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Abstract
We examined the associations between women’s behavioral coping responses during
sexual assault and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and the moderat-
ing role of alexithymia in college women (N = 152). Immobilized responses (b = 0.52,
p < .001), childhood SA (b = 0.18, p = .01), and alexithymia (b = 0.34, p < .001) sig-
nificantly predicted PTSD. The interaction between immobilized responses and alex-
ithymia was significant (b = 0.39, p = .002), indicating a stronger association for those
higher in alexithymia. Immobilized responses are associated with PTSD, particularly
for those with difficulty identifying and labeling emotions.
Keywords
posttraumatic stress disorder, sexual assault, alexithymia, behavioral coping responses
1
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, National Crime Victims Research and Treatment
Center, Medical University of South Carolina, SC, USA
2
Department of Psychology, Clemson University, SC, USA
3
School of Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Behavioral Sciences, Mark Chaffin Center for
Healthy Development, Georgia State University, GA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Naomi Ennis, Carepoint Health, 2695 N Sheridan Way #120, Mississauga, ON L5 K 2N6, USA.
Email: ennisnaomi@gmail.com
2 Violence Against Women 0(0)
Sexual assault (SA; broadly defined as any form of nonconsensual sexual contact)
remains at epidemic levels on college campuses in the United States (Abbey et al.,
2005), with estimates showing that up to 75% of college women have experienced
SA (Abbey et al., 2005; Muehlenhard et al., 2017). SA is considered a potentially trau-
matic event strongly associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Kessler
et al., 2017). Individuals vary in their psychological responses to trauma, and not all
of those who experience SA go on to have PTSD (Kessler et al., 2017). Therefore,
understanding the characteristics of women’s responses to SA that incur risk for
PTSD is considered critical for targeting intervention for those who will experience
PTSD and for identifying factors to mitigate that maintain PTSD (Feldner et al.,
2007). Importantly, no matter the response, perpetrators are always to blame for SA
(Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act, 2013). There is a myriad of factors
that can influence how a woman behaviorally responds during a SA (e.g., being in
shock, relationship with the perpetrator, whether the perpetrator threatened violence
or had a weapon). None of these factors is the woman’s fault. This study aimed to iden-
tify aspects of behavioral responses during SA that may help to identify those at risk for
PTSD not to determine why women had different reactions or behavioral responses or
factors contributing to their engagement in these responses.
Two potential factors that might be associated with women’s psychological out-
comes following SA are their behavioral coping responses during SA (Cook &
Messman-Moore, 2018; Rizvi et al., 2008). and alexithymia (Frewen et al., 2008,
2012), defined as difficulty with identifying, labeling, and describing one’s emotions.
Peritraumatic reactions (i.e., emotional and behavioral reactions during a traumatic
event) such as peritraumatic dissociation (Thompson-Hollands et al., 2017) are impor-
tant predictors of subsequent PTSD among women who experienced SA (Massazza et
al., 2021; Ozer et al., 2003). However, the role of peritraumatic behaviors, particularly
women’s behavioral responses during SA (Norris et al., 2018), in PTSD has not been
widely studied. The behavioral responses one makes during an SA (e.g., dissociating,
fighting) may influence how they process the SA (e.g., develop thoughts such as “I
cannot protect myself”), that could in turn contribute to PTSD symptoms. Research
consistently finds an association between alexithymia and PTSD (Frewen et al.,
2008, 2012). Those with greater alexithymia may have difficulty processing why
they responded in certain ways during SA, rendering the relationship between behav-
ioral responses and PTSD stronger for those with alexithymia. This study examined
associations between behavioral responses and PTSD symptoms and the moderating
role of alexithymia.
Women vary in their behavioral coping responses during SA (Kaysen et al., 2005)
and tend to engage in multiple behavioral responses during the same SA (Clay-Warner,
2002; Kaysen et al., 2005; Ullman, 2007). Approximately one-third of women reported
having assertive responses during SA, whereas a large proportion, particularly women
who have experienced rape, reported immobilized responses (Kaysen et al., 2005). The
Cognitive Mediation Model of Women’s Sexual Decision Making (Norris et al., 2004)
holds that cognitive processes and situational factors influence decision-making during
a potential sexual situation and decisions are guided hierarchically by a goal. For
example, a woman may engage in a diplomatic response (e.g., faking the arrival of
others) with the goal of maintaining the relationship and her appraisal that a more asser-
tive response (e.g., screaming) may interfere with that goal. Situational factors (e.g.,
presence of a weapon) may shift during the SA, causing appraisals (e.g., belief
about danger) and subsequent responses (e.g., use of force) to shift. For example, a
woman may initially respond diplomatically, then more assertively, and with increas-
ing violence or recognition that escape is not possible, have an immobilized response
(Ullman, 2007).
