be a label for an educational theory that overemphasized the importance of teaching what interested
the child, and overemphasized the child’s responsibility for what went on at school. Dewey’s
educational views presupposed that the school was an engine of social progress.
Dewey and the Curriculum

Dewey does not give the details of the curriculum. He is mostly concerned about the place of the
school in a democracy and the role of the school as an agent of social progress. He observed that
until recently education took place at home, because life was lived around the home. In the
countryside the connection between getting a living and everyday life was visible and immediate.
Children were socialized into becoming useful participants in the household and village economy.
‘There was always something which really needed to be done, and a real necessity that each
member of the household should do his own part faithfully and in cooperation with others.
Pragmatism and the method of teaching

Dewey saw elementary education-education up to the age of 13- as a moral training and not a
purely intellectual training. He suggests manual training (learning by doing). Dewey observed that
‘we must conceive of work in woodwork and metal, of weaving, sewing and cooking, as methods of
living and learning, not as distinct studies’. All children were to acquire practical skills, as a moral
imperative, even if only some of them would earn their living by using them.
Dewey believed that the educational process must make adequate with every aspect of the life
around. Dewey did not think that all knowledge is applied knowledge or that all learning was to be
assimilated to farming or washing the dishes; rather, he passionately believed that ideas made sense
only as solutions to problems and that educationalists had neglected this fact.
Dewey observed that, the problem was to find ‘the forms of activity which:
(a) Are most congenial, best adopted, to the immature stage of development;
(b) Have the most ulterior promise as preparation for the social responsibilities of adult life; and
(c) At the same time, have the maximum of influence in forming habits of acute observation and of
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consecutive inference i.e. problem solving. Dewey’s five stages of what he called ‘the complete act
of thought’ were:
 a felt difficulty,
 its location and definition,
 suggestion of a possible solution,
 development by reasoning of the bearings of the suggestion,
 Further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection, that is, the conclusion
of belief or disbelief.
? 1. Identify various activities according to Dewey that can help influence learning in schools
today.
2. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Rousseau is considered the father of child-centered education. He believed that the child is the
center of the learning process and his needs and interests at all times must be considered. His main
inputs were:
• The major aim of education is that of developing the whole person.

• Education should be based on the natural stages of the child’s development and growth.
• Each child should be given individual attention.
• The child’s early education should consist of sensory and motor activities based on the child’s
curiosity.
3. John Pestalozzi (1746-1825)
He shared with Roousseau that the child must be center of education process. His major
contribution were:
 Education should aim at developing the child from within, not imposing adult standards on him.
 Pupil activity is the vital method.
 Oral teaching should be applied in all lessons.
Progress should be from concrete to abstract; from particular to general
4. Frederick Froebel
Froebel acknowledged that children are naturally creative rather than receptive and self activity is
one of the most important ways in which the child learns. His contributions were:
• He believed that play is the best way of self expression.

• He believed that socialization is a key principle in learning.
• He believed that children must be encouraged to co-operate with each other in various activities.
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5. Maria Montessori-(1970-1952)
Like Froebel, she believed the value of play in the education process of learning. Her contributions
were based on the following:
• Used carefully designed plaything to help mentally handicapped children learn. They learnt so
well that they actually outstripped/exceed or do better normal children in public examinations.
• Emphasized the need to provide a rich and suitable environment in the classroom where the
child would be free to move around and react to it and its playthings according to his own
preference and at his own pace.
• Did not advocate rewards or prizes as motivation for learning. The child’s own curiosity and
mastery of skill he/she interested in is sufficient motivation. As a result, the child becomes
independent and lives and learns harmoniously/pleasantly with the other children in class.
? 1. State the four qualities of the goal of the Friean education.
2. Explain the philosophical education of Plato.
3. Discuss the philosophical education of Socrates.
African Philosophies of Education
1. Harrambee Philosophy
The word harambee literary means “pooling together” This philosophy is the guiding principle of
working together and pooling resources according to individual ability and willingness to bring
about development in education and other areas national development.
This philosophy is associated with the founding father of the nation of Kenya, Mzee Jomo
Kenyatta. He used the word “Harambee” as a clarion call to pool efforts and resources for
development of an independent nation.
The idea of Harrambee stems from the way of life of the Somalian and Kenyan traditional societies
where members of certain communities joined hands to construct houses for families, schools, till
the soil and etc.
2. Nyayo Philosophy
The word ‘Nyayo’ is Kiswahili word that means ‘footsteps’. The word was given an
impetus/drive/momentum/force by president Daniel Arab Moi when he took over Kenya’s
leadership from the late in 1978. President Moi swore to follow in the footsteps of the late mzee
Jomo Kenyata. Kenyatta emphasized that independent in Kenya had to commit itself to love, peace
and unity.
Some specific educational issues that have been emphasized under the Nyayo Philosophy
 Education for self-reliance/self-sufficiency/independence in the new 8.4-4 system of education.

 Expansion of university education through opening of new universities.
 Environmental education through planting of trees and soil conservation.
17
 Wildlife conservation through establishment of a special department.

 Control of population growth through introduction of population and family life education as a
subject in teacher training college.
How to propagate the Nyayo philosophy of peace, love and unity in the school setting
Nyayo philosophy can be propagated in schools by:
 Teachers showing a good example, by loving their pupils as they love their children, and co-
operating among themselves in an atmosphere of peace.
 Encouraging pupils to be mindful of other people’s welfare through assisting the less privileged
members of such as the disabled pupils.
 Encouraging pupils to join clubs and societies which provide for them an opportunity to serve
others.
 Encouraging pupils to share learning resources and knowledge in learning situation.
 High lighting the themes of peace, love and unity when teaching subjects in education.
3. Education for self-reliance philosophy (Mwalimu Julius Nyerere of Tanzania)
Mwalimu Nyerere is associated with "education self-reliance" because he spelt out the policy of
self-reliance in the Arusha declaration of 1969. The word he adopted self-reliance was "Ujamaa"
which means brotherhood or familyhood. This principle emphasized cooperation, equality and self-
help in the community. He saw education as a means of teaching the principle of self-reliance.
The purpose of self-reliance education introduced in Tanzania was:
• To foster the social goals of living and working together for common goal.
• To solve the problem of unemployment of university graduates.
• To stress the concept of equality and responsibility to give services which go with
special ability.
• To emphasize cooperative endeavor and not individual advancement.
• To prepare young people for the work they be called upon to do in the society.
4. The common man's charter philosophy (1970)
Was a document made in Uganda after independence by Dr. Milton Obote. The aim of this
philosophy was to Uganda from a feudal state system of kingdom to a socialistic state.
The aspects of change intended were:
• All people be regarded equal in sharing the fruits of their labor regardless of their background.
• The bulk/mass of the population be educated and be involved in the election of their rulers.
• Masses be educated to coordinate the hands and the brains for economic productivity.
• Industries be nationalized and foreign industries be 60% government owned.
• All practices of corruption such as tribalism and nepotism/bias be destroyed.
• National youth services are established.
18
SOCIOLOGY
OF
EDUCATION
19
UNİT FOUR
BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGY
Introduction
In this unit, you will be able to learn about the different concepts of sociology of education.

1. Define the term sociology.
2. Explain the origin and development of sociology.
3. State the meaning of sociology of education.
4. Discuss the relevance of sociology of education.
Meaning of sociology
Sociology is a social science that tries to build up a set of logical and consistent theories about the
way societies operate. The discipline tries to increase man’s understanding of his fellow man in a
group or groups.
• Ezewu (1986) defines sociology as “ a scientific study of human behavior in groups”.

• Godia (1988) defines sociology as “the science of society”.
Therefore one can conclude that:

 Sociology studies the social interactions in groups. Sociology seeks to study the elements,
patterns and consequences of the individual’s behavior before and after interaction, e.g. they
want to know who interacts with whom, why and what the outcome of this interaction is.
 Secondly these definitions imply that sociology studies; activities, associations, conflicts and
roles in society.
Origin and development of sociology

Human society developed interest in sociology long before the 19th century. Our ancestors, for
instance were concerned with ways of interacting and holding together their families, clans and
tribes. As a result, our societies have proverbs about social norms and responsibilities. For instance,
among the Luo society, they have which says: “A child who is hard, eats the dry head of a fox”.
Meaning a child who does not listen to elders always misses good delicacies (things).
? 1. What is your explanation of sociology?.

