LESSON 3

PROTEIN

1. Functions 3. Deficiencies/toxicity
2. Types 4. Food sources
Week 6 TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME ACTIVITY
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
Day 12 1. Discuss the functions of protein. 1. Laboratory
2. Select the foods which are primary sources of activity
protein. 2. Nutrient hunt
3. Explain the effects of inadequate or excess
protein intakes.
4. Recognize the importance of protein in the diet.
5. Compare complete and incomplete proteins.
6. Explain protein “sparing.”
7. Calculate an individual’s protein requirement.
8. Select appropriate sources of nutrients that are most
likely to be defi cient in a vegetarian diet.
9. Describe nitrogen balance and how it is
determined.

PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

Protein came from the Greek word “protos”/proteios meaning “primary” or “holding
first place”/ “is of prime importance” since it is the first substance recognized as a vital part of a
living tissue. It contains nitrogen in addition to the basic carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

They are more complex compounds of high molecular weights, structured in specific arrangement
and numbers of their simpler building units, amino acids.

They are organic substances that on digestion yield their constituent unit building block- amino
acids.

b. There are 22 amino acids

c. All amino acids exist in nature as alpha-amino carboxylic acids
d. Glycine is the simplest amino acid identified in 1820.
e. Threonine was the last to be identified in 1935

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MULDER: a Dutch chemist proposed the name in 1840 and until now the word is used due to
its unique function of building and repairing cells and other specialized roles in metabolism that
cannot be accomplished or performed by other nutrients

Virtually every life process depends on proteins (enzymes, hormones, muscle

cells, blood cells, antibodies)
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS

Proteins accomplish all three functions of a nutrient: body-building, regulating processes

and supplying energy. It’s unique function of tissue building and repairing cannot be taken over
by other nutrients.

1. BODY_BUILDING OR STRUCTURAL ROLE

Twenty percent (20%) or one-fifth of an adult body weight is protein. Based on dry
weight 50% or half of an adult body is protein. Of this, one-third is in the muscle, one fifth in
bones and cartilages, one tenth is in the skin and the rest in body fluids and other body tissues. In
its broadcast coverage, “body-building” includes all living cells and tissues:

1. Protein is an integral part of cell nuclei and protoplasm.

2. The solid mass of soft tissue like muscles, vital organs, glands and blood cells is made
up of basically of protein.

3. Protein is the supporting organic matrix for bones, teeth, hair and nails.

4. All enzymes are protein in nature

5. Most hormones are derived from protein

6. other bodily secretions and fluids are produced with the help of proteins. The only fluids
that should not contain protein are: bile, sweat and urine

7. Antibodies contain protein (as gamma globulin), thus aiding in bodily resistance to
infections.

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2. SOURCE OF ENERGY

Protein supply 4 cal per gram although it is more expensive source of energy compared
to fat and carbohydrate. Since protein is the sole nutrient that supplies amino acids for body
building and repairing, it’s role of energy-giving is secondary. Protein should be spared or saved
for it’s more important function of building and repairing by adequate fat and carbohydrate
intakes. Based on energy intake, protein allowance is expressed as 10 to 15% of total caloric
supply. To illustrate: 10% of a 2,200 caloric allowance is 220 Cal. This is equivalent to 55
grams protein (220 divided by 4 Cal/gm protein), which is the recommended daily allowance of
protein for an adult Filipina.

3. REGULATOR OF BODILY PROCESSES

Protein regulates osmotic pressure, hence water balance and acid-base balance. It helps in
the exchange of nutrients and other metabolites which pass between cells and the intercellular
fluids or between tissues and the blood or lymph (extracellular fluids).

When a person has low plasma proteins, fluid balance is disturbed and accumulate in-
between tissues resulting in swelling or edema. Nutritional edema is one clinical sign of
hypoproteinemia (low protein level in the blood).

SOURCES OF ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Only protein can supply the 8-10 essential amino acids that play distinctive distinctive
physiological functions which cannot be accomplished by another essential amino acid. To cite a
few:

METHIONINE is a methylating agent(supplies the methyl radical-CH3) which is needed

for important substances in the body, like choline, heme portion of hemoglobin, etc.

PHENYLALANINE is the precursor for the amino acid tyrosine; both are important in
the production of the hormones; thyroxine and epinephrine.

TRYPTOPHAN is the precursor of niacin (a B-vitamin) as well as for serotonin, a

vasoconstrictor.

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 GLYCINE, the simplest amino acid, combines with any toxic substance rendering them
harmless.

TYPES OF PROTEIN

Complete proteins: These foods contain all the essential amino acids. They mostly occur in
animal foods, such as meat, dairy, and eggs.

