Unit 1 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the implication 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles in learning

 Construct an advance graphic organizer on the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

14 Learnered-Centered Psychological Principles

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature Of The Learning Process

The learner of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals Of The Learning Process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction Of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking About Thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical
thinking.
6. Context Of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional
practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational And Emotional Influences On Learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn,
is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation To Learn
The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to
learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice.
Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental Influences on learning

As individual develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is
most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and
social domains is taken into account.
11. Social Influences on Learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with
others.

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 Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistics, cultural and social backgrounds
are taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing learner as well as learning
progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning
progress.

Learning Key Points

Alexander and Murphy summary of 14 principles and distilled them into five (5) areas:

1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The
learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new
information, makes associations and filters new experience.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts
and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from) within, reasons for wanting to learn,
personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each because each
learner has his own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

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 Activity Number 1
Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!
Direction: Complete the table below by filling it in with the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
and its implication to learning.
Principle Implication to Learning

Part 2 Hands On!

Direction: Construct an advance graphic organizer on the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

3
Unit 2 Basic Concept and Issues on Human Development

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain human development in your own words

 Discuss different characteristics of human development from a life span perspective

Lesson 1 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

Two approaches to human development If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change
from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach to
development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place
as it does during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.

What are the characteristics of human development from a life- span perspective? Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002),
an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:

1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Human will continue developing even in
adulthood.

2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible
throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as "I am too old for that...".

3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-

emotional dimension. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,
cognitive and socio-emotional processes (Santroc2002).
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The brains of human
develop. The will gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal changes when they reach the
period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood. All these show the
common biological processes in development.

Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com development.htm) human will learn to sit,

crawl then walk before they can run.

Proximodistal pattern (horizontal) the muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes
earlier as compared to the hands and fingers..

Cephalo-caudal pattern (vertical) during infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the
top the head -with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way
down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on).

Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/ development.htm) Human won't

develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In fact, that's the way
of nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight. While some
changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo
changes that result in the display of developmental characteristics.

4
 Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual's thought, intelligence, and language.
Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two words
becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in
every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and
solving a complex math problem. All these reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.

Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual's relationships with other people.
As babies, Naschielle and Kenn responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched and
frowned when displeased and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they
wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise,
depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end up betrayed,
deserted and desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of socio-emotional processes in
development.

4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals respond
to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual's biological make up, physical
environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and cultural contexts.

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and regulation
are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages.
For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back
stage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.

5
 Activity Number 2

Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!

Direction: Complete the table below by filling it with characteristic of human development from a life-
span perspective.
Principle Educational Educational Educational
Implication to Implication to Implication to
Child Care Education Parenting
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Part 2 Hands On!

Direction: View on YouTube of Helen Pearson: Lessons from the longest study on human development.
Fill out the matrix given below.

Problemo Research Methodology

How are the

findings useful to
teachers?

Findings Conclusions

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Dv2Hdf5TRg

6
Unit 2 Basic Concept and Issues on Human Development

Learning Outcomes:

 Define developmental tasks in your own words

 Describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage

Lesson 2 The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Robert Havighurst (1900-1991)

Best known for his conceptualization of human development as mastery of a series of age-related cultural
tasks, Robert J. Havighurst was an avid researcher, a prolific writer, and a civil rights activist. As a researcher, he
conducted cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of the social, emotional, and moral development of children and
adolescents in various American subcultures (including Native Americans) as well as in several other countries.

Robert Havighurst emphasized that learning is basic and that it continues throughout life span.
Growth and Development occurs in six stages.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood:

1. Learning to walk.
2. Learning to take solid foods
3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.
7. Getting ready to read

Middle Childhood:
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence:

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life
6. Preparing for an economic career
7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

7
 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

1. Selecting a mate
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Learning to live with a marriage partner
4. Starting a family
5. Rearing children
6. Managing a home
7. Getting started in an occupation
8. Taking on civic responsibility
9. Finding a congenial social group

Developmental Tasks of Middle Age

1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility

2. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
3. Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
5. Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parents.

Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity

1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of a spouse
4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
5. Meeting social and civil obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement

In each stage of development a certain task or tasks ara expected of every individual. Robert Havighurst defines
developmental task as one that "arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later
tasks.‖ (Havighurst, 1972).

The Developmental Tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Let’s describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of an stage as described by Santrock and compare
them to those listed by Havighurst himself.

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism
complee with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological activities
are just beginning language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade )- These are the preschool years. Young children learn
to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many
hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) - The fundamental skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its
culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child s world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) Begins with rapid physical changes
dramatic gains i height and weight, changes in body contour and the development of sexual characteristics

8
 such as enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice.
Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More
time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s)- It is a time of establishing personal
and economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an
intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) - It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and
responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career:
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review,
retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

9
 Activity Number 3

Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!