to and maintain PTSD symptoms. Although theory and research suggest behavioral
responses and PTSD symptoms are associated (e.g., Cook & Messman-Moore,
2018; Rizvi et al., 2008), the relationship requires further study.
Albeit limited, past research suggests that self-reported engagement in fewer asser-
tive responses and more immobilized responses are both associated with greater PTSD
symptoms. For example, Rizvi et al. (2008) examined behavioral responses among 296
women who experienced rape or physical assault no more than two months prior to
entering their study. They found that less assertive and more immobilized responses
during rape or physical assault significantly predicted greater PTSD symptoms.
Consistent with their findings, studies of behavioral responses during completed
rape suggest that those who reported assertive responses were less likely to experience
distress (Selkin, 1978), self-blame, and depression (Bart & O’Brien, 1985;
Janoff-Bulman, 1979; Meyer & Taylor, 1986). In an examination of the association
between voicing nonconsent during rape and PTSD, Cook and Messman-Moore
(2018) found that voicing nonconsent was associated with greater PTSD symptoms.
Interestingly, they also found that voicing nonconsent was associated with some
level of freezing (further highlighting that behavioral coping responses are not mutu-
ally exclusive). However, voicing nonconsent is only one type of assertive response.
Cook and Messman-Moore (2018) did not examine the association between other
assertive responses (e.g., physical resistance, yelling) and PTSD, limiting the conclu-
sions that can be drawn. Indeed, across each of the studies cited there are two important
limitations. None of the studies included women who had experienced attempted rape
or SA other than rape (e.g., nonconsensual sexual contact). Understanding the full
spectrum of SA with regard to the association between PTSD symptoms and behavio-
ral responses is important because with varying severity of SA (e.g., unwanted fon-
dling, rape with the use of physical force) women may have different behavioral
responses. Second, past studies have not examined the full spectrum of women’s
behavioral responses including diplomatic responses (e.g., distracting the perpetrator,
making excuses to avoid the situation). As most SA occurs by a known assailant
(Ullman, 2007) and diplomatic responses may be more common in acquaintance-
perpetrated SA (Macy et al., 2006), understanding the association between diplomatic
responses and PTSD symptoms is an important and clinically relevant research gap to
address. Understanding the relationship between how a woman responded during
attempted or completed SA can aid clinicians in both identifying women who may
be at greater risk for posttraumatic stress and may benefit from intervention, and
also asking relevant questions to women about their responses and how they make
meaning of those responses within the context of the SA and their emotional awareness
and experience at the time.
Research on related but distinct peritraumatic constructs also shed light on the asso-
ciation between immobilized responses and PTSD. Meta-analyses on retrospective
reports indicate that peritraumatic dissociation (Breh & Seidler, 2007; Ozer et al.,
2003) is associated with PTSD symptoms. Peritraumatic dissociation refers to a
range of complex reactions that disturb the integration of consciousness, memory,
emotion, body representation, behavior and motor control and include mild
6 Violence Against Women 0(0)
during and following SA can render trauma processing difficult for individuals higher
in alexithymia and they may be more avoidant of trauma-related cues and dysregulated
when faced with reminders (Frewen et al., 2008). Individuals with alexithymia struggle
to describe their emotions and may have less opportunity for emotional disclosure
following the SA (Frewen et al., 2008), a predictor of trauma recovery
(Balderrama-Durbin et al., 2013) that helps individuals engage in adaptive processing.
