See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/371531206

Digital Communication

Preprint · June 2023

CITATIONS READS
0 351

3 authors, including:

Abubakar Jibril Abdullahi Saleh Bashir

University of Abuja University of Abuja
12 PUBLICATIONS 25 CITATIONS 12 PUBLICATIONS 73 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Algorith Governance in Nigeria View project

Social Media and the Management of Ethno-Religious Conflicts In Taraba State from 2012-2018 View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Abdullahi Saleh Bashir on 13 June 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Digital Communication
Overview
Digital communication using modern technologies of communication is a continuation
age-old human communication combining both old and new means of human communication like
voice, image, sound, signs, etc. processed and conveyed by newer technologies like computers,
mobile phones, network technologies, software, etc. It is most likely that you may have been using
internet-enable mobile phone to communicate (call, texts, browse, transact business, download and
play music, etc.). Millions of people all over the world are now using digital technologies in many
ways. Even though digital communication is increasingly being used but many aspects: their
history, their effects and influence on personal, professional and social spheres of lives are still
emerging. While there are general patterns in the spread of digital technologies, every society has
its own unique ways it is affected by and interact with digital communication. This chapter shall
therefore, focus on examining the various aspects of Nigeria digital communication experience
and how it is impacting the Nigerian environment at the level of personal, professional and cultural
communications. The chapter particularly examines the concepts and technology of digital
communication, types of digital technology, and digital journalism.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify two definitions of digital communications

2. Narrate how digital technology emerged from analogue communication technologies.
3. Illustrate Media convergence
4. Identify and illustrate digital journalism
5. List four variants of digital journalism
6. Identify tools of digital journalism
7. Identify and explain emerging digital culture in Nigeria.

Definition of digital communication

1
 In earlier chapters of this book, you must have read what communication is.
Communication could be about exchange of information, processing messages, or culture of
producing messages or what to do with messages or information depending on which perspective
you take. The word digital, on the other hand is related to the type of technology or tool that is
used in communicating. In African communication system, you read how old communication tools
like drum, gong, trumpet, flutes, etc. were predominantly used for communication by the people
then (Nwanmuo, Ezeonyejiaku and Ekwugha, 2020). These tools, which were basic or elementary,
were made from woods, stones, ropes, leaves, skeletons, etc. These basic communication tools
were later overtaken by relatively modern communication tools or equipment that were invented
from the period of industrial revolution (17th to 18th Century). The modern communication tools
include printing press which enabled newspapers, magazines, billboards, posters, etc. public
address system, radio, cameras, television, sound record systems like gramophone, cassettes,
telegraph, old telephone, among others. These then relatively ‘new’ communication tools or
equipment were analogue in configuration, some mechanical and others electrical. That is,
technologies that capture and process information in varying intensities between high and low,
light and dark, etc. and therefore cannot be exact (Polyushkin et al., 2020). Feldman (2005) gave
example with old fashioned wristwatch which is analogue. According to him, the small dials keep
moving at different speeds to indicate hour, minute and second. You know the time by determining
where the three dials are at that point in time. There is no gap as the information (as represented
by the dials) continues to move.

In contrast to analogue, digital technologies are the ones that instead being continuous, are
characterized as presenting information in two distinct states; either it is there or it is not there
(Feldman, 2005). Digital technologies are computer and computer-based technologies which
communicate using a language called binary code. According to Feldman (2005) binary code is a
language of computer using only types of figures as it’s own alphabets; zeroes and ones just like
our alphabets are from A-Z. Information is created by arranging zeroes and ones in a particular
order with each arrangement giving unique information recognized by computers. For example a
binary code with sequence 001100 is unique and different from 010100. This is not only simple
but also powerful to computing. In the language of computing, each of these binary symbols, either
0 or 1, is called a bit (to spelled it full ‘binary digit’). Coming back to wristwatch example, a digital
clock will show 11:45 which is different from 11:46. In their earlier stages, even computers were

2
analogue in nature but were later transformed to digital technology and interestingly many
communication tools or equipment are now either a mix of analogue and digital or fully digitalized.
What makes digital technologies advantageous are the fidelity, speed, minituarisation, less cost,
ease of duplication, and other advantages it has over analog technology (Nguyen and Schwedyk,
2009). That is why digital communication is increasingly becoming popular among users and
producers. Have you watched programmes on the old analogue black and white television that
used to be in most Nigerian homes then? It is likely you are now using coloured digital TV in your
home. How can you compare them?