Incomplete proteins: These foods contain at least one essential amino acid, so there is a lack
of balance in the proteins. Plant foods, such as peas, beans, and grains mostly contain incomplete
protein.

Complementary proteins: These refer to two or more foods containing incomplete proteins that
people can combine to supply complete protein. Examples include rice and beans or bread with
peanut butter.

DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

a. In the stomach, enzyme pepsin, produced first as inactive precursor to pepsinogen, then
activated by the hydrochloric acid and converts protein to proteases and peptones.

In infants, enzyme rennin converts casein to coagulated curd.

b. Small intestines (alkaline)

Pancreas – trypsin (produced first as inactive precursor trypsinogen and then activated by
enterokinase) converts proteins, proteases and peptones to polypeptides and peptides

Chrymotrypsin (produced first as inactive precursor chrymotrypsigen and then activated by

active trypsin) converts proteases and peptones to polypeptides and dipeptides; also coagulates
milk.

Carboxypeptidase converts polypeptides to simpler peptides, dipeptides and amino acids.

INTESTINE – aminopeptidase converts polypeptides to peptides and amino acids

- dipeptidase converts dipeptides to amino acids

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ABSORPTION OF PROTEIN

Amino acids are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract mainly by carrier transport.
Vitamin B6 is believed to be intimately involved with this mechanism.

After absorption into the intestinal mucosa, the amino acids are taken directly to the
portal blood system through the fine network of capillaries. Competition for the absorption of
amino acids seems to exist so that an amino acid, which is predominant, may retard the
absorption of the other amino acids.

Dipeptides and tripeptides are absorbed much faster than equivalent amino acid
mixtures. The peak level of absorption of proteins is intermediate between carbohydrates and
fats.

Occasionally, whole proteins or larger fragments of short-chain peptides are absorbed and
this gives rise to a hypersensitivity reaction (allergy) Colostrum (first breastmilk) is passed by the
mother to the infant during the first days of life, for the infant to obtain immunity and is absorbed
by the infant by means of pinocytosis.

RECOMMENDED INTAKE

The minimum amino acid requirement is 0.35 to 0.525 gm per kilogram desirable body
weight (Nitrogen x 6.35). The daily allowance for protein includes a margin of safety to account
for individual differences, variations in NPU (net protein utilization), protein quality.

Daily Allowances (RDA) have an added safety factor by increasing the minimum
requirement 1.5 to 2 times. The simplest and easiest guide is to use 1gm/kg desirable body weight
for normal adults.

In the Philippines, protein allowance for adult man and woman is computed at
1.14gm/kg body weight based on the consumption of rice-based diets. In the USA where protein
sources are of better quality, a level of 0.9 gm/kg is recommended.

In Oriental countries where cereal and other vegetable proteins supply significant amounts
of protein, a higher level is suggested. Another method of expressing protein intake is based on
total caloric requirement.

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Example: 10% of a 2,200 Kcalorie need of an adult Filipina is equivalent to 55gm
protein(220Kcal divided by 4Kcal/gm protein.)

GENERAL DAILY RECOMMENDATION OF FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD

ADULT – 0-9 gm/kgBW

CHILDREN –growth needs vary according to age and growth patterns

PREGNANCY – rapid growth requires an increase of 30 gms over that of the non- pregnant
woman

LACTATION - requires an increase of 20 gms

In Oriental countries where cereal and other vegetable proteins supply significant amounts of
protein, a higher level is suggested.

Another method of expressing protein intake is based on total caloric requirement.

Example: 10% of a 2,200 Kcalorie need of an adult Filipina is equivalent to 55gm

protein(220Kcal divided by 4Kcal/gm protein.)

GENERAL DAILY RECOMMENDATION OF FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD

ADULT – 0-9 gm/kgBW

CHILDREN – growth needs vary according to age and growth patterns

PREGNANCY – rapid growth requires an increase of 30 gms over that of the non- pregnant
woman

LACTATION - requires an increase of 20 gms

DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS OF PROTEIN INTAKE

Protein deficiency is when people do not get adequate amounts of protein from their
diet. Kwashiorkor, its most severe form, is most commonly seen in children in developing
countries.

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1. Edema

Edema, which is characterized by swollen and puffy skin, is a classic symptom of

kwashiorkor. Scientists believe it is caused by low amounts of human serum albumin, which is
the most abundant protein in the liquid part of blood, or blood plasma.

One of albumin’s main functions is to maintain oncotic pressure — a force that draws
fluid into the blood circulation. In this way, albumin prevents excessive amounts of fluid from
accumulating in tissues or other body compartments. Because of reduced human serum albumin
levels, severe protein deficiency leads to lower oncotic pressure. As a result, fluid accumulates in
tissues, causing swelling.