Along these lines, individuals who report higher levels of alexithymia may struggle
to process why they had certain behavioral responses (e.g., processing that they reacted
the way they did during the SA because they were shocked) because they cannot access
their peritraumatic emotions. Those who had more immobilized responses or less
assertive responses may have difficulty understanding why they were unable to
respond actively (e.g., understanding they did not respond actively because they
were terrified). These individuals may be at greater risk for emotional dysregulation,
negative thoughts cognitions (e.g., Thompson-Hollands et al., 2017), and experiential
avoidance that characterize PTSD. Women with alexithymia may also have difficulty
accessing their feelings during the SA. Therefore, for those with greater alexithymia,
the association between greater immobilized responses, fewer assertive responses,
and PTSD may be stronger. Directional hypotheses regarding the moderating role of
alexithymia in the association between diplomatic responses and PTSD symptoms
are difficult due to the limited and mixed literature on diplomatic responses. As
described, diplomatic responses could be interpreted (by the survivor and members
of their social milieu) as adaptive and active or as maladaptive or ineffective.
associated with PTSD than other types of adult SA (i.e., unwanted sexual touching;
Peter-Hagene & Ullman, 2015). Further, history of childhood SA has been associated
with PTSD (Peter-Hagene & Ullman, 2015; Ullman et al., 2009). Therefore, history of
adult rape and childhood SA were examined as covariates within study analyses.
Method
Participants
Participants were undergraduate students recruited from courses at a midsize university
in the southeastern United States. Participation was voluntary. This study was based on a
subsample of participants from a larger study on alcohol use, emotion regulation, bystander
behaviors, and SA. To be eligible for the parent study, participants had to be between 18
and 26 years old and students at the university. Of that sample, participants were included
in the current study who: (1) identified as female and (2) endorsed experiencing at least one
unwanted sexual experience since age 18 (attempted or completed) on the Sexual
Experiences Survey-Short Form Victimization (SES-SF; Koss et al., 2007).
The final sample in the current study included 152 participants who ranged in age
from 18 to 24 years old (M = 19.31, SD = 1.14). Nearly half (n = 67) were freshmen
(44.1%), 43 (28.3%) were sophomores, 30 were juniors (19.7%), and 12 were seniors
(7.9%) at the university. The majority of the sample identified as White (n = 130,
85.5%). Approximately 10% identified as Black or African American (n = 15),
5.3% Asian (n = 8), and 1% as Alaskan Native (n = 1). A minority (n = 11, 7.2%)
identified their ethnicity as Hispanic/Latino. With regard to current romantic relation-
ship status, 51 (33.6%) were in a steady relationship, 61 (40.1%) were not in any rela-
tionship, 24 (15.8%) were in a casual relationship with one person and 13 (8.6%) were
in casual relationships with multiple people.
items and demonstrated strong internal consistency in the current study (α = .87). The
Immobilized response scale includes four items (e.g., “I was so overwhelmed that I felt
almost paralyzed and was unresponsive to what the person was doing,” “Struggled at
first but stopped when I thought it was hopeless,” “Started tearing up or crying.”). The
Diplomatic scale includes eight items (e.g., “nicely or apologetically told him I didn’t
want to have sex,” “Tried to get the person to do things I was comfortable with like
kissing or hugging, but not sex,” “Made an excuse as to why I didn’t want to have
sex.”). The Immobilized (α = .79) and Diplomatic (α = .82) scales both demonstrated ade-
quate internal consistency. A mean score was calculated for each participant for each scale.
To determine how many participants engaged in each type of response, participants who
endorsed a 3 or greater on response were considered to have engaged in the response.
Alexithymia. The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20; Bagby et al., 1994), a 20-item
self-report scale using a 5-point Likert Scale, is the most commonly used self-report
measure of alexithymia (Kooiman et al., 2002). Total scores are calculated by
summing responses to all items. Higher scores reflect more alexithymia (i.e., difficulty
identifying, labeling, and describing emotions). The TAS-20 has demonstrated conver-
gent and concurrent validity (Bagby et al., 1994) and test re-test reliability (r = .77 p <
.01; Kooiman et al., 2002) and good internal consistency in prior research (α = .91;
Bagby et al., 1994) and the current study (α = .84).