Direction: Complete the table below by filling it with the necessary data.

Salient Feature by Salient Feature Implication to

Stages
Havighurst, 1972 Santrock, 2002 Education
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

10
Unit 3 Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescence

 Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education

Lesson 1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental
illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.
Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our
personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person's past is hidden from
consciousness, and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses).
Thus, when we explain our behavior to us or others (conscious mental activity), we rarely give a true
account of our motivation. This is not because we are deliberately lying. While human beings are great deceivers of
others; they are even more adept at self-deception.
Freud's life work was dominated by his attempts to find ways of penetrating this often subtle and elaborate
camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of personality.
Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

The Oral Stage (birth to 18 months) Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and
sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through
this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon
caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency
or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years) Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily
needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet
training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet
training stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. However, not all
parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule,
or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an
approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual

11
has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age,
children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However,
the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud,
however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex
parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was
never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to
women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to
children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

The Latent Period (6 to Puberty) Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The development of
the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into
school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is
still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is
important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence. As with the other psychosexual
stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this
stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage (Puberty to Death) Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty
but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs,
interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully
formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of
the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Source: https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

12
 Freud’s Personality Components

According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal and might pressure you to
act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your personality work to counteract these urges and strive to make
you conform to the demands of reality. Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they
work individually, and how they interact.

The Id

 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of
personality.
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and
needs.1 If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase
in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.

The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or
uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young infants are ruled entirely by the id,
there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand satisfaction.

Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id requires immediate
satisfaction, and because the other components of personality are not yet present, the infant will cry until these
needs are fulfilled. However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were
ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing the things that we want out of other people's
hands to satisfy our own cravings.

This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the
tension created by the pleasure principle through the use of primary process thinking, which involves forming a
mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need. Although people eventually learn to control the id,
this part of personality remains the same infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and
the superego that allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that are both realistic and socially
acceptable.

The Ego

 According to Freud, The ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed
in a manner acceptable in the real world.
 The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
 The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality

The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially
appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or
abandon impulses.

In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification—the ego will
eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place. Freud compared the id to a horse and the
ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides the power and motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance.
Without its rider, the horse may simply wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider gives the
horse directions and commands to get it to go where the rider wants it to go.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking, in which the
ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.

13
 Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing increasingly hungry as the
meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump up from your seat and rush to the break room for a snack,
the ego guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to end. Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id,
you spend the rest of the meeting imagining yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you
can seek out the object you were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id in a realistic and appropriate manner.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego.

 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

 The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and
society (our sense of right and wrong).
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

The superego has two parts:

1. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These
behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.
2. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and
struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present
in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego

When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember that these are not three
separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These aspects are dynamic and always interacting to influence an
individual's overall personality and behavior. With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise
between the id, ego, and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to function despite
these dueling forces. A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while a person
with too much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.

What Happens If There Is an Imbalance?

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego.
If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and the superego, a healthy and
well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that an imbalance between these elements would lead to a
maladaptive personality.

For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive, uncontrollable, or even
criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges with no concern for whether their behavior is
appropriate, acceptable, or legal. On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is
extremely moralistic and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be able to accept anything or anyone
that they perceive to be "bad" or "immoral."

Source: https://www.verywellmind.com/the-id-ego-and-superego-2795951

14
 Activity Number 4

Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!

Direction: Complete the table below by filling it with characteristic Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Stages “Pleasure Areas” Challenge Fixation
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Part 2 Hands On!

Direction: Draw implication of Freud’s theory to education by filling out the matrix given below.

Freud's Theory Issues on Freud's Theory

Implication to Education

Weakness of his theory Strength of his theory

15
Direction: Discuss the Freud’s Personality Components by constructing a mind map.

My Mind Map on Freud’s Personality Component

16
Unit 3 Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories

Learning Outcomes:

 Describe Piaget’s stages in your own words

 Conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children
 Match learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.

Lesson 2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists
as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world
around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously
held ideas to accommodate new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory?

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first
scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of
children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to
standardize their famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations
of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's
minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Up until this point in history, children were largely
treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children
think is different from the way adults think.

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of
stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there
are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older
children. Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they
simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have
thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves
processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

17
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this
stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As
kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world
works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time
and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as
crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact.
Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own
outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete
terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think
very concretely about the world around them. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle
with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea
of constancy.

18
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child
the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the
other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will
likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal
to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become
much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids
become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid.
Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might
think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are
unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and
an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential
solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage
of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It is important to note that Piaget did not
view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more
information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.