For the same reason, protein deficiency may lead to fluid buildup inside the abdominal
cavity. A bloated belly is a characteristic sign of kwashiorkor.

Keep in mind that edema is a symptom of severe protein deficiency, which is unlikely to
happen in developed countries.

2. Fatty Liver

Another common symptom of kwashiorkor is a fatty liver, or fat accumulation in liver

cells
Left untreated, the condition may develop into fatty liver disease, causing inflammation, liver
scarring and potentially liver failure.

Fatty liver is a common condition in obese people, as well as those who consume a lot
of alcohol. Why it occurs in cases of protein deficiency is unclear, but studies suggest that an
impaired synthesis of fat-transporting proteins, known as lipoproteins, may contribute to the
condition

SUMMARY: Fatty liver is one of the symptoms of kwashiorkor in children. In worst case
scenarios, it may lead to liver failure.

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3. Skin, Hair and Nail Problems

Protein deficiency often leaves its mark on the skin, hair and nails, which are largely made
of protein. For instance, kwashiorkor in children is distinguished by flaky or splitting skin, redness
and patches of depigmented skin

Hair thinning, faded hair color, hair loss (alopecia) and brittle nails are also common
symptoms. However, these symptoms are unlikely to appear unless you have a severe protein
deficiency.
4. Loss of Muscle Mass

Your muscles are your body’s largest reservoir of protein. When dietary protein is in
short supply, the body tends to take protein from skeletal muscles to preserve more important
tissues and body functions. As a result, lack of protein leads to muscle wasting over time.

Even moderate protein insufficiency may cause muscle wasting, especially in elderly
people. One study in elderly men and women found that muscle loss was greater among those who
consumed the lowest amounts of protein.

This has been confirmed by other studies that show that an increased protein intake may slow the
muscle degeneration that comes with old age.

5. Greater Risk of Bone Fractures

Muscles are not the only tissues affected by low protein intake. Your bones are also at
risk. Not consuming enough protein may weaken your bones and increase the risk of fractures.

One study in postmenopausal women found that a higher protein intake was
associated with a lower risk of hip fractures. The highest intake was linked to a 69%
reduced risk, and animal-source protein appeared to have the greatest benefits.

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 Another study in postmenopausal women with recent hip fractures showed that taking
20 grams of protein supplements per day for half a year slowed bone loss by 2.3%.

6. Stunted Growth in Children

Protein not only helps maintain muscle and bone mass, but it’s also essential for body
growth. Thus, deficiency or insufficiency is especially harmful to children whose growing
bodies require a steady supply.

In fact, stunting is the most common sign of childhood malnutrition. In 2013, an estimated
161 million children suffered from stunted growth

Observational studies show a strong association between low protein intake and impaired
growth. Stunted growth is also one of the main characteristics of kwashiorkor in children

7. Increased Severity of Infections

A protein deficit can also take its toll on the immune system. Impaired immune
function may increase the risk or severity of infections, a common symptom of severe protein
deficiency

For instance, one study in mice showed that following a diet consisting of only 2%
protein was associated with a more severe influenza infection, compared to a diet providing
18% protein

Even marginally low protein intake may impair immune function. One small study in
older women showed following a low-protein diet for nine weeks significantly reduced their
immune response

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8. Greater Appetite and Calorie Intake

Although poor appetite is one of the symptoms of severe protein deficiency, the opposite
seems to be true for milder forms of deficiency.
When your protein intake is inadequate, your body attempts to restore your protein status by
increasing your appetite, encouraging you to find something to eat.

But a protein deficit doesn’t aimlessly drive the urge to eat, at least not for everyone. It
may selectively increase people’s appetite for savory foods, which tend to be high in protein.
While this may certainly help in times of food shortage, the problem is that modern society offers
unlimited access to savory, high-calorie foods.

Many of these convenience foods contain some protein. However, the amount of protein in
these foods is often considerably low compared to the number of calories they provide. As a result,
poor protein intake may lead to weight gain and obesity, an idea known as the protein leverage
hypothesis

Not all studies support the hypothesis, but protein is clearly more satiating than carbs and
fat. This is part of the reason why increased protein intake can reduce overall calorie intake and
promote weight loss.

If you are feeling hungry all the time and have difficulties keeping your calorie intake in
check, try adding some lean protein to every meal.

TOXICITY OR TOO MUCH PROTEIN INTAKE

You’re probably familiar with high-protein diets, which have seen a recent resurgence
since diets like Atkins and the Zone gained popularity in the 1990s. Diets such as the Caveman
or Paleo diet can vary in terms of macronutrient ratios, but are typically high in protein.