History of childhood sexual assault. The first three items of the Computer-Assisted
Maltreatment Inventory (CAMI; DiLillo et al., 2010) was used to assess for childhood
SA. Respondents were presented with a description of potential sexual experiences that
can occur during childhood and adolescence, including witnessing sexual activity,
unwanted touching, and attempted/completed sexual intercourse. Respondents were
then asked three yes/no questions to assess if before age 18 any of the sexual experi-
ences happened to them against their will or when they did not want it to happen, invol-
untarily with an immediate family member/relative, or involuntarily with anyone more
than five years older. Based on responses, a dichotomous variable was created to indi-
cate the presence of self-reported childhood SA.
warranted inclusion). The SES-SF can be scored in various ways and recently,
researchers have examined the validity and consistency among different scoring
methods. Littleton and colleagues (2019) examined each tactic and SA experience sep-
arately and found fair to moderate agreement between responders’ endorsements on the
SES-SF over an approximately two-week period (Ks range from 0.33 to 0.69 depending
on tactic and SA experience), with the most consistency in endorsement of rape. In light
of these findings and research that suggests rape is most strongly associated with PTSD
symptoms (Peter-Hagene & Ullman, 2015), we scored the SES-SF to reflect whether the
participant had endorsed having experienced completed rape. Completed rape included
oral, vaginal, or anal penetration by incapacitation, physical force, or threat of physical
force. Participants who endorsed any type of adult SA were included in the current
sample, thus we included a dichotomous variable of adult rape based on the SES-SF
in our analyses to control for the history of adult rape (compared with other types of
adult SA) on outcomes.
Procedure
The study was approved by the university’s institutional review board. Participants were
recruited via courses that provided course credit through research study participation.
Participants completed an online survey through RedCap, a secure web application. A
waiver of written consent was used whereby participants were provided with a description
of the study and told that their responses to questions indicated agreement. Participants
were debriefed at the end of the study and provided with an opportunity to ask questions.
Data Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted in SPSS Version 25.0 (IBM Corp., 2019). Prior to
testing study hypotheses, bivariate correlations were examined between all variables of
interest (Table 1). All assumptions of regression and moderation were tested and met.
To test hypotheses, a regression was conducted whereby all behavioral coping
Ennis et al. 11
response scales were entered with alexithymia, childhood SA and history of rape
during adulthood to predict PTSD. The behavioral response scales were included
in the same rather than in separate models to account for shared variance
between them and because they were correlated, indicating that participants
endorsed multiple responses. Next, the SPSS Macro PROCESS (Hayes, 2012)
was used to develop moderation models specifying linear interactions between
the behavioral response type and alexithymia. All predictors were mean-centered
to form the products when estimating the moderated path. For significant interac-
tion terms, PROCESS modeled conditional effects of the predictor (simple
slopes) at the mean, one below the mean (−1 SD), and one above the mean ( + 1
SD) for the moderator. Three regression models were developed to test for moder-
ation with all variables of interests and an interaction term including one of the
behavioral response types and alexithymia. A model with all three interaction
terms was not included due to limited power.
Results
According to the SES-SF, rape (n = 73, 48%) was the most common adult SA
reported by participants, followed by unwanted sexual contact (n = 29, 19.1%),
rape by coercion (n = 17, 11.2%), attempted rape by coercion (n = 17, 11.2%), and
attempted rape (n = 16, 10.5%). Of the behavioral coping responses endorsed, 101
(66.4%) participants reported at least one diplomatic response, 71 (46.7%) at least
one immobilized response, and 59 (38.8%) at least one assertive response.
Regarding engagement in multiple behavioral responses, 40 (26.3%) participants
reported at least one of each response, 25 (16.4%) reported engaging in diplomatic
and immobilized responses but no assertive responses, 16 (10.5%) reported engaging
in diplomatic and assertive responses and no immobilized responses, and 2 (1.3%)
Notes. Alexithymia = Toronto Alexithymia Scale; PCL = Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5;
Rape = endorsed history of experiencing completed rape; SA = Sexual assault.
*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001.
12 Violence Against Women 0(0)
Notes. Alexithymia = Toronto Alexithymia Scale; SA = Sexual Assault; Rape = endorsed history of
experiencing completed rape.
14 Violence Against Women 0(0)
the interaction between assertive responses and alexithymia, the interaction was not signif-
icant (b = 0.21, p = .22, SE = 0.17; see Table 2).
Discussion
This is the first study to examine the associations between college women’s behavioral
responses during SA and PTSD, and whether these associations were moderated by
Ennis et al. 15
why they engaged in diplomatic responses and may be more prone to view these
responses negatively. It is interesting that there was no significant association
between diplomatic responses and PTSD symptoms for those endorsing lower levels
of alexithymia. This suggests that for those who have a better ability to understand
and process feelings diplomatic responses may not be associated with traumatic
stress, perhaps because the individual has more understanding of the reasons why
they had diplomatic responses.