Digital communication therefore is the deployment or use of digital technologies to

communicate between people and electronic equipment. Digital communication presupposes the
use of digital technology devices like mobile phone, computer, or other digital devices to
communicate over a digital network with other people or another computer/digital machine. The
message can be in form of voice/sound, image, video, text, 3D animation, and others. Thus, Epitech
(n.d.) defines digital communication as ‘the transfer of data or information using digital signals
over a point-to-point (P2P) channel. A P2P connection is a mode of communication between two
communication endpoints.’ This definition of digital communications focuses on the technical or
engineering point of view (who also call it data communication or data transmission). However,
this book is from the human communication perspective. Thus, in another definition, Tagg (2015)
defines digital communication as the interaction between people that are mediated by digital
communication technology (tools which transmit information in different forms). She added that
digital communication as a human process is not defined solely by technology but by practice; that
such communication takes place in a network (Internet, Global System for Mobile
Communications:GSM, Code-Division Multiple Access: CDMA, and others); it shift emphasis
from content generation to interaction, networking and relationship; and is increasingly difficult
to isolate media (Tagg, 2015).

While some focus of digital media can be the hardware (the mobile phone, tablet, server, router,
external drive, etc). The focus of this chapter is on the platforms where digital communication
takes place and their impacts. Examples of digital media platforms include the following:

 Web pages and websites

 Apps

3
  Email, SMS, MMS
 Online radio and TV
 Blogs
 Mobile apps
 Social media like Facebook, Instagram, Tiktok, Telegram, Snapchat, etc.
 Games like Minecraft, Fortnite Battle Royale, Heartstone, etc.
 3D or Augmented Reality

To communicate digitally one need digital skills to allow users to interact with the technologies
and contents. To understand the scale of digitization in Nigeria, Nigerian Communications
Commission (NCC) data as at February 2023 show that there 156, 987, 433 internet subscribers in
the country (NCC, 2023). Because of the popularity of digital technologies, many organisations
especially in the communication industry including journalism and media are digitizing their
services and technologies in a process called digitization. Government, private organisations and
even individuals are doing a lot to empower citizens with digital skills and access to technologies
so that there will be less ‘digital divide’ between those who have or can use digital technology and
those who don’t. Thus, making digital inclusion (ensuring that everyone is included in using digital
technologies) and digital safety (protecting people from harms they might face while using digital
technologies) priority issues.

Media convergence
The word or concept of convergence has been used for centuries by various academic
disciplines to describe manifold processes of change toward homogeneity or uniformity. The term
was earlier used in the natural sciences and then introduced to the humanities and social sciences.
The concept of convergence is used in various disciplines to describe different phenomena. The
term is applied, for example, in political science to refer to the unification of political systems, in
biology it refers to evolution of similar structures or traits in unrelated species in the same
environment, in mathematics it refers to the process or property of approaching some limiting
value, in physiology it refers to the focusing of the eyes especially at short range, etc.

Media convergence in communications sector, also referred to as ‘cross-platform’ or ‘cross

media’ journalism is the way media contents are delivered in a multimedia format, combining
images, texts, video, audio, podcasts, blogs, slideshows, infographs, etc., blurring the boundaries

4
that hitherto characterised the various forms of media. Before the adoption of digital technologies
radio is distinct form television which distinct from print, new agency, advertising, etc. The simple
way to describe media convergence is to define it as a technological breakthrough where media
content and its distribution have been digitised, thereby giving the audiences ability to access and
consume multiple contents on multiple platforms. Media which were unique because of their tools
and technology of delivery have converged with computers and other computer technologies. The
convergence altered the way mass media audience get access to and use content; what they expect
from each media; and the way in which content producers and distributors get revenue and
generally how they operate. Lara Fielden, cited in House of Lords Select Committee on
Communications (2013 p.7) gave an example with a modern newspaper which are not just printed
in paper form but also published on a website, scheduled for broadcast made available on-demand,
shared to generate a lot of comments on social media with bloggers (both amateur and professional
journalists) promoting debates about the contents on blogs.