2. What activities and roles does sociology play especially in your own society?
2. Write down five proverbs which relate to discipline and harmony in your society:
Sociology of education
Sociology of education is a branch of sociology which examines the important social activities in
institutions of learning e.g. schools. It is a combination of two concepts ie education and society.
The school and education are social institutions involving social beings, social processes and
behavior.Sociology of education examines social institutions that influence education process. Such
institutions include family, the school, religious institutions, peer group and the community.
It also examines the social problems of the whole school structure for example, teacher;
administration; students; etc.
It seeks knowledge of the effect of the economy on the quality of education provided by the state.
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It systematically analyzes, explains education in regard to its social use and significance in society.
(Importance of education to society)
It is also concerned with sociology of a classroom e.g. how students relate with one another
Sociology of education therefore, refers to the study of the relationship between education and
society. Society here refers to the social relationships that exist among individuals.
Relevance of sociology of education

1. Sociology of education tells us that every society has its unique culture and that culture differs
from society to society. These differences per say do not imply superiority or inferiority;
2. It enables you to prepare students of differing backgrounds of your school to accommodate each
other and live in harmony with fellow students. This acceptance and harmonious understanding
would survive the school life that is, continue after an individual has left school life.
3. It plays a role of forging and promoting unity and cooperation in our society and eliminates
sectarian interests and practices leading to peace and deeper feelings of patriotism.
4. A sociological approach helps one to better one’s methods of teaching and improve on the
content of what is being taught e.g. the discipline enables one to critically examine the
background of the child’s performance in the school and classroom thus encourages you to
apply different modes of approach in handling students from different backgrounds.
5. It helps teachers to find out what may be going wrong among learners. Adolescents keep
themselves and rely on their peers for advice, a situation which is dangerous for them.
Sociology of education gives the skills of interacting with them, communicating with them and
convincing them to take your words.
6. Sociology of education teaches you about society i.e. how society is organized, who interacts
with who and why the forms of interactions in society are so. This will enable you to encourage
your students in a school society to form meaningful groups i.e. groups which will allow you to
achieve your objectives and school goals.
7. Since sociology of education examines the significance of education to society, it enables a
teacher to teach with a purpose. The teacher will be conscious with the curriculum e.g. which
curriculum will enable the student to transform the society for better living.
8. It helps teachers to examine conflicts in educational institutions and how to avoid them. E.g.
student –student conflict, student –teacher conflict, student –administration conflict etc.
21
PHILOSOPHY
OF
MUSLIM EDUCATION
22
UNIT FIVE
MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
Introduction
In this unit, you will be able to learn about the meaning and relevance of Islamic education, explain
the benefits of studying this kind of education to yourself and to the entire community.

1. Define Islamic education.
2. Discuss the relevance of Islamic education.
3. Explain the difference between Islamic Education and Islamic Religious Education.
4. Identify the aims and objectives of Education in Islam.
5. State the centres of Islam right from the Prophet’s time.
Meaning of Islamic Education

Education is the transmission or acquisition of desirable abilities, habits, attitudes and skills among
others by the use of techniques like instruction, training, studying, practice, guidance and discipline.
The difference between Islamic Education and Islamic Religious Education

Islamic Education should not be confused with Islamic Religious Education. Islamic Religious
Education is limited to studies in theology such as Quran, Hadith and Fiqh among others. Islamic
Education on the other hand means educating an individual in all fields which are advanced from
the Islamic perspective like economics, politics and psychology and many others.
Benefits of Islamic Education

A student who receives a good Islamic Education is expected to be peace loving, righteous, faithful
and trustful in Allah’s infinite mercy and justice and such a student lives in harmony with nature
and not in conflict with it. He also believes that man is not the sole controller or governor of the
universe, but that it is under the authority of Allah. He becomes aware of the fact that his life
extends beyond this world ands he is conscious of the effect for his actions on his own being.
Islamic Education constitutes the foundation of Muslim civilization. I
Aims of Education in Islam

Education should aim at producing men who have faith as well as knowledge and these two should
be mutually sustaining. According to Islam, knowledge which is divorced from faith in partial
(incomplete). The subjects that the learner studies are not restricted to Islam but they should foster a
deeper awareness of the divine presence in the universe. Education should therefore cater for the
balanced growth of the total personality of man in all aspects such as spiritual, intellectual, mental,
and physical and to direct these aspects towards goodness.
Objectives of Islamic Education

Education is an obligation that has to be fulfilled by one both as an individual and as a member of
the community (i.e. for ones good and for the good of the community). The first objective of
Islamic Education is to enable one understand his duties towards his own self and these duties
include the requirement to preserve one’s life, faith, mind and honour. Another objective is to
enable the individual to be fully knowledgeable about his obligations towards members of his
family e.g. those obligations towards his parents, siblings, spouse and children. The individual
should also be knowledgeable about his duties towards his community..
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Islamic Education from the Prophet’s time till the end of Caliphate
The history of Islamic Education is traced right from the time when the Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) received the first message from Allah (610AD). During that time, education was based on
values and principles from divine revelation and prophetic tradition. The Prophet acted as a
guardian, advisor, guide, teacher and preacher. Education was open to all i.e. adults, the young, men
and women. Women during the Prophet’s time used to go to the mosque on a specific days of the
week. When the Prophet died, the caliphs took over the responsibility of teaching the Muslims.
Caliph Abubakar was the first one. He fought the apostates (false prophets) who wanted to direct
from the teachings of the Quran. He also compiled the Holy Quran, laid the foundation of the
caliphate. Next was Caliph Umar who strengthened the pillars of the Islamic state and launched
conquests. He encouraged the organization of the Islamic educational system. It was under his era
that children began to be educated formally at Madrasahs. After Umar came Caliph Uthman who
with the help of Quran memorizers systemized the reciting of the Holy Quran and transcribed it into
several copies. It was in his regime that a master copy of the Quran was produced. After Caliph
Uthman’s death, Caliph Ali continued with the duty of propagating Islam. He gave great importance
to education including areas of religion, general knowledge and rhetoric.
By the beginning of the 9th Century, Islamic Education was no longer confined to religious sciences
but it developed to include translation as well as the study of Persian and Greek heritage. Bait al-
Hikmah (now) was founded in Baghdad. A number of disciplines were explored such as Medicine,
Logic, Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology.
In the 10th Century, the supremacy of Islamic Civilization in the domain of knowledge and science
was established allover the world. Al Azhar was found in Cairo and it offered a range of scientific
disciplines such as Logic, Geometry, Engineering and Mathematics.
At the beginning of the 13th Century, there occurred event which sterilized the progress of science
and education in the Muslim world and this severely affected the course of Islamic civilization.
Among such events were the destruction of the City of Baghdad by the Tatars and the launching of
crusades by Christians. As a result of these events, the education system confined itself to old topics
and methods. Under colonial rule, scholars who graduated from the Islamic system of education
were not allowed access to positions of responsibilities and leadership. They were allowed access to
positions of responsibility and leadership. They were allowed access to positions like being judge of
the Shariah Courts and teaching religious education; positions whose influence was limited.
? 1. Write any two objectives of teaching Islamic Education in your school.
2. Who are the teachers of Islamic education in your area?
Early Centres of Muslim Education

1. Mosques
Since the early times of Islam, lessons were held in mosques and this has continued up to the
present period. The first mosque was built in Quba, a place near Medina. This is where the Prophet
used to teach his followers. Apart from teaching, mosque served many purposes including political
centres, Courts of Justice among others. Wherever Muslims spread, mosques were built and some
of these mosques emerged into great learning centres for example in the year 360AH, the famous
mosque Al-Azhar was built which later led to the establishment of one of the greatest universities in
Islam. Besides Quran and Hadith, mosques were also education centres for various kinds of
knowledge known to the Arabs at that time e.g. Arabic theological studies, literacy studies,
jurisprudence, astronomy and medicine.
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2. Al-Suffah
It was the first centre of learning which was established in an apartment of a house enclosed and
connected to the mosque of the Prophet (PBUH). This place was actively meant for the new comers
and theological faithful who were too poor to have any place to live. The teachers at Al-Suffah were
the Prophet and those appointed by him. The dispatch of teachers to neighboring areas was a regular
feature of the education policy of the Prophet (PBUH). He would do this by asking those of his
companions who were able to read and write. There was some degree of specialization among the
teachers and those learners who wanted to learn different subjects to be trained by specialists in
those areas.
Women education was also given importance where the Prophet reserved a day when he could
lecture only them. It should be noted that although importance was given to the Quran and Islamic
sciences, the theme of all subjects that would contribute to the development of a healthy personality
of the individual and society was incorporated in the teachings.
The education of boys and girls were given equal importance and adults were made responsible for
instructing the young in religious matters. This led to the establishment of various schools and
institutions of learning
3. House of learned men

Apart from mosques, private houses were the only places for Islamic teaching. These learned men
taught the Holy Quran and saying and practices of the Prophet (PBUH). Even when the mosques
had been established, many private houses continued to be used as centres of Islamic teaching e.g.
Avicenna and Al-Ghazali held debates discussions and lectures in their houses.
4. Kuttab/Maktabs
These are elementary schools separate from the mosques but attached to them and they focused
mainly on the teaching of reading, writing, arithmetic and Quran among others. In this system,
Arabic language became the standard language of Islamic education. Other subjects included
poetry. Kuttabs existed in private homes where the teacher would gather pupils whether in a room,
house or veranda and in a mosque or in any other open space. Teachers who taught religion could
not accept payment for carrying out a divine mission arguing that it was a duty of worship.
5. Madrasah (School) i.e. formal schooling especially secondary

With the rise of Islam, the number of students gradually increased and the number of subjects taught
also increased. As studies developed, new methods such as discussion and debate came into use.
Therefore, teaching could not be adequately conducted in the mosque and consequently, the setting
up of schools (Madrasah) was inevitable. It is also believed that the numerous activities involved in
the studies in and around the mosque interrupted worship. Also mosques and Kuttabs were mostly
promoting religious studies at the expense of secular learning. Consequently, a good number `of
these schools came to be connected to various schools of Islamic thoughts such as Shafie, Malik,
Hambal and Hanaf School of Thought.
6. Institution of Higher Learning