Findings are also interesting with regard to research on the association between
emotions and behavioral responses during SA. Research suggests anger may mobilize
women into action during SA whereas sadness may be associated with diplomatic
responses (Jouriles et al., 2014; Nurius et al., 2000). Individuals with greater alexithy-
mia may struggle to express anger, an emotion that could be associated with more
assertive responses by emboldening them to respond to the threat. Therefore, at
higher levels of alexithymia, diplomatic responses may be associated with PTSD via
a lack of anger response.
Findings have important clinical implications for psychotherapy and healthcare pro-
fessionals interacting with women following SA. Results suggest that those who report
more immobilized responses and exhibit more difficulty identifying, labeling, and
expressing emotion may be at increased risk for PTSD. Brief interventions that
provide psychoeducation and corrective information to normalize women’s responses
to SA, reduce self-blame, and facilitate the processing of emotions may be beneficial
following SA, particularly for women who endorsed immobilized responses, and high
alexithymia and diplomatic responses. Existing trauma-focused interventions that aim
to facilitate the processing of the traumatic event such as Prolonged Exposure and
Cognitive Processing Therapy both focus on accessing nuanced memories of the
assault and helping clients understand their role in the assault. These treatments may
benefit from fine-tuned emphasis on the individual’s perception of the responses
they engaged in during SA. Helping women identify and label their emotions, a
current feature in trauma-focused therapies, may be particularly helpful for women
who have greater alexithymia.
Findings from this study can also be used to inform educational interventions for
formal support (e.g., healthcare workers, law enforcement, college campus staff) and
informal supports (e.g., loved ones) of those who experience SA on ways to best
respond to disclosure of SA. Those who may be privy to SA disclosure should be edu-
cated on the range of behavioral responses that women engage in during SA. They
should inform women who disclose that they had an immobilized or diplomatic
response during SA that these responses are common, normal and do not indicate
that they are responsible for the SA.
associations. Several limitations should be noted. This study relied on participants’ ret-
rospective reports and was correlational. Having PTSD may render individuals more
likely to report engaging in certain behavioral responses such as immobilized
responses and/or engaging in immobilized responses may increase the risk for
PTSD. The temporal sequencing of behavioral responses was also not collected.
Women’s engagement in multiple behavioral coping responses and the order in
which they responded in each way during the SA may have implications for PTSD
(Norris et al., 2018). In future research, measures should assess for the nuanced
sequencing of behavioral responses during the SA. Data on the participant’s relation-
ship with the perpetrator was also not collected. Past research identifies that women’s
relationships with their perpetrators can influence the behavioral coping responses used
during SA (Koss et al., 1988) and the likelihood of PTSD (Feinstein et al., 2011). Other
factors are known to be associated with behavioral coping responses and PTSD such as
fear of rejection, and alcohol consumption should be examined in future studies
(Ullman, 2007).
The study is also limited by some of the measures used. We used one variable based
on the SES-SF to capture whether the participants had experienced an adult rape or not,
which limits a more nuanced understanding of associations between different SAs and
behavioral responses. This scoring method was chosen to be parsimonious in the
number of variables included in our models in order to have sufficient power to
detect interactions. Future research with larger sample sizes should further investigate
the relationship between behavioral responses and SA by tactic and experience.
Similarly, data on childhood SA history was limited by the use of a brief self-report
measure that detected the presence of childhood SA, but did not collect detailed infor-
mation about childhood SA, such as type (e.g., unwanted sexual contact, rape), age of
onset, or frequency. Future researchers should use the full CAMI to include an assess-
ment of the severity of childhood SA. Although considered a valid and reliable
measure of PTSD, the PCL-5 may pick up on general distress rather than only
trauma-specific symptoms which may blur the interpretation of current findings. The
measure of behavioral responses used in this study captures a greater range of
responses than previous literature, however, there is poor data on the measure’s test
re-test reliability and it may still not capture the full spectrum of a woman’s potential
responses during SA (e.g., the measure does not explicitly assess tonic immobility).
Specifically, 44 participants endorsed a 1 or 2 on all scales, suggesting that they did
not engage in any response. This finding points to the possibility that certain responses
are not assessed with this measure and future research is needed to test this measure.
