ESC IV: Introduction to Electronics

and Electrical Engineering

Unit 1
Semiconductor Devices and
Applications
Reference book :
1. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory-Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, 9Ed,2008 PE.
2. Microelectric Circuits-Sedra and Smith-5 Ed., 2009, Oxford University press
 Operational Amplifiers

What is an operational amplifier? This particular form

of amplifier had the name “Operational” attached to it
many years ago.

As early as 1952, Philbrick Operational Amplifiers

(marketed by George A. Philbrick) were constructed
with vacuum tubes and were used in analog
computers.* Even as late as 1965, vacuum tube
operational amplifiers were still in use and cost in the
range of $75.
* Some reports say that Loebe Julie actually developed the operational amplifier circuitry.
2
 Operational Amplifiers

The “operational” was used as a descriptor early-on

because this form of amplifier can perform operations
of

• adding signals
• subtracting signals
• integrating signals,

The applications of operational amplifiers ( shortened

to op amp ) have grown beyond those listed above.
3
 Operational Amplifiers
The basic op amp with supply voltage included is shown in the diagram
below.

Basic op am diagram with supply voltage.

7
 Operational Amplifiers
A model of the op amp, with respect to the symbol, is
shown below.

Figure 8.5: Op Amp Model.

9
 Operational Amplifiers
For most all operational amplifiers, Ri is 1 meg Ω or
larger and Ro is around 50 Ω or less. The open-loop gain, A, is greater than
100,000.

Ideal Op Amp:
The following assumptions are made for the ideal op amp.

17
 Ideal Op Amp:

Figure 8.9: Ideal op amp.

(a) i1 = i2 = 0: Due to infinite input resistance.

(b) Vi is negligibly small; V1 = V2.

18
 Ideal Op Amp:
Find Vo in terms of Vin for the following configuration.

19 Figure 8.10: Gain amplifier op amp set-up.

 Ideal Op Amp:

Writing a nodal equation at (a) gives;

Eq 8.6

20
 Ideal Op Amp:

Eq 8.7

With Vi = 0 we have;

With R2 = 4 kΩ and R1 = 1 kΩ, we have

Earlier
we got

21
 Operational Amplifiers
Example 8.2: Summing Amplifier. Given the following:

Figure 8.12: Circuit for Example 8.2.

Eq 8.11

26
 Operational Amplifiers
Example 8.2: Summing Amplifier. continued

Equation 8.11 can be expressed as;

Eq 8.12

If R1 = R2 = Rfb then,

Eq. 8.13

Therefore, we can add signals with an op amp.

27
 Operational Amplifiers
Example 8.5: The noninverting op amp.
Consider the following:

Figure 8.16: Noninverting op am configuration.

31
 Operational Amplifiers
Example 8.5: The noninverting op amp. Continued

Writing a node equation at “a” gives;

Remember this
32
 Operational Amplifiers
Example 8.6: Noninverting Input.

Find V0 for the following op amp configuration.

Figure 8.17: Op amp circuit for example 8.6.

33
 Operational Amplifiers
Example 8.6: Noninverting Input.

The voltage at Vx is found to be 3 V.

Writing a node equation at “a” gives;

or

34
Oscillators and Barkhausen Criteria
• The use of positive feedback
that results in a feedback
amplifier having closed-loop
gain |Af | greater than 1 and
satisfies the phase conditions
will result in operation as an
oscillator circuit.
• An oscillator circuit then
provides a varying output
signal.
• When the switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.
• Consider that we have a fictitious voltage at the amplifier input (Vi).
• This results in an output voltage Vo = AVi after the amplifier stage and in a
voltage Vf= (βAVi) after the feedback stage.
• Thus, we have a feedback voltage Vf = βAVi, where Aβ is referred to as the
loop gain.
• If the circuits of the base amplifier and feedback network provide Aβ of a
correct magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi.
• Then, when the switch is closed and fictitious voltage Vi is removed, the
circuit will continue operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to
drive the amplifier and feedback circuits resulting in a proper input voltage
to sustain the loop operation.
• The output waveform will still exist after the switch is closed if the
condition Aβ=1 is met. This is known as the Barkhausen criterion for
oscillation.
Types of oscillators
 Filters
Background:

. Filters may be classified as either digital or analog.

. Digital filters are implemented using a digital computer

or special purpose digital hardware.

. Analog filters may be classified as either passive or

active and are usually implemented with R, L, and C
components and operational amplifiers.
 Filters
Background:

. An active filter is one that, along with R, L, and C

components, also contains an energy source, such
as that derived from an operational amplifier.

. A passive filter is one that contains only R, L, and

C components. It is not necessary that all three be
present. L is often omitted (on purpose) from
passive filter design because of the size and cost
of inductors – and they also carry along an R that
must be included in the design.
 Passive Analog Filters
Background: Four types of filters - “Ideal”

lowpass highpass

bandpass bandstop