The first prominent institution for higher learning was the Baitul Hikma (the House of Wisdom). It
was built in 830AD. It served as a translation between an academy and public library and had an
observatory (taught astronomy) connected to it. However, the first real academy in Islamic
Education which made provision for the physical needs of its students which became a model for
later Institutions of Higher Learning was Nizamiyyah built in 1065 by Nizamal Mulk. Many
students were given scholarships; they were also given boarding facilities. The institute was
25
recognized by the state which was responsible for his appointment and duties. Al-Ghazali lectured
in this university for four years. Memory was highly used in learning for instance; Al-Ghazali
memorized about 300 traditions of the Prophet.
Al-Azhar 970
It was merely an old institution of the world but it has a great impact on the life of Egyptians for
over a thousand years. It has produced great leaders, philosophers, scholars renowned for their
wisdom and character. It still occupies a prominent place among the Muslim institutions of the
world. It was built by the Fatimids Empire in Cairo and was first housed in the mosque. Al-Azhar
was not only an important congregational mosque and educational centre but also a shrine of the
pious, reference for the poor and gathering place for people who led a simple life in the 18th
Century. Al-Azhar became famous through the Muslim world and attracted scholars from as far as
Iraq and North Africa. By the end of the 18th Century, the mosque of Al-Azhar had become a unique
university in Egypt having a faculty of forty or fifty professors; 5/6 of whom where greatly sought
after. The learned men of Egypt and other countries around the world used to come to Al-Azhar to
teach without any reward. Students received daily allowances and food provided by endowment.
A 1. What is Islamic Education?

2. Differentiate between Islamic education and Islamic religious education.
3. Move to your community and identify the different types of Islamic education schools and
state the similarities between the then schools and today’s schools.
26
UNIT SIX
THE CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS
Introduction
In this unit, you will be able to learn about the contribution of muslim scholars in the development
and expansion of Islamic education.

1. Identify different muslim scholars who have made various contributions in education.
2. Specify the subjects where muslim scholars have exceedingly done well in this world.
The contributions of muslim scholars

The contribution of the Muslim scholars may be divided into two parts; translation from the Greek
works and original discoveries. During the era of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, the Muslim
world expanded to include North Africa, part of India and those parts of Europe along the
Mediterranean Sea. When the Muslims conquered Syria and Persia, the Arabs came in contact with
Greek philosophers from Athens and Alexandria who had taken refuge in these places after being
prosecuted by the Orthodox Church and Byzantine authorities. The Arabs became impressed by
their works. They began to study the arts and sciences of these newly conquered people. They made
translation of their work from Greek to Arabic.
The Muslim scholars also made their original towards Greek works by critically analyzing,
correcting and supplementing back Arab civilization as is observed by Jacques Riesler;
“Islam dominated the world by its power, its learning and its superior civilization. Heir to
scientific and philosophical treasure of the Greek, Islam passed on this treasure after
enriching it to Western Europe. Thus it was able to widen the intellectual horizon of the
Middle Ages and make a profound impression on European life and thought.”
In the 9th Century, the two great cities of Baghdad and Cordova were regarded as centres of
civilization where scholars around the world sought knowledge. The founding of Bait al Hikma
(House of Wisdom) in Baghdad was one of the outstanding events where it played a big role by
serving as an academy, library and translation centre. The institution composed of Christian Jewish
and Muslim scholars occupied itself with among other works of Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle.
By the 9th Century, Arab scholars is (now) were using a rich scientific method of proceeding from
known to unknown to observe phenomena accurately in order to deduce causes from effects.
Therefore, they were responsible for the introduction and restoration of scientific methods to
medieval Europe. For example; the new French School of Oriental Studies and outstanding Spanish
historians relied on scientific research methods acquired from Muslim Spain. Islamic civilization
entered into Europe through Spain, Sicily and South of France by traders and pilgrims.
Major fields with great muslim involvement

Among the Muslim scholars who contributed to the civilization of the mankind, there are a few who
are worthy naming and recognizing due to their works in specific fields of learning. It should be
noted that one scholar could excel in a number of fields i.e. overlap.
Astronomy
This was among the first sciences to occupy the attention of Muslim scholars. This science attracted
both scholars and leaders and this led to observatories springing up in several centres in the Islamic
empires like Baghdad, Cairo and Cordova. During the Abbasid era, the Baghdad School of
Astronomy revised ancient theories on Astronomy and corrected several errors such as the Greek
27
tables. This school is credited for discovering the movement of the sun in relation to the earth and a
detailed study of the exact duration of the year. Among the most famous scholars was Abul Wefa
who noted the irregularity of the moon’s highest latitude thereby discovering a third lunar inequality
known by the name of variation.
Mathematics
This was one of the favorite subjects of the Arabs. Many basic principles of mathematics, geometry
and algebra were discovered by Muslim scholars. The numerals and method of counting employed
by many people was invented by the Arabs, hence Arabic numerals.
Muhammad Bin Mussa Al-Khawarizm. Before the work of this scholar, numbers were depicted by
the letters of the alphabets (roman numerals) and it was very difficult to make lengthy calculations.
Although the Chinese and Indians are said to have had some conception of the numerals, it was Al-
Khawarizm Bin Mussa who systemized them. He also introduced the number zero and called it Sifr
to mean empty. He also introduced the positional value of a numeral in relation to its location in the
row e.g. the first, second and third. These positions now signify the units, tens, hundreds and
thousands among others. Before the work of Al-Khawarizm, mathematicians had conceived of a
number to be a pure magnitude. Al-Khawarizm introduced the notion that a number can be a
magnitude and it can also be a relation. He named his work as Al-Jabr wal Maakalada (calculation
by symbols). It is from the first part of the title they get the word algebra and from a variant of his
name that we get the word algorism.
Physics
Hassan Ibn Haitan from the school of Cairo researched into magnifying lenses and wrote on optics.
His work inspired the experiments of Roger Bacon and Kepler on the development of the
microscope and telescope. He was the first to give an exact description of the eye and of the lenses
and binocular vision. Ali Ibn Yunus invented the pendulum and its use for clocks.
Chemistry
The Arabis (Jabir) contribution to the study of chemistry was their discovery of important
substances such as alcohol, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, potassium, silver nitrate and the preparation
of mercury. That is why a great number of terms used in chemistry such as alcohol, alkali are of
Arab origin. They also discovered distillation and were the first to use the methods of sublimation,
crystallization, coagulation to extract or combine substances. Abu Bakr Zakaria Al-Razi was the
first to describe how to make sulphuric acid and alcohol which was obtained by distilling fermented
starches and sugars. The Arabs knowledge of chemistry was also applied in the field of pharmacy,
syrups and ointments. They also invented the manufacture of paper from cotton and linen which
eventually replaced the silk paper manufactured y the Chinese. He laid down a clear cut system of
dividing substances into animals, vegetables and minerals.
Medicine
Muslim doctors played a big role in the study of medical science in the west. Abu Bakr Zakaria Al-
Razi published books such as Hawi (The Chaste life) and Mansnai dedicated to Khalif Al-Mansur
and these publications served as medical manuals. For instance, Hawi was one of the books
consulting the whole library of the Paris Faculty of Medicine in 1395. It contains the first
description of certain eruption fevers such as small pox and measles.
Abu Ali Al-Hassan Ibn Abdallah known as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was among the greatest Muslim
doctors. He wrote a book entitled Canun Fil Tib (Precepts of Medicine). It appeared in an edition of
five volumes dealing with psychology, hygiene, pathology, therapeutics and material medica. For
six hundred years, this work served as a basis of medical studies in French and Italian universities.
He gave the world systemized pharmacopoeia embracing simple drugs and compound remedies
with reference to diseases affecting every part of the body. His pharmacopoeia comprised about 760
28
drugs. He also wrote a book on Remedies for the Heart.
Abul Qasim Khalaf Bin Abbas (Abul Cassis) of Cordova. He was the greatest surgeon of medieval
time. He was even appointed by Caliph Al-Hakam II as his court physician. Both medical students
and patients flocked to him from all parts of Europe and the Muslim world for advice and treatment
especially operations. He felt behind a medical encyclopedia whose surgical portion was translated
into Latin, Hebrew, French and English. Various editions of the book were published in subsequent
years. Other doctors included Ibn Zuhr who was the first to combine the study of medicine with that
of surgery and pharmacy, Averroes (Ibn Rushd) who wrote a book on poisons and fevers and Ali Ibn
Issa contributed to the study of ophthalmology. The first operations for the sanction of a cataract
was carried out in 1256 by Al-Muhsin who also invented the hallow needle.
Philosophy
Unlike the other fields which were readily transmitted to the western world, philosophy did
not gain much prominence. This is because of the nature of the discipline which deals with
the nature of the universe. Moreover, Muslim philosophers focused on discussing issues like
the existence of God, His attributes, predestination and moral freedom among others. They
based their arguments on principles stated in the Holy Quran yet other philosophers entirely
referred to logical demonstration and reasons.
Al-Kirdi was the first Muslim philosopher. He borrowed his ideas from Plato and Aristotle but put
these ideas in a new context. With his guidance, the Muslim School of Scholasticism was founded
whose members undertook the task of reconciling Plato and Aristotle and bringing them into line
with religion.
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) commented on Aristotle’s work and through his commentaries, this work
gained influence in medieval Europe. His teachings came to be known as Averroism. In the
universities of the west, Averroes commentaries were used as texts. This popularity did not last for
long as it met resistance from orthodox theologists and the humanists of the renaissance. The
humanist argued that Averroes was representing Arab philosophy and the Arab spirit and that they
were corrupting the ancient civilization started by Greeks.
A 1. Name any prominent muslim scholars in your country.