With increasing different channels, flexibility and portability of new computing and
telecommunications technologies, we have entered an era where media content is available
everywhere and one has the option to use all kinds of media in relation to each other. Our mobile
phones are not merely telecommunications gadgets; they also allow us to download information
from the internet, play games, and receive and send text messages photographs. Any of these
functions can also be performed through other media appliances. For instance, one can listen to
Tiwa Savage, Kizz Daniel, Hamisu Breaker or Flavour through a DVD player, computer MP3 file,
car radio, a web radio station, ear pod, or a music channel on satellite television. Apart from the
computer technology that enabled convergence, another factor driving this technological
convergence is a change in media ownership. There are now many new players in the media
industry some of whom were not known few years back. Media convergence influences the way
audience consume media too as there are many options, less restriction and more contents. It enable
the users to multi-task (do many things at the same time while using computer). As you do
assignments, you may juggle around, surfing the net, chatting friends, listening to and downloading
music, word-processing the assignment paper and responding to SMS and email, rapidly
multitasking.

5
 Accordingly, Harrower (2023) classified media convergence into three: newsroom
convergence, newsgathering convergence and content convergence. In newsroom which is
converged, there are journalists from different types of media (like television, radio, newspaper or
online) using the same workspace instead of working in separate places or offices. Sharing a
newsroom will encourage a fusion of platforms and cooperation, whereby editors of different media
outfits will attend the same meeting, plan coverage together, and at the end distribute each story to
the various media format that tells it the best.

According to Harrower (2023), in newsgathering convergence, media workers like

photographers, reporters, and editors collaborate in producing journalistic story. In such instance,
a newspaper correspondent, for instance, can cover or report an event for radio, and then write a
longer story for the blog or website. When fully trained, radio journalists learn to deliver news
reports for newspaper and television; a photojournalists snap photographs, shoot videos and
conduct interviews among many others. In other words, journalists are expected to multitask in in
digital multimedia organisations.

Content convergence, on the other hand, is where the final story is presented in multimedia
form, combining video, audio, text, images, blogs, podcasts, slide-shows and many more. Editors
and reporters therefore become content producers, with training on how to choose the most
effective, entertaining storytelling techniques from a list of multimedia options (Harrower, 2023).

Implications of media convergence

Today, courtesy of convergence, one organization may now own many forms of media—
newspaper and magazine organization, book publishing, radio stations, television stations, movie
studios, Internet network provider, and Internet news site, for instance. That is, one of the main
implication of media convergence is the backward integration of the media industry. For example,
Media Trust Limited, a company that was known for publishing Daily Trust, and three other
newspaper titles now operates three major mainstream media both electronic and print that include
a television and recently, a radio station. Similarly, The Guardian newspaper, has Guardian TV
and Radio which broadcast on You Tube. Many other erstwhile sole newspapers, radio and TV
stations in Nigeria are now providing contents in converged formats.

6
Secondly, new media technologies have enabled a huge reduction in cost incurred in producing
and distributing contents. They have also enabled the expansion of the delivery channels and made
it easy for media audience or users to actively share, store, contribute, and comment on media
contents, power which they do not before convergence.

A third common characteristic of media convergence is that it has change the work roles and
division of labour of journalists such that journalists now have to have multitasking capabilities in
such a way as to generate contents that can fit into different platforms.

The simplest way to understand what media convergence is to observe how some media types that
were unique and different before, like print, broadcast, and online, have merged to become one
entity. Specific mediums that were once distinguished by their distribution systems have
converged. Nowadays, newspapers are not just printed on paper; same news are also on the
newspaper’s website being updated hourly or accordingly some even accompanied by videos just
like television. Broadcasters also post articles on websites that may make you feel like a newspaper
or magazine in addition to producing videos and audios. Although people can still watch TV, they
can also watch online at their convenience (House of Lords, 2013).