19
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process
through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Important Concepts

To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to
examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.

The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four
legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information,
modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

What Role Do Schemas Play in the Learning Process?

Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The
process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in
with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of
assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Assimilation and Jean Piaget's Adaptation Process

Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a
process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a
result of new information or new experiences.New schemas may also be developed during this process.

The Role of Accommodation in How We Learn New Information

Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is
achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

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 Activity Number 5

Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!

Direction: Complete the table below by filling it with characteristic Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Salient Characteristic Challenge Educational
Stages
Implication
1.

2.

3.

4.

Part 2 Hands On!

Direction: This activity focuses on a story involving the interactions of family members. Choose a story you want to
use for this activity. It can be from a story you have read or a movie or ―telenovela‖ that you watched or plan to
watch. Use the matrix below to relate the characters to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

Title of the story/movie: ____________________________________________________________

Write a brief summary of the story:

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Character
Piagetian Connection
Description
Father What is his stage of cognitive development?
Prove your answer by citing instances or justification that he is in this stage.
Mother What is her stage of cognitive development?
Prove your answer by citing instances or justification that he is in this stage.
Child (1) What is his/her stage of cognitive development?
Prove your answer by citing instances or justification that he/she is in this stage.
Child (2) What is his/her stage of cognitive development?
Prove your answer by citing instances or justification that he/she is in this stage.
Child (2) What is his/her stage of cognitive development?
Prove your answer by citing instances or justification that he/she is in this stage.
Other What is his or her stage of cognitive development?
Characters Prove your answer by citing instances or justification that he/she is in this stage.

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Unit 3 Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the Eight (8) Stages of Life to someone you care about.
 Write a short of your life using Erikson’s stages as a framework.
 Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.

Lesson 3 Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which
could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of
a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the
needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent
crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a
later time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½

2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3

3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5

4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

Erik Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development

Advertisement (2 of 2): 0:24
1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at
birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which
they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry
with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

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 If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.If the care has been
inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In
this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have
hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support. Failing
to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with
them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the
world around them.Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has
outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this
stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel
inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel
a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many
skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's
growing sense of independence and autonomy. For example, during this stage children begin to assert their
independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what
they like to wear, to eat, etc.

What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging
environment which is tolerant of failure. For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should
have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage
the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at
a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).The aim
has to be ―self-control‖ without a loss of self-esteem‖ (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the
initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social
interaction. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a ―time
of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."During this period the primary feature
involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides
children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

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 Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity,
children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if
this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often
overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his
initiatives too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the
parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as
threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for ―being a nuisance‖. Too much guilt can make the child slow
to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would
not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is
important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood
between the ages of five and twelve.Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do
sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the
child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are
valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and
reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve
goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior,
doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential. If the child cannot develop the specific
skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority. Some failure
may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty
is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs
during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. During adolescence, the transition
from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the
future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood,
and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is
during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson
suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. According to Bee (1992), what should
happen at the end of this stage is ―a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s
appropriate sex role‖. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt
and ―grow into‖ the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to
commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. During
this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their
explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up")
can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in
society.

24
 In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different
lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion
in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage
takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major
conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. During this stage, we begin to share
ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with
someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety,
and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation,
loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).Psychologically, generativity
refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During
middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or
creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger
picture. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in
the world. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may
feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate
our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Individuals who
reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness and despair.

Erikson described ego integrity as ―the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be‖
(1950, p. 268) and later as ―a sense of coherence and wholeness‖ (1982, p. 65).As we grow older (65+ yrs) and
become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. Erik Erikson
believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life
goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life
with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear. Wise people are not characterized by
a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized
by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Critical Evaluation

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic
perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001). Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has
reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as
irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.

25
 Activity Number 6

Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!

Direction: Complete the table below by filling it with characteristic Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Salient Characteristic Virtue Educational

Stages
Implication
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

 Part 2 Hands On!

Direction: Write a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as a framework.

26
Unit 3 Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories

Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the stages of moral development.

 Analyse a person’s level of moral development.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher later on.

Lesson 4 Kohlbergs’s Stages of Moral Development

How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious leaders, and philosophers
for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in psychology and education.

 Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral development?

 Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?

One of the best-known theories exploring some of these basic questions was developed by psychologist
Lawrence Kohlberg. His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work to form a theory that
explained how children develop moral reasoning. Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development.
Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout
the lifespan. His theory outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels. In recent years,
Kohlberg's theory has been criticized as being Western-centric with a bias toward men (he primarily used male
research subjects) and with having a narrow worldview based on upper-middle-class value systems and
perspectives.