2. What role have these Muslim scholars played towards the improvement of Islamic
education?
29
UNIT SEVEN
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY (FALSAFA)
Introduction
As already discussed in the first lecture about philosophy, it is not known when philosophy began as
a definite study, but it is known that wise men or philosophers have existed in all ancient
civilizations of all the ancient civilizations.
In this section, you will be able to learn about how these philosophers shaped Islamic education.
Many eminent philosophers rose to fame in the early period of Islamic history in Baghdad and later
on in Spain and advocated the use of reason for understanding human problems in line with the
teachings of the Quran and Sunnah. Some of the Muslim philosophers included; Al-Kirdi, Al-
Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd and Al-Ghazali. The accord between philosophy and religion is brightly
regarded as the most important feature of Islamic philosophy.

1. Identify the different branches of muslim philosophy.
2. Explain the Islamic concept of knowledge.
3. Describe the three stages of Al-Ghazali’s account of knowledge.
Branches of Philosophy
There are various branches of philosophy i.e. metaphysics, epistemology, logic and axiology.
Metaphysics in Muslim Philosophy

In metaphysics, there are various issues to address such as the nature of the universe, nature of God
and the nature of man among others.
1. Nature of the Universe

Many Muslim philosophers agreed on the nature of the universe i.e. the creation theory. The Islamic
view about the creation of the world is that it was created by God out of absolute nothingness at a
certain moment in the past. He also created matter and time which had a definite beginning. Eternity
of the world was refuted in Islamic philosophy since Islam holds that the world is created. However,
Ibn Sina assumed that the world is eternal.
2. Nature of Resurrection
The Quran teaches that there is resurrection on the Day of Judgment where everyone will be
accountable for his or her deeds. Muslim philosophers too agreed on this although Ibn Sina and Ibn
Rushd insisted that life hereafter is purely spiritual and not bodily/physical.
3. Nature of Man
The Islamic view about man is that man was created by God and he was given wisdom to choose
between right and wrong. In reality, man is the highest of all that is created, for God has created him
in the most beautiful moulds. He is born with divine spirit breathed into him. Man according to
Islam is composed of spirit, soul and body.
Islamic Concept of Knowledge (ILM)

“Ilm” is an all embracing term covering theory, action and education. Man alone has been given the
capacity to use names for things and so has been given the knowledge which even the angels do
possess. The ideal of the intellect is to know truth from error. Wisdom for man means the
knowledge of facts, ideals and values.
According to Islam, there are three degrees of knowledge and these are;
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1. Knowledge by influence. This depends either on the truth of its assumption (postulates) as in
deduction or on probabilities as in induction.
2. Knowledge by perception and observation. This is based on the actual experience of
phenomena, but can also be reported. Scientific knowledge is of the above mentioned two kinds
and is acquired from the study of natural phenomena which are signs of Allah and symbols of
ultimate reality. The study of Nature of the Heavens and the Earth and subjugate the forces of
the physical world.
3. Knowledge by inner experience of minds. God reveals His signs not only in the observation and
contemplation of the outer world, but also through the inner experience of the mind. The divine
guidance comes to God’s creatures by means of;
a) Instinct e.g. baby suckling.
b) Intuition or knowledge by heart.
c) Inspiration as is the case of Moses mother when she cast her child into the river.
d) Revelation as in the case of all true prophets and messengers.
Knowledge and wisdom are among the ninety nine attributes of Allah who is all-knowing, all-wise.
He knows what is in the Heavens and the Earth. On the other hand, man does not know anything
except what has been taught to him by Allah.
? 1. Explain the various through which knowledge is obtained in Islam.
The Value of Knowledge
The value of knowledge has been stressed in the Quran, Prophetic traditions and sayings of
companions. The Quran explains that those believers to whom knowledge has been made possible
occupy higher ranks and exalted positions. Understanding raises man’s dignity. Islam thus sanctified
knowledge and created a keenness for it among the believers.
Sources of Knowledge
• Divine revelation e.g. Holy Quran and Prophetic knowledge.
• Nature. The Quran mentions signs of the ultimate reality in the whole of nature as revealed
to the perception of man e.g. sun, moon, stars and a Muslim’s duty is to reflect on these
signs. Do you not see? Do you not think?
• Philosophical. Experience, listening, observation. Also mentioned in the Holy Quran and
Hadith.
• History. For every living nation, there are lessons in the history of the peoples that have
lived in the past.
• Scientific guidelines lay down by the Quran. Muslim scholars developed new methods of
enquiry, observation, experiment and measurement on which modern science is based.
It is important to note that the total explanation and the real nature of things are transcendental and
belong to the unseen world, the knowledge of which cannot be obtained by human senses and
perception and are therefore not amenable to the method of science. According to the Quran, the
invisible is known only to Allah. Because man is both spiritual and matter in nature, the training
imparted to him must be such that faith is infused into the whole of his personality, creating him an
emotional attachment to religion. There should not be division between religious and secular
branches of knowledge.
Al-Ghazali
Al-Ghazali was born (1058 – 1111) in Northeastern Persia. His father, a pious had died when Al-
Ghazali was still young and he had entrusted him to the care of a mystic friend who became Al-
Ghazali’s first teachers. He studied at Nizamiyyah (Baghdad) in fields like theology, law, natural
sciences, philosophy and mysticism. Later on, he taught in this very university and became a
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professor. At the age of 33, he had attained to all the glory that a scholar could by way of academic
and worldly success. Eventually, he became highly critical of the very subjects that he taught and
made a deep study of the philosophical ideas that had taken hold of society. He held that all kinds of
knowledge should be investigated and nothing should be considered dangerous or hostile arguing
that to refute a system before literally inhabiting it and getting thoroughly immersed into its very
depths was to act blindly. He scrutinized the creed of every sect so that he could distinguish
between the true and false. He studied the doctrines of theologians and also acquainted himself with
the different systems of philosophy.
Al-Ghazali’s account of knowledge was in three stages i.e. sense perception, intellect and Allah.
1. Sense Perception
This is the knowledge we perceive through our senses such that no doubt remains along with it and
that no possibility of error accompanies it. Later on, he doubted the accuracy of sense perceptions
by giving an example of a shadow which appears to be standing still, yet through experiment and
observation, the shadow is constantly moving. Another example he gave was that of the sun which
appears to be very small, yet in actual size, it is bigger than the earth.
2. Intellect (Logic)
Al-Ghazali then suggested that only those intellectual truths based on fundamental principles are to
be relied upon such as the assertion than ten are more than three. Again, he realized that the intellect
too had shortcomings arguing that different circumstances may hold true depending on one’s state
but that they can change when one is in a different state. For instance when one is in a state of deep
sleep dreams, he may imagine things in the dream to be stable until when he wakes up. Al-Ghazali
therefore says that one’s waking state may also turn out not to be true if at all another state in life
sets in such as ecstasy and death.
3. Allah’s light
Sometimes,Allah may cast a light into one’s breast and that this light is the key to the greater part of
knowledge. This kind of knowledge does not rest upon strict proofs but on Allah’s mercy. With
Allah’s help, man is encouraged to seek for knowledge and this was what Al-Ghazali did. He
identified four classes of knowledge seekers of his time; the theologians, the followers of the
infallible imam, the mystics and the philosophers.
His outlook on philosophy is characterized by a remarkable originality which is more critical than
constructive. He gives a clear exposition of the views of the philosophers, analytically criticizing
them for their irreligious doctrines and openly accepting them whenever he found them to be true.
He claimed that throughout their numerous schools, most philosophers suffered from the defect of
being infidels and irreligious men because they among other things denied the creator and disposer
of the world, considered that the world has everlastingly existed just as it is without an end.
According to him, Islamic philosophers such as Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi belong to this category
because they are proponents of Aristotle’s teachings. He however acknowledged that none of the
Islamic philosophers has accomplished anything comparable to these two scholars’ achievements
and confusion. He argues that this has helped the readers to comprehend Greek philosophy because
if a concept is not comprehended, it can neither be refuted not accepted. Three outstanding issues
that Al-Ghazali disagreed with them are;
1. They said that for bodies, there is no resurrection. It is only the spirit which are rewarded or
punished.
2. They said that God knows only universals but not particulars.
3. They said that the world is everlasting without beginning or end.
Al-Ghazali’s Philosophy on the Learner

1. A student should purify his soul from impure acts because knowledge is a form of worship.
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2. They should know the science of the hereafter in order to draw near to God.
3. He should reduce his tie with affairs of the world and if possible leave his kin because such ties
occupy one’s time and divert one’s attention.
4. He should not scorn at knowledge.
5. He should open his ears and heart in order to be able to learn i.e. be humble, attentive, thankful
and discipline.
6. Avoid over eating because it dulls the intellectual and weakens the memory. It also causes too
much sleep which, besides being wastage of time, slackens the mind; the light of wisdom is
deemed and one becomes unable to differentiate good from evil.
Duties of a teacher according to Al-Ghazali

• The teachers must be kind, lovely, friendly and jolly to his students and treat them like his or
her children. He should not harass them and when he does so, he should do it sparingly.
• He should not seek reward from his or her students but should instead expect it from God.
• He should always advise his learners where necessary and provide guidance and counseling
wherever he is approached e.g. entertains their complaints and correct bad behaviors.
• Must always assess learners’ intellectual levels and be able to address them according to
their intellectual abilities and capacities. He should not present to them things which are
either above or below their standards.
• Teacher should always seek the students’ opinion and should always encourage them to
participate freely. He should respect their opinions.
• The teacher must not discourage students to learn other subjects other than his. He should
open the way for them to learn other subjects.
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COMPARATIVE
EDDUCATION
UNIT EIGHT
34
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Introduction
In this unit, you will be able to learn about the meaning and relevance of comparative education, its
importance and methods of study.