Though convergence brought about changes with huge advantages like more competition, varieties
of choices and continuous innovation; additional economic opportunities and value to citizens, it
is not without challenges. Among the challenges of media convergence is the problem of regulation
as the current form of media regulation in Nigeria is designed to fit analogue media instead of
digital converged media but more of analogue media (Bashir, 2020). Another challenge is the issue
of digital divide between those who have digital technology and those who don’t which will affect
access to journalist sources and audiences (Ukonu, Okoro and Agbo, 2013). Also, according to
House of Lords Select Committee on Communications (2013) such challenges are the likelihood
that people has less trust in media contents; public service content is watered down; and a
regulatory model that cannot cope with speed of changing markets and audience expectations.

Digital Journalism
As stated in previous sections of this chapter, journalism is experiencing changes that is radically
altering the way we knew the profession before the advent of digital media. According to Ayedum-

7
Aluma (2017) changes in communication technology are somehow accompanied by changes in
structure and practice. As a confirmation of this, Bashir (2019) stated that conventional mass
media organisations (radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, etc.) have taken advantage of digital
media in many ways. Citing the Open Society Foundations (2002) he stated that digitization brings
opportunities for Nigerian media in terms of the following

(a) increased efficiency and additional skills for journalists;

(b) improved and speedy publishing and broadcasting;
(c) increased access to news sources;
(d) more roles and responsibilities;
(e) plethora of channels for information dissemination;
(f) reduced cost of information due to convergence; and
(g) more opportunities for investigative reporting.
Apart from conventional media, new media organisations that are completely online sprung up to
compete with the conventional media that are both online and offline.

Generally, one of the profound changes digital media has enabled is the creation of new genre of
journalism practice which has different names ranging from new media, digital journalism, online
journalism and also as multimedia, convergence, networked journalism, social media journalism,
algorithm journalism, etc. The following are some of the definitions that new variants of
journalism (which is called Digital Journalism in this chapter) which share a lot of commonalities:

 New Media refers to newer variants of media that emerged from digital media largely
online and vary from traditional or legacy media organisation which are either completely
analogue or combine analogue technology with digital ones. Example include online
newspapers, online TV, online magazines, social media journalism sites, etc.

 Online or Networked Journalism: journalism is a journalism produced for online

consumption distributed over the internet. Online or network journalism can synchronous
(presented live in real-time) or asynchronous (recorded) or both.

8
  Multimedia or Convergence Journalism is a journalism where combined multimedia
formats are used in the production, dissemination and consumption of media contents in a
multimodal way. It also online.

 Social media journalism is a journalism practice using social media platform to practice
journalism whether by professional or amateur journalists

 Algorithm Journalism (which also referred to as robot journalism, software generated

journalism, artificial intelligence news, software generated news, bot driven journalism or
AI Jornalism) is a variant of journalism whereby a specifically designed computer software
compose media contents (stories) with or without human input to be consumed by media
audience.

The key to digital journalism are three aspects: multimediality (combination of text,
voice/audio/sound, video, pictures, infographs, virtual reality, etc.), interactivity (shared over the
internet), and hypertextuality (content connected to one another through links) (Deuze, 2003). In
Nigeria, the first newspaper to transfer its content online is the defunct Post Express in 1996
(Kperogi, 2011 in Kperogi, 2012). Since then virtually all the legacy newspapers in the country
have online presence in various forms from website to social media. Also, Online only mediums
like Premium Times newspaper, Sahara Reporters and others have also become active in the
Nigerian media environment. This is in addition to many amateur and professional social media
pages and blogs where journalistic contents abound.

Tools of Digital Journalism

Digital journalism rely on a variety of tools to help journalists create and publish stories in the
digital age. Here are some of the most common tools used in digital journalism:

1. Content Management Systems (CMS): CMS tools help journalists manage and publish content
on their websites. Examples of popular CMS tools include Word Press, Drupal, and Joomla.

2. Social Media: Social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn allow
journalists to promote their stories, interact with readers, and gather news tips.