The Heinz Dilemma

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects. Participants were
also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe
only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for
$200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.
He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the
pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the
pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?" Kohlberg was
not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but in the reasoning for each participant's
decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment, are especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, Kohlberg says, people see
rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best
course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, the stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

27
 This stage is focused on maintaining social order. At this stage of moral development, people begin to
consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the
rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Post-conventional Morality

The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon these standards. Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on
universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Criticisms

Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we
ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior. This is just one of
the many criticisms of Kohlberg's theory.

Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice
when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an
important part in moral reasoning.

Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualist cultures emphasize personal
rights, while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may
have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account. Were Kohlberg's dilemma's
applicable? Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had no experience with marriage.
The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for these children to understand, and a scenario more applicable to
their everyday concerns might have led to different results. Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have
suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his sample were male. Kohlberg
believed that women tended to remain at the third level of moral development because they place a stronger
emphasis on things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

28
 Activity Number 7

Part 1 Thinking Beyond Thinking!

Direction: Complete the table below by filling it with characteristic Kohlbergs’s Level of Moral Development.

Implication to Implication to
Level Salient Characteristic
Teaching Learning
1. Stage 1

Stage 2

2. Stage 3

Stage 4

3. Stage 5

Stage 6

Part 2 Hands On!

Direction: Write your realizations about Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.

From this module of Kohlberge’s Stages of Moral Development, I realized that …___________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

29
 CAPSTONE LEARNING ACTIVITY FOR FINAL TERM
Development of the Learners at Various Stages

Part 1 Pre-natal Period

A. Here are 3 boxes for you to write the stages of pre-natal development.

B. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic organizer.

Prenatal
Development

Part 2 Infancy and Toddlerhood

A. Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestones of the various aspects of

physical development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns, height and weight
during infancy and toddlerhood). For details, refer to the Philippine Early Learning
and Development Standards. Cite implication/s of each milestone to parenting.

B. Studies show that when parents, teachers and caregivers talk more to children and
ask any question, they create more stimulating language environments for children.
What recommendations can you give to parents for them to provide stimulating
language environments?

C. Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents about first two
years in the world, reflect on the kind of micro system as explained by Brofenbrenner
that you have had as an infant and as a child. How has it affected you?

30
Part 3 Early Childhood

A. Make your own photo essay about the physical development of pre-schoolers.
Describe the gross and fine motor skills that you saw them do. Use the table below
to categorize your photos and provide description of each photo.

Physical Domain Skills Proposed Learning Activities

Cognitive Domain Skill Socio-emotional Domain Skill

B. What is the best caregiving style, and why?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

C. Make a list of 10 qualities than an authoritative preschool teacher should have.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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 ___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Part 4 Middle Childhood

A. Compare the motor skills of a pre-school child with a primary school-age child.

Preschool Child Primary School-Age Child

Fine motor skills
Gross motor skills

B. Research on the differences in the cognitive development of boys and girls. Write some
major points in their respective development.

Boys Girls

Part 5 Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)

A. What are the general physical characteristics of children aged 9-12 years?
Boys Girls

B. You are a teacher who plans to put up a progressive school for children. Your aim is to
provide a learning environment that is fun, exciting and intellectually stimulating for your
intermediate school pupils. In doing so, you need to purchase toys and educational
playthings that will encourage creativity, critical and abstract thinking and logical
reasoning. Complete your list by filling out matrix.

Cognitive Area which How It Helps Cognitive

Name of Toy Picture
It Develops Development

Part 6 Adolescence (The High School Learner)

A. In the Philippines, as in other countries, problem exist such as teenage pregnancy,

abortion, early marriage, and child trafficking. Major puberty and biological changes
during adolescence call for social management at home, the school and society.

32
 Write a personal journal on your experiences as an adolescent and how you were able
to overcome issues related to the period, such as self-esteem, body image, boy-girl
romantic relationship, etc.

B. Illustrate specific problems and strategies by which these can be faced amid challenges
in inner and outer growth for a mature adolescent.

Theories on emotional Specific problems at home, Helpful Interventions

development in school and community
1. Freud and influences
of inner
consciousness,
including genetic
emotionality to be
shy, fearful,
aggressive, etc.
2. Skinner and the
importance of the
external
stimuli/environment
3. Watson and
conditioning of
behaviour due to past
experience, e.g.
trauma resulting in
fear of outside
influence
4. Malatesta’s modelling
e.g. mother

5. Murray’s continuing
interplay by the
individual and
environment (e.g.
social media)
6. Carl Roger’s
humanistic theory of
self-actualization.

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References:

Corpus, Brenda B. (2018). The child and adolescent learners and learning principles. Lorimar
Publishing, INC. Quezon City, Metro Manila

34