1. Define comparative education.
2. Explain the importance of comparative education to those involved.
3. Analyze the methods used in teaching comparative education.
4. Identify the developmental stages of comparative education.
5. Discuss the factors that influence the education system of a country.
Meaning of comparative education

There are various definitions of comparative education by various scholars in the field of education.
Some of the definitions as defined by scholars are:
1. Nicholas Hans: He defined it as the process of discovering the underlying principle which
govern the development of all National system of education such as customs, tradition,
environment and historical factors.
2. Vernon Mallison: Defined it as a systematic examination of others cultures and other
systems of education deriving from these cultures in order to discover resemblances and
differences, and why variant solutions have been attempted to problems that are often
common to all.
Conclusively therefore, in comparative education we make an analysis of education system of
various countries in order to understand their educational progress, problems with a view to emulate
or find solutions to our own educational problems.
Other scholars include Philip E. Johns, Edmund J. King, Sir Michael Sadler, I.L. Kandel e.t.c.
? In your own words, what is comparative education?

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Importance of Comparative Education to Educationalists and policy Makers

1. It helps to understand the system of education of various countries and factors which
influence it, problems and solutions to a particular country’s system of education. And also
the processes which make the system operate very well.
2. It promotes interest and information about a particular education system. This help in
shaping our own education system.
3. It helps to appreciate problems in education and focus on getting solutions to those
problems. Most of the countries of the world face similar problems in their educational
system; therefore we can get solution to our educational problems by studying various
educational systems of different nations.
4. The study facilitates practical reforms and planned development of the school systems. So
many innovation are being introduced in the field of education for example open university,
learning through internet, Distance learning, uses of electronic devices like television, radio,
computer to facilitate teaching and learning.
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5. Comparative education has developed the capacity to predict the outcome of education
policies of a nation e.g a comparative educationist had warned long time ago that having
irrelevant curriculum in higher institution will end up with unemployed graduates.
Methods and approach to the study of comparative education

The following methods of studying comparative education are worth noting:
Statistical method: This involves collection and comparison of educational data like the number of
students at various stage, expenditure on education, number of teachers, etc.
Sociological method: This is the study of educational problems in social context. An educational
problem is a social problem.
Historical method: This is the study of causative factors of modern educational problems in order
to build the future.
Analytical method: To analyse the various educational elements such as social, political, economic
in determining of standard of comparison.
Psychological method: Educationists compare educational attainment of the students of different
countries by means of tools which are universally accepted.
Development of Comparative Education

First stage: During the 19th century the belief had gained ground that the characteristics prevailing
in one country may be absorbed in the education of another. This belief resulted into the collection
of data in educational systems of other countries. These data were arranged in table form and an
attempt was made to deduce some general principles. Consequently people started to believe that
educational system of a country may be organised according to these principles.
However when collecting these data no attention was made on political, social, economic, religious
set up of the country studied although they have a direct influence on its educational system.
Second stage: In this stage, the social, economic, political and other factors which influence
education system of a country were studied. Thus the influence of these factors in the context of
educational development was specially noted and to what extent these factors were suitable for
another country so the tendency of blind imitation was discarded.
Third stage: this stage is a period of analysis. The economic, social, political and other factors were
analysed. Then it was inferred up to what extent that educational system was suitable or unsuitable
for another country. Therefore in the 3rd stage an attempt was made to reach the conclusion on the
basis of various factors.
Factors that influence education system

Educational system of a country is influenced by forceful factors such as social, political, economic,
religious etc.
General economic situation: the economic situation becomes a determining factor of the type of
education that it can afford to have. If the economic condition is poor, education becomes backward
in many aspects. The history of underdeveloped countries testifies to this. While countries like
USA, Japan etc have their educational aims and the curriculum designed for making the countries
prosperous.
Sense of national unity: One of the functions of education is to instil national unity in different
ethnic group that make up the country. The education system should strengthen a feeling of national
unity. USA and Great Britain have used their education system to unite the people together as they
see themselves as one.
Beliefs and traditions: Customs, traditions, beliefs and local development affect the educational
system in a country. These affect the curriculum and influence educational development.
Religious factor: Religion is one such factor which has influenced education more than any other
single factor. In most cases some scholars are founded on the strength of certain religion and value
of those religions are reflected in the curriculum e.g educational system in Saudi Arabia is based on
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Islamic religion.
National Language: The influence of language on education can not be over emphasized. Every
nation need national language, the scientific, technological and other subjects are taught through the
medium of national language. In a country where many languages are spoken, the linguistic
problem in an education system should be handled
Political philosophy: It is through the political and social trends of the country that social changes
are brought. Education plays a prominent role in it for example in china the education system is
based on communist philosophy while in USA the democratic influence can be easily perceived in
educational system.
A 1. What is comparative education?

2. Discuss the importance of studying comparative education to various stakeholders.
2. Explain the different methods used in the teaching of comparative education.
3. Describe various developmental stages that comparative education has gone through
todate.
4. Account for the factors influencing the education system of your country.
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UNIT NINE
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Introduction
In this section, you will be able to learn about the education systems have developed over time in a
few identified developed states in the world.

1. Briefly explain the development of education in USA and in Soudi Arabia.
2. Identify the aims of education in the USA and in Soudi Arabia.
3. Compare and contrast the structure of education in the USA and in Soudi Arabia.
4. Describe the Administration and management of Education in USA and in Soudi
Arabia.
Case study: USA

USA is a country of recent origin compared to other countries like Britain and France which can
trace their origin for more than 1000yrs. Most of the people have migrated from European countries
like the Dutch, the British etc. Therefore the present USA is mainly composed of immigrants from
different countries who escaped from harsh conditions like wars, religion, persecution, economic
hardships and adventure. USA is one of the richest countries of the world. It has vast natural
resources and the technology has been developed.
Aims of education in USA
1. To develop a sense of world citizenship. This is to arouse an interest and curiosity in wide and
valued knowledge of the world with an open mind shining a narrow outlook.
2. To develop a sense of co-operation. They aim to develop qualities of humanities and co-
operation among each other e.g through acquiring human virtues.
3. To introduce Vocational point of view in education. This is to prepare a citizen for life.
Provision has made for vocational and technical education along with general education. This
improves the economic status of the students and also contributes significantly to economic
development of the nation.
4. To develop the qualities of citizen, qualities like tolerance, knowledge of one’s right and duties,
respect of views and duties of others. There spirit of social service etc.
5. Universal Education (provision of education to all). There education is free and compulsory for
boys and girls from the age of 6-18 years. Transport facilities, medical facilities, and mid-day
meal are easily available to students.
Structure of education in USA

Kindergarten
This is voluntary and most of the children are enrolled at the age of 4 and it’s mainly for
socialisation. The focus is to teach children how to relate with one another. At the age of 6 the child
is sent to elementary school.
Elementary school
Here the structure differs from state to state. However the following are the most common features
of elementary school in USA.
 The national anthem is taught to them and the flag is displayed in each classroom.
 It initiates pupils to various aspects of American life.
 The idea of nationhood is enforced daily in the classroom.
 A variety of subjects are studied, books are well illustrated and content is directly related to the
problem within the child daily life.
 Schools are supported with a lot of instructional materials. The purpose of this is to stimulate
the pupils to learn for themselves.
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 No exams are administered at this level. Pupils are promoted according to their age. -Child
labour and corporal punishment is totally discouraged.
Higher Education
Generally all the boys and girls receive education up to sixteen years of education. 75% of the
students continue their education up to higher secondary stage.
Vocational and Technical school

These schools impart training to 50% of the student community.
Tertiary Institution
These include universities, colleges, and institutes. 16% go up to the higher education level. Private
colleges and universities have made much progress. The government gives loans to students at low
interest. This has enabled whoever wants higher education to achieve it.
Administration and management of Education in USA

USA is an example of decentralisation of education. They have secular schools. Each state is
responsible for its own education. The state department of education is the top administrative body
in charge of education in USA. The members are elected by the people. The board is headed by the
superintendent of education. All these units have their local branches directly elected by the people
of these areas.
• The federal state
• The state board of education
• The supretendant of education
• The district board of education
• The district supretendant of education
• The professional staff
? How are the aims of education being implemented in the USA?
Structure of Education system in Saudi Arabia