3. Analytics: Analytics tools, such as Google Analytics, are used to track website traffic, measure
reader engagement, and analyze audience behavior.

9
4. Multimedia Tools: Digital journalism often require multimedia elements like photos, videos,
and audio clips. Multimedia tools like Adobe Photoshop, Premiere Pro, and Audition allow
journalists to create and edit these elements.

5. Mobile Tools: Mobile devices like smartphones and tablets have become essential tools for
journalists. Mobile apps like Twitter, Instagram, and Periscope allow journalists to report live from
the field.

6. Collaboration Tools: Collaboration tools like Slack, Trello, and Asana help journalists work
together on projects, track progress, and communicate with one another.

7. Data Visualization Tools: Data visualization tools like Tableau, Infogram, and Datawrapper
allow journalists to create interactive charts, graphs, and maps to help illustrate complex stories.

These are just a few of the many tools available to digital journalists. As technology continues to
evolve, journalists will continue to adapt and utilize new tools to better tell stories in the digital
age.

Digital culture
Due to pervasive and massive use of digital means of communication in different facets of life like
entertainment and leisure, media, arts, education, business, language, religion, and many other
social settings, a sub-culture called digital culture has emerged and is now consolidating. Have
you noticed how people attach a lot of importance to images of their birthday, wedding, child
naming/dedications, and other celebrations on social media? Have you noticed that for many
millions of social media users, friendship is now more than face-to-face connection? Have you
noticed how different apps are now used for many things from watching movies to learning,
transacting business, relating, applying for jobs, etc.? The practice of using digital technologies
has changed the way Nigerian society does it things. Digital culture was initially viewed as part of
youth sub-culture but it has now spread beyond the young and is diffusing to all strata of the
population (Akinpelu, 2021). Some relationships actually exist more online through digital
communication especially social media than through any other means of communication.
Therefore, digital culture has become part of everyday culture in many societies including Nigeria.

Therefore, digital culture is brought about by the changes due to massive availability of digital
media that not only uses network to communicate but are also personalized which are constantly

10
being renewed or updated day-by-day. (Yusuf and Yusuf, 2018). It has become normal for each
generation to have radical changes or addition in communication culture. Some generations back
that were used to conventional print and broadcasting media now have to live with or in
personalized network media environment. In addition, digital culture can also be defined as the
idea that technology and especially computer and the internet has influenced the way we interact,
behave, think, and communicate as human beings. It is the evidence of pervasive technology and
limitless access to information (Li, 2012).

Additionally, the way that people consume and create media has been significantly impacted by
digital society. The entertainment industry has undergone a radical transformation, thanks to the
emergence of digital distribution channels like streaming services and online marketplaces, while
user-generated content platforms and social media have given birth to new forms of self-expression
and creativity.

In addition, digital culture has played a significant role in shaping political discourse and activism.
Social media platforms have become powerful tools or mobilising social movements and spreading
political messages, while online communities have enabled people to organise around shared
interests and causes.

However, digital culture is not without its challenges and controversies. The widespread use of
digital technologies has raises concerns about privacy, security, and the spread of misinformation
and harmful content. In addition, the dominance of certain platforms and technologies has raised
questions about the concentration of power and the potential for digital monopolies.

Despite these challenges, digital culture continues to shape and influence contemporary society in
profound ways. As the pace of technological change continues to accelerate, it is likely that digital
culture will continue to evolve and transform the way people interact with each other and the world
around them.

Summary
The chapter explained the concept of digital communication and what makes it important in
today’s communication environment. Digital technology is a continuation of the impact of
technology in human process of communication. Among the aspects of digital communication that
has changed how we communicate is the process of convergence which is enabled by digital

11
technologies. The chapter also discussed how digital communication is reshaping journalism by
redefining it and enabling new tools and practices. However, it is not only journalism that is
reshaped by digital communication but also the culture of the people in general.

Exercise
After reading this unit, now do the following exercises:
1. Identify the difference between traditional/legacy journalism and online journalism.
2. Use your mobile phone to identify one news that was shared by video, text, info-graphics
and audio.
3. Visit the home page of a Nigerian radio station, a TV station, an online newspaper and a
magazine. Compare and contrast the differences and similarities of the website contents.