While the standard ketogenic (or “keto”) diet emphasizes fat, it can also be high in
protein. Even mostly or entirely plant-based diets can be high in protein.

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Protein is an essential part of a healthy diet. It helps to build and repair muscle, organs, and
bones. High-protein diets have also been shown to be helpful with reducing fat, losing weight,
increasing satiety, or a feeling of fullness, and retaining muscle.

However, high-protein diets have also been associated with several risks that are
important to be aware of and understand. Nutritional experts don’t advocate consumption to
exceed the recommended daily amount.

When calculating how much total protein you currently eat or should eat, factor in
protein from your diet (e.g., food and drink sources). You should also factor in supplements, if
the supplements you use contain substantial amounts of protein, such as protein powder.

Weight gain

High-protein diets may tout weight loss, but this type of weight loss may only be short-
term. Excess protein consumed is usually stored as fat, while the surplus of amino acids is
excreted. This can lead to weight gain over time, especially if you consume too many calories
while trying to increase your protein intake. A 2016 study found that weight gain was
significantly associated with diets where protein replaced carbohydrates, but not when it
replaced fat.

Bad breath
Eating large amounts of protein can lead to bad breath, especially if you restrict your
carbohydrate intake.

In an older registry, 40 percent of participants reported bad breath. This could be in part
because your body goes into a metabolic state called ketosis, which produces chemicals that give
off an unpleasant fruity smell. Brushing and flossing won’t get rid of the smell. You can double
your water intake, brush your teeth more often, and chew gum to counter some of this effect.

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Constipation

In the same study, 44 percent of participants reported constipation. High-protein diets

that restrict carbohydrates are typically low in fiber. Increasing your water and fiber intake can
help prevent constipation.

Diarrhea

Eating too much dairy or processed food, coupled with a lack of fiber, can cause diarrhea.
This is especially true if you’re lactose-intolerant or consume protein sources such as fried meat,
fish, and poultry. Eat heart-healthy proteins instead.
To avoid diarrhea, drink plenty of water, avoid caffeinated beverages, limit fried foods and
excess fat consumption, and increase your fiber intake.

Dehydration

Your body flushes out excess nitrogen with fluids and water. This can leave you
dehydrated even though you may not feel more thirsty than usual.

A small 2002 study involving athletes found that as protein intake increased,
hydration levels decreased. However, a 2006 study concluded that consuming more protein
had a minimal impact on hydration.

This risk or effect can be minimized by increasing your water intake, especially if you’re
an active person. Regardless of protein consumption, it’s always important
to drink plenty of water throughout the day.

Kidney damage

While no major studies Trusted Source link high protein intake to kidney damage in
healthy individuals, excess protein can cause damage in people with preexisting kidney disease.

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 This is because of the excess nitrogen found in the amino acids that make up proteins.
Damaged kidneys have to work harder to get rid of the extra nitrogen and waste products of
protein metabolism.

Increased cancer risk

Studies have shown that certain high-protein diets that are particularly high in red meat-
based protein are linked to an increased risk of various health issues, including cancer. Eating
more red and/or processed meat is associated with colorectal, breast, and prostate cancer.

Conversely, eating protein from other sources has been associated with a decreased risk of
cancer. Scientists believe this could be due, in part, to hormones, carcinogenic compounds, and fats
found in meat.
Heart disease

Eating lots of red meat and full-fat dairy foods as part of a high-protein diet may lead to
heart disease. This could be related to higher intakes of saturated fat and cholesterol.

According to a 2010 study, eating large amounts of red meat and high-fat dairy was
shown to increase the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Eating poultry, fish, and nuts
lowered the risk.

A 2018 study also showed that long-term consumption of red meat can increase
trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a gut-generated chemical that is linked to heart disease.
Findings also showed that reducing or eliminating dietary red meat reversed the effects.

Calcium loss

Diets that are high in protein and meat may cause calcium loss. This is sometimes
associated with osteoporosis and poor bone health.
A 2013 review of studies found an association between high levels of protein consumption and
poor bone health. However, another 2013 review found that the effect

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of protein on bone health is inconclusive. Further research is needed to expand and conclude upon
these findings.

Best sources of protein

When you’re choosing high-protein foods, be sure to select healthier options. This can
help lower your risk for some of the negative effects of a high-protein diet. Healthy sources of
protein include:
- grass-fed lean meats, pasture-raised poultry, and organic dairy
- wild fish
- eggs from pastured hens
- legumes, nuts, and whole grains

Try to avoid high-fat meats and dairy products as well as fried or processed protein sources. Eat
heart-healthy proteins instead.

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