Kindergarten
Private ownership of schools. Children join at 4-5 years. It is for socialisation.
It is not a pre-condition to enter primary.
Primary education
Children started at the age of six years. It covers 6 years in primary. All schools are day. They teach
Islamic Ideology. Arabic is the Medium of communication. Culture and general science are taught.
Intermediate stage
It is for 3yrs. It has day and evening classes. Varieties of subjects are taught.
Secondary stage
It covers three years and provides specialised studies. It also prepares students to enter universities.
They specialise in courses like social sciences, literature, and management. They have secondary
institutes for training female teachers and Koranic schools for religious courses strictly.
Technical education
Special interest is given to technical education since very long and vocational education. Many
courses are offered e.g Industry, agriculture and commerce. It has witnessed popularity and
sustained growth. They also provide Islamic culture and Arabic Language.
Adult education and Literacy

Special education system was established for providing education at any age. The duration is 3yrs.
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University education
Varieties of courses are offered both religious and non religious courses.
Principles of education in Saudi Arabia

• Strengthen faith in Allah and the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)
• Foster holistic Islamic concept of the universe
• Emphasize that life is a stage of work and production to invest full understanding of the faith
in eternal life.
• Proclaim the message of Muhammad
• Instil Islamic Ideas
• Incorporate religious education and maintain Islamic culture at all educational level
Education in Saudi Arabia has four special features
• An emphasis on Islam
• A centralised education system
• Separate education for men and women
• State financial support
? 1. Using illustrations, describe the structure of education in Soudi Arabia.

2. What are the aims of education in Soudi Arabia?
Traditional African Education
Characteristics of traditional African education

 There were no schools or syllabus to be followed and it was for most part informal.
 Teachers were not paid.
 It had well varied methods, such as games, traditional dances, legends (old and well-known
stories), all related to culture and tradition of the people.
 Technical skills were acquired and learned on a trainee standard.
 Education was given in stages from childhood to the time of marriage and there were no
dropouts.
 Promotion to the next stage was almost automatic.
 It was the responsibility of the community to educate the youth.
 Discipline was instilled by means of punishment and reward.
Aims of traditional African education

a) Safeguarding of cultural heritage of the extended family, the clan and tribe.
b) Adapting members of the younger generations (children) to their physical environment and
teaching them how to control and use it.
c) Explaining to the youth that their own future and that of their community depends on the
understanding and perpetuation/keeping upholding of the institution/society/tradition, laws,
languages and values inherited from the past.
Traditional African education as a way of preparing an individual for life

Emphasis of traditional African education was:
a) To have a good manner.
b) Obedience to elders.
c) Hospitality/welcome/kindness to friends.
d) Co-operation in common tasks.
e) Acquisition/gaining of practical skills in preparation for adulthood.
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f) Self-restraint/control/discipline and endurance/staying power of hardship/poverty.

g) Pride of a membership in a group.
Aims of Traditional African Education Achieved by:

Traditional education was real education which achieved all its aims. Its products were able to fit in
the social, economic and political set- up in each community with a high degree of adaptability.
Western education takes up the place of Traditional African education

Reasons that led to traditional education giving way to western education are:
 Western education was seen as a way of moving out of poverty and a ticket for
upward/increasing social development.
 Africans wanted to discover the western way of life.
 Ideas and values on which traditional education was founded lost meaning as western
education promoted individualism which gives man satisfaction.
Traditional African education shouldn't wholly abandon in favor of western education

Traditional African education should not be done away with completely because it has values that
we need every time. For example:
 The structure of our social system would be disrupted if traditional if traditional education was
abandoned as we would lose our identity and nationality.
 The knowledge and use of traditional medical herbs is becoming increasingly useful.
The society expects children to continue respecting their elders, etc.
History of education in Somalia (Pre and pro – independence)
In the colonial period, Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland pursued different educational
policies. The Italians sought to train pupils to become farmers or unskilled workers so as to
minimize the number of Italians needed for these purposes. The British established an elementary
education system during the military administration to train Somali males for administrative posts
and for positions not previously open to them. They set up a training school for the police and one
for medical workers.
During the trusteeship period, education was supposedly governed by the Trusteeship Agreement,
which declared that independence could only be based on "education in the broadest sense." Despite
Italian opposition, the UN had passed the Trusteeship Agreement calling for a system of public
education: elementary, secondary, and vocational, in which at least elementary education was free.
The authorities were also to establish teacher training institutions and to facilitate higher and
professional education by sending an adequate number of students for university study abroad.
The result of these provisions/requirements was that to obtain an education, a Somalis had the
choice of attending a traditional Quranic school or the Roman Catholic mission-run government
schools. The language of instruction in all these schools was Arabic, not Somali. Education for
Somalis ended with the elementary level; only Italians attended intermediate schools. Of all Italian
colonies, Somalia received the least financial aid for education.
In British Somaliland, the military administration appointed a British officer as

superintendent/manager/supervisor/controller/examiner of education in 1944.
In 1947 there were seventeen government elementary schools for the Somali and Arab population,
two private schools, and a teachers' training school with fifty Somali and Arab students.
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The relative lack of direction in education policy in the pre-Revolutionary period under the supreme
revolutionary council (SRC) gave way to the articulation in the early 1970s of several goals
reflecting the philosophy of the revolutionary regime. Among these goals were expansion of the
school system to accommodate the largest possible student population; introduction of courses
geared to the country's social and economic requirements; expansion of technical education; and
provision of higher education within Somalia so that most students who pursued advanced studies
would acquire their knowledge in a Somali context. The government also announced its intention to
eliminate illiteracy. Considerable progress toward these goals had been achieved by the early 1980s.
In the community chaos/disorder following the fall of Siad Barre in early 1991, schools
ceased/ended/stopped/finished to exist for all practical purposes. In 1990, however, the system had
four basic levels--preprimary, primary, secondary, and higher
In addition to training in reading, writing, and arithmetic, the primary curriculum provided social
studies courses using new textbooks that focused on Somali issues. Arabic was to be taught as a
second language beginning in primary school, but it was doubtful that there were enough qualified
Somalis able to teach it beyond the rudimentary/elementary level. Another goal, announced in the
mid-1970s, was to give students some modern knowledge of agriculture and animal husbandry.
Primary school graduates, however, lacked sufficient knowledge to earn a living at a skilled
trade/job/employment.
The principal institution of higher education was Somali National University in Mogadishu,
founded in 1970. The nine early faculties were agriculture, economics, education, engineering,
geology, law, medicine, sciences, and veterinary science. Added in the late 1970s were the faculty
of languages and a combination of journalism and Islamic studies. The College of Education, which
prepared secondary-school teachers in a two-year program, was part of the university. About 700
students were admitted to the university each year in the late 1970s; roughly 15 percent of those
completed the general secondary course and the four-year technical course. Despite a high dropout
rate, the authorities projected an eventual intake of roughly 25 percent of general and technical
secondary school graduates.
In 1990 several other institutes also admitted secondary school graduates. Among these were
schools of nursing, telecommunications, and veterinary science, and a polytechnic institute. The
numbers enrolled and the duration of the courses was not known.
? 1. Write at least one page on the effect of civil war to education after collapse of Somali
central government.
Achieving quality Education through ICT

Information Communication Technology (ICT)
ICT e.g computers, mobile phone, television, internet, iPad, Video Conferencing etc.
There is rapid change in technology so schools need to be fast to catch up with developments.
Conventional view on ICT
They see ICT as a tool to accomplish specific purpose. In this way, tools change the user ie
influence human culture.
It is modified all the time.
Relative view
It is seen in two ways. We use the tools and they also use us. We are changed culturally,
psychologically, our bodies, health, physical, environment etc.
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Impact of ICT on Education

Positive excellent
- Enhance the professional role of an educator e.g teaching method like power point.
- Communication with students/staff through internet, video conferencing
- Interactive learning ie e-learning
- Ease the burden of over worked teacher e.g management information system e.g centralised
data base of students information, results etc
- Change the idea about education ie physical location, schools and classroom, e.g Digital
classroom, digital library, digital books, online assessment
- Allow disabled to get equal chance to learning e.g through e-mal, use large monitors, voice
recognition system
- Negative impact
- Openness concept in the content of internet ie useful/useless
- Too much time spent on internet
- Loss of creativity by children ie rely on internet (spoon fed)
- Less effective for poor schools, impoverished areas
- Cost of upgrading the technology is higher than a new technology
A 1. Differentiate between the education system in the USA and that in Soudi Arabia.
2. Discuss the challenges that the government is currently facing while trying to bring quality
education to her citizens?
3. Describe the structure of education in your country.
4. How do the aims of education in USA differ from those in your own country?
5. What are the hindrances to curriculum reform in your country’s education system?
6. How realistic is a uniform vocationalised curriculum in Somali’s education system?
7. What role can you play as teacher and teacher educator for effective implementation of
curriculum reform in your country?
8. What challenges has the invention of ICT brought to the education of children in your
country?
9. In your groups, discuss the benefits of the effective use of ICT in your schools.
10. What is your role can as far as the use of ICT in your class is concerned?
REFERENCES
Aggarwal, I.C. (1998). Theory and practice of Education. UBS Publishers: New Delhi.
Ministry of Education (1989). Education for National Integration and development). Ministry of
education: Kampala.
Maicibi, N.A. (2007). Human resource management success. M.P.K. Press: Press.
UNIT TEN
HİSTORY OF SOMALİ EDUCATİON
a. 1960 – 1970: Traditional and Colonial Education
Prior to Somali independence in 1960 there were three separate systems of
Education:
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• Somali Koranic Schools