Reference
Akinpelu, O.M. (2021). 21st-century Digital Techno-cultural Trends in Nigeria and the
Pseudoism of Globalization in Africa, Espergesia: Literary and Research Journal, Vol. 8
Issue 2 (2021): July-December https://doi.org/10.18050/rev.espergesia
Ayedum-Aluma, V. (2017). Introduction: Digital media, new order? In V. Ayedum-Aluma (ed.)
Digital media, new order: emergent practices in the Nigerian media environment, Ontario:
Canada University Press
Babalola, T. L. (2014). The Digital Humanities and Digital Literacy: Understanding the Digital
Culture in Nigeria. Digital Studies/le Champ Numérique, 5(1).
http://doi.org/10.16995/dscn.54
Bashir, A.S. (2020). Algorithm governance framework for media regulation in Nigerian media
system, The Journal of Society and Media, April 2020, Vol. 4(1) 180-198
https://journal.unesa.ac.id/index.php/jsm/index
Bashir, A.S. (2019). New digital media formats for climate change engagement in Nigeria: A 21st
Century challenge, in Udoudo, A.J., Bashir, A.S. & Batta, H.E. (2019) Development
Communication in Contemporary Nigeria; A Festschrift of Professor Clifford Ashong
Ashong, Uyo: Department of Communication Arts University of Uyo, Nigeria, pp229-247
Deuze, M. (2003). The web and its journalisms: considering the consequences of different types
of news media online, New Media and Society, 5 (2), 206
Epitech (n.d.). Digital communication: what is it? Concept and features, https://www.epitech
-it.es/digital-communication-what-is-it Accessed 31/03/2023

12
 Feldman, T. (2005). Introduction to digital media, London: Routledge

Harrower, T. (2023). Inside reporting: A practical guide to the craft of journalism (2nd Edition).
New York: McGraw Hill accessed from http://highered.mheducation.com
House of Lords Select Committee on Communications (2013). Media Convergence. London: The
Stationery Office Limited
Kperogi, F.A. (2012). The evolution and challenges of online journalism in Nigeria in E. Siapera
and A. Veglis (eds.) Handbook of global online journalism, West Sussex:
Willey-Blackwell
Li, G. (2012). Culturally contested pedagogy: Battles of literacy and schooling between
mainstream teachers and Asian immigrant parents. Albany: Suny Press.
Nguyen, H. and Schwedyk, E. (2009) First course in digital communications, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
NCC (2023), Industry statistics, https://ncc.gov.ng/statistics-reports/industry-overview#view
-graphs-tables-5 accessed 31/03/2023
Nwammuo, A,N., Ezeonyejiaku, N.P. and Ekwugha, U.P. (2020). Is Digital Culture A Threat to
Indigenous Commuincation? : A Critical Look at Emerging Trends in the Global Platforms,
International journal of humanities and social studies, 8 (2)
https://doi.org/10.24940/theijhss/2020/v8/i2/HS2002-022
Polyushkin, D.K., Wachter, S. Mennel1, L., Paliy, M., Iannaccone, G., Fiori, G., Neumaier, D.
Canto, B. and Mueller, T. (2020). Analogue two-dimensional semiconductor electronics,
Nature Electronics, 3(8), 486-491.
Yusuf, Q. and Yusuf, Y.Q. (2018). Digital culture and digitagogy: a life of a digital culturalist and
a digitagogist, Proceedings of the International Conference on the Roles of Parents in
Shaping Children’s Characters (ICECED), December 3-4, 2018, Anjong Mon Mata, Banda
Aceh, Indonesia.
Tagg, C. (2015) Exploring digital communication, London: Routledge
Ukonu, M., Okoro, N. and Agbo, J. (2013). Media convergence and the new shape of public
communication, Wilson, D. (ed) Communication and the new media in Nigeria: Social
engagements, political developments and public discourse, Uyo: ACCE Nigeria
Uwakwe, O. (2019). New media and online journalism, Department of Mass Communication,
Federal Polytechnic, Oko

13

View publication stats