Although a strength of the study is that all participants had SA histories, constituting
a high-risk population for psychopathology and revictimization (de Haas et al., 2012),
the sample is limited to women who were enrolled at a university and were predomi-
nantly White. Data on participant sexual orientation, religion, and the gender of the
perpetrator was also not collected. These factors and their intersectionality can influ-
ence behavioral responses used during SA, alexithymia, and PTSD (Richardson &
Taylor, 2009). For example, Richardson and Taylor (2009) found that women of
color were more likely to experience discrimination based on gender and race
18 Violence Against Women 0(0)
simultaneously and to endorse concerns that responding actively could reinforce racial
stereotypes. Gender, sexual orientation, race, culture, and cultural beliefs about SA
should be considered in future research (Richardson & Taylor, 2009).
Results from the current study add to the literature on the role of peritraumatic
factors in PTSD by elucidating that women who endorsed immobilized responses
during SA may be at a greater likelihood of experiencing PTSD. For women who
exhibit greater alexithymia, the association between immobilized responses during
SA and PTSD was stronger and an association between diplomatic responses and
PTSD emerged. Women who experience SA victimization are never to blame for
the SA and perpetrators hold sole responsibility. The purpose of this study was not
to suggest one behavioral response is superior to another or blame individuals for
their behavioral responses. Rather, this study aimed to identify factors that can
inform intervention to support the psychological well-being and safety of women.
Clinically, these findings lend support to the importance of focusing on the identifica-
tion and expression of emotion in trauma-focused treatments, particularly emotions
related to behavioral responses used during the SA. Future research should examine
the directionality of associations between immobilized responses, alexithymia, and
PTSD and mechanisms within these associations such as cognitive distortions
(e.g., self-blame).
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes
of Health Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism (grant numbers 430549, 2U54DA016511-16, K23DA042935, and
1K23AA028055-01A1).
ORCID iD
Naomi Ennis https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2961-3153
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Author Biographies
Naomi Ennis, PhD, is the regional clinical and training lead for the Ontario Structured
Psychotherapy Program in the Mississauga, Halton, and Brampton regions of Ontario. She
was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Medical University of South Carolina. Her research focuses
on interpersonal risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder, and enhancing methods for access-
ing evidence-based trauma-focused treatment.
Alyssa A. Rheingold, PhD, is a licensed clinical psychologist and tenured Professor within the
National Crime Victim’s Research and Treatment Center (NCVC) Division at the Medical
University of South Carolina (MUSC). Dr. Rheingold’s overall research interests include exam-
ining the impact of victimization and trauma on a range of health outcomes and evaluating pre-
vention and intervention strategies to promote post-trauma resiliency.
Ennis et al. 23
Heidi M. Zinzow is a Professor and Licensed Clinical Psychologist at Clemson University. Her
research investigates risk factors associated with the development of psychological symptoms
among trauma victims, including posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and substance use.
Her research also focuses on the development and evaluation of clinical interventions and pre-
vention programs for trauma, including sexual violence, interpersonal violence, combat, and
the loss of a loved one to homicide.
Amanda K. Gilmore, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Health Policy and
Behavioral Sciences and the Mark Chaffin Center of Healthy Development in the School of
Public Health at Georgia State University. Her research focuses on the prevention of alcohol
use and sexual assault, as well as secondary prevention of substance use and mental health symp-
toms after sexual assault.
Dean Kilpatrick is a Distinguished University Professor and senior investigator within the
National Crime Victim’s Research and Treatment Center (NCVC) Division at the Medical
University of South Carolina (MUSC). His primary research interests include measuring the
prevalence of sexual violence, other violent crimes, mass violence, and other types of potentially
traumatic events, as well as assessing PTSD and other mental health impacts of such events.
Christine K. Hahn, PhD, is a Research Assistant Professor at the National Crime Victims
Research & Treatment Center (NCVRTC) at the Medical University of South Carolina. Dr.
Hahn conducts research focused on the treatment of substance use and traumatic stress following
recent exposure to interpersonal violence. She also investigates the role of emotional and behav-
ioral regulation on traumatic stress, sexual risk-taking, and substance use among people who
have experienced interpersonal violence. Finally, her interests include the intersection of trau-
matic stress and women’s reproductive health.