• Italian Trusteeship
• British Protectorate
Traditional Somali education involved the informal education of Koranic schools known as duksis
in the south and mal’amad in the north. These schools were mobile and traveled with the nomadic
tribes teaching the principles of Islam and the Koran. The informal nature of the education meant
that the students would also learn the ways and skills of the tribe they were travelling with. The
Koranic lessons were taught in Arabic.
The Italian Trusteeship signed an agreement with the UN to provide a free system of education
offering elementary, secondary and vocational education. The language of instruction at all levels
was Italian; enrolment represented 0.1% of the population. The British Protectorate offered
elementary education in 17 government schools, where the language of instruction was Arabic.
They also established a teacher training school with the assistance of instructors from the East
African Army Education Corps. The medium of instruction in all levels above elementary level (i.e.
intermediate and secondary) was English.
Before 1960 the most effective and successful form of education was the Koranic school, as the
colonial attempts were minimal and effected only a small proportion of Somalis in that time. This
could be a reflection of the formality and irrelevance of western style education to the Somali
traditions and way of life. With the independence of the Republic of Somalia the government
inherited all three systems of education, however, little was done in the next decade to make
education more accessible to the Somali people.
b. 1970 – 1991: Siad Barre Regime

The regime of Siad Barre, which overthrew the government in 1969, made education one of its
priorities. In 1972 the regime had succeeded in the development of the Somali alphabet1 and was
able to work towards their goal of delivering courses in the Somali language.
The educational reform was geared towards the social and economic requirements of the country. It
aimed to expand upon technical education, provide higher education and to give their students the
opportunity to advance there studies within the context of Somalia. By the 1980s considerable
ground had been covered attempting to reach those goals.
The Barre regime initially maintained the structure of 4 years of primary education leading to a 4-
year intermediate cycle. This was merged into one continuous stage of compulsory education in the
mid 1970s with the nationalization of all schools and the education system. At this level students
were taught reading, writing, arithmetic and social studies, which focussed on Somali issues. Arabic
was to be taught as a second language at primary school but there was doubt over the ability of the
teachers to teach it beyond a rudimentary level.
In the late 1970s the Koranic schools and education were integrated into the national system. The
government provided its nomadic population with a 3-year education programme that fitted around
the 6 months of settlement and 6 months mobility pattern to which the children were used. This
allowed them to attend the school in the season of settlement and accompany their parents for the
rest of the year. Upon graduation of primary education, students had three choices:
• General secondary school for a further 4 years
• Technical education for 3 or 4 years
• Vocational education for a further 2 years.
Primary school graduates did not have the skills or knowledge to earn a living in a skilled trade, yet
only 10% continued on to secondary education. This could be due to a number of factors including
a lack of teachers, schools and resources.
44
In 1973, one year of National Service was introduced for all secondary graduates. They were to
spend 3 months of the year in military training and the remaining 9 months teaching in elementary
schools. In 1983 the national service was extended to 2 years, with a minimum of 6 months spent in
military training. These teachers had not received any formal training and were teaching very close
to their own level of attainment.
1970 saw the establishment of the Somali National University in Mogadishu. Affiliated to the
university was the College of Education, responsible for teaching secondary teachers in a 2-year
programme. In the late 1970s, the war between Somalia and Ethiopia and the consequent emergence
of refugee camps in Somalia under the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR), saw the
introduction of a parallel primary education programme for the children in the camps. This also
included a primary teachers’ education programme for adult refugees in the camps. This took place
in co-operation with the Institute of In-service Teacher Training.
In the 1980s, however, this positive picture of development and reform did not continue.
Government budgets were reallocated to military priorities, which meant that only 1.5% of the
budget was invested into education. The consequence of this was a continued freeze on salaries for
teachers, which had not increased since 1970. This combined with the high inflation of consumer
prices led to a high dropout rate amongst trained teachers. The small budget also meant a lack of
access to textbooks, resources and the inability to provide professional development for teachers in
schools to upgrade their qualifications.
These issues were further compounded by a brain drain of Somali graduates and professionals
including those Somalis who had studied abroad who were attracted to the Gulf countries. This was
due to the fact that the skills of these graduates were not appreciated or recognised in the economic
climate of Somalia at that time. In short, the connection between the theory of education and the
practical needs of the Somali labour market did not exist. As a result, the graduates who did stay
faced unemployment or lower skilled jobs. By 1985 almost 1,000 primary schools had closed due to
the combination of these issues.
c. 1991 – 2006: Civil War

The overthrow of the Barre regime in 1991 saw the Republic of Somalia descend into a state of civil
war and anarchy. A consequence of this was the dissolution of any existing national education
system and the closure of all schools. 90% of these schools were completely or partially destroyed,
all resources and equipment looted, and consequently all school records lost. In the absence of
primary schools, a few koranic teachers tried to teach some literacy and numeracy to the children.
By 1992 international agencies moved in and began reviving the primary school education to create
some sense of normalcy for the children in Somalia. Education was one of the priorities for
UNOSOM. Alongside other UN agencies, International NGOs and their Somali counterparts, efforts
were made to re-establish an educational sector. Teachers and students alike were offered food and
financial incentives to attend and participate in these programmes.
With regard to teacher training during this time, Somali Open Learning Unit (SOMOLU) provided
in-service teacher training programmes, which were carried out through the regional Training of
Trainers (TOT) programme. Workshops were held for head teachers that enabled the review and
editing of textbooks. It was at this time that in the absence of a national Ministry of Education, the
formation of Local Education Authorities was encouraged. However, with the withdrawal of the UN
in 1995 and the resulting halt in incentives for teaching and attendance a lot of schools closed once
more. The responsibility of education now lay in the hands of the International NGOs, their local
counterparts and religious missions.
45
During more recent years a unit led by UNESCO and the Africa Educational Trust of London has
worked on developing curricula and textbooks and recruiting and training teachers. Educational
development centres were established and writers and trainers were employed to design and
produce educational material and give training workshops. However, enrolment on to programmes
continues to dwindle. Education does not seem to be a priority in a country where survival is the
primary concern. Another issue to consider is that the rehabilitation and development of the
education sector has involved many actors and is not necessarily working cohesively. As a result
there has been no formal system of accreditation, quality assurance or
standardisation of the different syllabi and examinations. All the different programmes vary in
content, quality and structure.
Due to the non-existence of a national government in Somalia for the last 15 years and no
standardised national system of education, it is not possible to broadly recognise any qualifications
that are awarded by the local authorities with support of UNESCO, NGOs and UNICEF.
General Education Structure

Currently education in Somalia is implemented by several different international, local, private and
religious agencies at a regional level. There is no over-reaching national curriculum and syllabus,
therefore teaching requirements, methods, structure and training can vary significantly. However,
the majority of local and international agencies have followed the general education and teacher
training structure that was in place before 1991
a. Pre-School
Pre-school education begins at the age of 4 years old and lasts for 1 or 2 years. This stage of
education is optional and is provided by the Xannaannada Caruurta (Kindergarten), although very
few children attend these schools. Pre-school education is also provided by the Koranic schools,
whose children begin their Islamic studies at the age of 4 or 5. This continues when they begin
primary education and can last for 4 - 10 years for boys or 2 – 5 years for girls. The curriculum
within the Koranic school focuses on teaching the values of Islam to the children through repetition,
recitation and memorization. Pre-school education in its non-Koranic format is largely non-existent
in present day Somalia.
b. Primary
Primary education begins at the age of 6 and is compulsory for a period of 8 years. The schools at
this level were known as Dugsi Hoose and Dughsi Dhexe. The 8 years were divided into 8 grades,
where 1-4 covered elementary education and 5-8 involved intermediate education. The majority of
children in Somalia would not complete all 8 years. Somali language is the medium of instruction at
primary level and is taught as a separate subject, as are Mathematics, Science, Social Studies,
Arabic and Islamic Studies. Upon graduation students have several options available to them:
• General Secondary education (4 years)
• Technical education (3/4 years)
• Vocational education (1/2/3 years)
• Primary Teacher Programmes (1/2/3 years)
c. Secondary
General secondary school (Dugsi Sare) lasts for 4 years. Students ae aged 14 and graduate at 18. All
students need the Primary School Leaving Certificate for entry. The following subjects are taught:
• English
• Somali
• Geography
• History
• Chemistry
46
• Physics
• Biology
• Mathematics
• Arabic/Religion
Students who pass the General Secondary School Leaving Certificate under the Siad Barre regime
would do 1-year national service before they could progress or continue their education. After this
they could either apply to university or work in one of the ministries. To enter university applicants
have to pass an entrance examination and
then undertake four years of study leading to a Laurea, BA or BSc degree. The medium of
instruction at university level is English.
.
Teacher Training Structure
It should be noted that a teacher training course is not a specific entry requirement for all teachers in
Somalia. All secondary school graduates must teach for 9 months at elementary level as part of their
national service. They receive no prior teacher training to help them in this role. Teachers of Islamic
Studies in Koranic schools very rarely have any formal education. A survey of 655 Koranic school
teachers carried out by the Arab League Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organisation (ALESCO)
indicated that only 10% had attended any formal schooling, although 90% had undertaken Islamic
Studies.
a. Primary Teacher Training
Primary Teacher Training was available in several different formats and the entry requirement to all
of these was completion of intermediate secondary education resulting in the Primary School
Leaving Certificate.
One-year programme:
The one-year programme is offered by 2 Primary Teacher Training schools, Halane and Mahad Al
Mollimin. This programme is regarded as post primary education as it continues the basic general
education subjects for 7½ months. The teaching element was covered by the inclusion of the study
of Pedagogy, Physical Education and Revolutionary Education in addition to the general subjects.
This training also included 3 weeks paramilitary training, and just 10 days practical training in
schools.
Informal Teacher Training:

In reaction to the Ogaden war and the creation of refugee camps in Somalia, the Institute of In-
service Teacher Training set up a teacher training course that was targeted specifically at refugees to
enable them to provide education to the children in the camps.
The entrance requirements were the same as the national teacher training requirements; be a
graduate of primary school, pass an entrance examination and an interview in which the parents of
the students, national refugee commission, the commander, a supervisor and a member of staff from
the Institute of In-Service Teacher Training would all be present. The curriculum was the same as
that for basic teacher training and the structure included distance education, self-study and face-to
face sessions with a national secondary school teacher. In addition, the refugee would also have a
supervisor from the Institute to act as a counsellor and guide.
b. Secondary Teacher Training

Secondary school teachers were required to undertake degree courses which are considered post-
secondary, higher education. The entry routes for these programmes are as follows:
• Secondary School Leaving Certificate
• Completed National Service
• University Entrance Exam
Or:
• Primary school teacher
47
• Graduate of Primary Teacher Training Institute

• 3 years experience of teaching in a primary school
• Teacher’s evaluation exam
Or:
• Civil servant – studying an area relevant to their job
Students attended the Faculty of Education – Lafole College of Education, where the
language of instruction was English. Students would therefore be required to
undertake a semester of intensive English language learning before matriculation.
Students could choose to major in any of the following subjects:
Agricultural Education
• Arabic
• Biology
• Chemistry
• English
• Geography
• History
• Mathematics
• Physical Education
• Physics
The major was based on an evaluation of the student’s ability and the possible future requirements
of the secondary schools. Each programme included the following professional education courses:
• Foundations of the Principles of Education
• Educational Psychology Tests
• Audio-visual Aids
On completion the students received a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Arts, depending on
their major. From 1968 – 1972 these courses took 4 years, where the 3rd year was spent in a school
to gain practical experience. Due to the teacher shortages in 1972 the course was condensed into 3
years. While the content of the course remained the same, the practical element was removed. In
1976 – 1982 the shortage of teachers continued to cause problems so the course was shortened to
two years. This resulted in the removal of the 1 or 2 general education courses from an otherwise
unchanged curriculum. It involved 6 trimesters over 2 years, with 42 contact hours of study during a
6-day week. Some doubt has been expressed over the quality of teachers who graduated at this time.
The training was extended to 3
years again in 1983 and then to 4 years in 1984.
In-Service Training
a. In-Service Primary Teacher Training
In-Service Primary Teacher Training is mandatory for teachers who enter the profession outside of
national service and lasts for 3 years. It is the responsibility of the regional education officers or
local education authorities. Teachers are taught by secondary school teachers who are assigned a
certain number of teachers for supervising and mentoring.
The structure was a combination of correspondence, distance learning, 2 intensive courses of face-
to-face instruction with a teacher during the summer holidays as well as working as a full time
teacher. The 2 intensive courses and examinations represent the primary and intermediate phases of
education (up to grade 9). On completion the trainee teachers would undertake the National
Teaching examination; if successful they would receive a Teacher’s Certificate.
b. In-Service Upgrading Courses
The Institute of In-Service Teacher Training offered upgrading courses; the structure was dependent
on study groups, self instruction and face-to-face tutorials with a national secondary school teacher
when possible. This course was purely academic and covered the secondary curriculum of grades
48
10, 11 and 12.

The duration was 3 years, in which time the individual would continue to work as a full-time
primary teacher. This was designed to retain teachers within the system as they would have to sign a
contract with the school for three years whilst undertaking the course.
Issues Facing the Teaching Profession

In the 1970s the Siad Barre regime made education a priority and pushed through various reforms to
improve the education system and make it accessible to as many children as possible. This
increased enrollment but heaped pressure on an already inadequate number of teachers. As a result
incentives such as food, board and provision of uniforms were laid on for individuals to enter the
teaching profession. In-service training was encouraged within primary schools. Secondary school
graduates taught at elementary level as part of their national service, although at secondary level the
training courses were shortened to provide a quicker training
turnaround.
In 1974 a decision was made to close all schools. This was part of the Rural development campaign
that in turn was a continuation of the 1973 National Literacy campaign. All teachers and some
intermediate and secondary students participated in this programme. At the same time a complete
redevelopment of the curriculum and supporting textbooks also took place. These updated materials
were published that year. The decision was made at this time to reduce the primary cycle to 6 years
as the use of the Somali language in the classroom was thought to expediate learning. However, this
soon proved inadequate and in 1979 it was extended again to 8 years. The consequence of this was
that the resources established in 1974 were no longer applicable to the new extended curriculum.
Concurrently a self-help school building programme was developed with governmental
contributions of 40% towards new schools, with the remaining 60% being contributed by the
community, through labour or materials. Approximately 4,000 classrooms were built through this
project.
By the 1980s the budget assigned to education was reduced to 1.5% of the total, the priority being
military expenditure. As a result little attention was paid to it and all development in curriculum and
teacher training drew to a halt. Enrollment figures began to dwindle, as did the recruitment and
retaining of teachers. In 1991 with the overthrow of the Barre regime the education system
collapsed. During this period of violence all schools were looted of their resources and many
destroyed.
Attraction to the Teaching Profession
Under the Siad Barre regime, incentives such as food, board and uniform were offered to encourage
individuals into the teaching profession. Today the incentives are not that dissimilar with offers of
access to food, clothing and shelter. However, in the current climate these incentives are even more
powerful.
Teacher Shortages
Teacher shortages have always been an issue in Somalia. The policies of the Siad Barre regime and
the subsequent increase in enrolments put increasing pressure on the teaching profession and
resulted in the structural changes of the training programmes available.
With the collapse of the Siad Barre regime and the dispersal of the population due to increased
violence, education in Somalia was non-existent for a period in the early 90s. International, local
and private agencies then stepped in to try and establish some form of education through aid
incentives. However, violence continues to disrupt the country and the different communities that
inhabit it, meaning that for the majority, survival, rather than education is a priority.
49

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GTEC-------Garowe Teacher Education College

GAROWE TEACHER EDUCATION COLLEGE

DIPLOMA IN IN-SERVICE SECONDARY TEACHERS

First published 2013

Garowe Teacher education College

Tel: +252-5-846777/ +252-90-794777

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

? 1. What is education in your own words?

Three basic philosophical questions

iii) What is good?

? a) What is philosophical concept?

2. Epistemological foundations: Epistemology is the branch of philosophy which is concerned

? a) What do each of the three concepts/ branches of philosophy entail?

Relationship between general Philosophy and Education

The importance of educational philosophy

Man: Who is man?

Idealism and curriculum

Idealism and method of teaching

Idealism and discipline

Idealism and teacher

? 1. State the seven aims of education according to idealism.

Metaphysical views of Naturalism

Reality: What is reality?

Epistemology: How do we learn?

Axiology: What is value?

Naturalism and Education

Naturalism and the method of teaching

? 1. Explain the epistemological view of naturalism

Reality according to Islam

Sources of knowledge according to Islam

Methods of teaching according to Islam

Islam and a teacher

? 1. How is knowledge gained in Islam?

The characteristics of a good Islamic Teacher have been defined as thus:

• Love for children.

• Intelligence and good understanding.

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

Western Philosophers in education

1. John Dewey (1850-1952)

Dewey and the Curriculum

Pragmatism and the method of teaching

2. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• The major aim of education is that of developing the whole person.

3. John Pestalozzi (1746-1825)

Progress should be from concrete to abstract; from particular to general

• He believed that play is the best way of self expression.

? 1. State the four qualities of the goal of the Friean education.

2. Explain the philosophical education of Plato.

3. Discuss the philosophical education of Socrates.

African Philosophies of Education

 Education for self-reliance/self-sufficiency/independence in the new 8.4-4 system of education.

 Wildlife conservation through establishment of a special department.

Nyayo philosophy can be propagated in schools by:

3. Education for self-reliance philosophy (Mwalimu Julius Nyerere of Tanzania)

The purpose of self-reliance education introduced in Tanzania was:

4. The common man's charter philosophy (1970)

The aspects of change intended were:

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Ezewu (1986) defines sociology as “ a scientific study of human behavior in groups”.

Therefore one can conclude that:

Origin and development of sociology

? 1. What is your explanation of sociology?.

Relevance of sociology of education

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to: