See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/312532168

Human intelligence (HUMINT)

Chapter · January 2013

DOI: 10.4135/9781452276335.n222

CITATION READS
1 6,327

1 author:

Saul M. Rodriguez
University of Ottawa
49 PUBLICATIONS 95 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Special forces and Political Power: From the Cold war to the 21st Century View project

War preparedness team View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Saul M. Rodriguez on 18 July 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Encyclopedia of Military Science
Intelligence, Human

Contributors: Saul Mauricio Rodriguez-Hernandez

Edited by: Kurt G. Piehler
Book Title: Encyclopedia of Military Science
Chapter Title: "Intelligence, Human"
Pub. Date: 2013
Access Date: April 1, 2019
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Ltd.
City: Thousand Oaks,
Print ISBN: 9781412969338
Online ISBN: 9781452276335
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452276335.n229
Print pages: 674-675
© 2013 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please note that the pagination of the online
version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
SAGE SAGE Reference
© 2013 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

Human intelligence (HUMINT) represents the oldest and most elemental form of intelligence activity. Although
technological advances in technical intelligence services such as signals and imagery have lowered the pro-
file of HUMINT activities, in recent years the focus on terrorism and nonstate actors has again emphasized
the importance of HUMINT. Specifically, military branches have made HUMINT a priority, as many criminal
and/or terrorist groups have reduced their visibility and use of communications technologies open to signal
intercepts.

Fundamentally, HUMINT consists of gathering information through infiltration, interviews—collecting data

from people and institutions—and extracting any information of tactical and/or strategic value. This entry dis-
cusses the types of HUMINT activities, the training and skills required for HUMINT operators, the steps in
handling information, and recent operations.

Kinds of Activities
Commonly, HUMINT services are related to espionage, which consists of infiltrating operatives or making
contact with individuals in foreign countries or within organizations with the intention of extracting information.
HUMINT operations also encompass efforts of frontline troops to uncover the enemy’s activities—for instance,
gun emplacements, troop movements, and the placement of roads and other infrastructure. Social and diplo-
matic activities are also fundamental aspects of HUMINT, as are prisoners’ interrogations and debriefings of
friendly troops.

Human Intelligence: Historical Background

HUMINT activities stretch all the way back to the ancient world. The Chinese, Indians, Mediterranean soci-
eties, and Native Americans used basic human observation to forestall enemy actions and help friendly forces
gain military, political, and economic advantage. Skills such as common sense, knowledge of languages, and
psychological understanding of the enemy were vital to infiltration activities and successful covert operations.
In the 20th century, the British, Germans, Soviets, and Americans extensively used HUMINT activities to ob-
tain critical information during both World War II and the early years of the Cold War era. New technologies
developed in the 1950s, however, reduced the influence of HUMINT inside intelligence services, as the abil-
ity to collect data through aerial and satellite reconnaissance led many to claim that HUMINT activities were
obsolete. During the Vietnam War, HUMINT again gained ground in the intelligence services, with a particular
focus on prisoner interrogation to determine enemy activities and data collection in front of and behind enemy
lines. These activities were widely undertaken by long-range patrol scout teams made up of Special Forces
or Green Beret units. However, in subsequent years, HUMINT was again superseded by technology-driven
intelligence activities like electronic intelligence and signals intelligence.

From Collapse to Victory in the Use of HUMINT

U.S. intelligence services were broadly criticized for their poor performance with regard to the attacks of Sep-
tember 11, 2001. Many critics pointed out that U.S. intelligence services, including those of the military, fo-
cused too narrowly on indirect and technological intelligence-gathering services at the expense of human
methods that had demonstrated their effectiveness in the past. Likewise, incomplete information about Iraq’s
possession of weapons of mass destruction and Saddam Hussein’s ties with al Qaeda suggested Ameri-
can intelligence services’ inadequate use of HUMINT. These mistakes generated the momentum to revive
HUMINT activities, which have subsequently proven very useful in the Global War on Terrorism.

Encyclopedia of Military Science

Page 2 of 4
SAGE SAGE Reference
© 2013 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

HUMINT Process
According to the U.S. Army Field Manual Human Intelligence Collector Operations, HUMINT operators should
embrace a variety of intelligence-gathering methods. HUMINT agents and agencies must, however, act in
accordance with applicable law and policy, including the Geneva Conventions and the U.S. Constitution. Ad-
ditionally, the intelligence community generally embraces five common steps in the handling of information:

1. Planning and preparation: establishing the conditions to collect data, taking into account
operational plans and issues relating to the type of source and location—for example, ge-
ographic conditions and cultural practices
2. Approaching: gaining cooperation and confidence from the source and taking care to
maintain its safety and viability
3. Questioning: obtaining information by following a careful interrogation plan embracing on-
ly the most pertinent questions
4. Termination: ensuring that work with the sources will be finished without mistakes while
preparing for other operations
5. Reporting: organizing and collating information for commanders and officials

Collector Skills
Due to its focus on interpersonal interaction, HUMINT is a human-centered activity in which the individual
represents the primary intelligence-gathering tool. Therefore, the HUMINT operator must possess intellectual
and cultural knowledge that allows him or her to effectively operate on the ground and adapt to local con-
ditions. Patience, tact, focus, discretion, and prudence are vital virtues for this job. The operator is the key
member in the HUMINT process, and his or her preparation must represent an ongoing effort to refine his or
her craft in wide-ranging disciplines like languages, acting classes, weapons, and radio systems, including
those of the enemy, and emerging technology. Training for HUMINT operators includes 10 weeks of basic
training, followed by 20 weeks of advanced training in information gathering, HUMINT analysis, interrogation
techniques, and language skills, among others. Much of the training is done out of the classroom to put the
collector in contact with the environment(s) he or she will encounter in a hostile or war zone.

Recent HUMINT Operations

Recently, HUMINT activities have proven central in the Global War on Terrorism, providing key information
leading to the capture or killing of high-value target individuals in both Afghanistan and Iraq. Cooperation be-
tween civilian and military intelligence services led to the capture of Saddam Hussein in 2003 and the suc-
cessful raid that killed Osama bin Laden in 2011. HUMINT has also been key in a number of other operations
against al Qaeda and other terrorist organizations such as the Taliban in Afghanistan. American intelligence
services continue to work to expand HUMINT operations and better integrate those efforts with other intelli-
gence forms to improve the overall intelligence capabilities of the United States.

See also Central Intelligence Agency; Defense Intelligence Agency; Intelligence, Geospatial; Intelligence Cy-
cle; Intelligence Organizations, Military; National Security Agency

• interrogation
• detainees
• interrogation techniques
Encyclopedia of Military Science
Page 3 of 4
 SAGE SAGE Reference
© 2013 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

• prisoners of war
• armies
• military
• intelligence

Saul Mauricio Rodriguez-Hernandez

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452276335.n229
10.4135/9781452276335.n229

Further Readings

Department of the Army. (2006). Human intelligence collector operation (FM 2-22). Washington, DC: Author.
Sayre, R. A., Jr. (2004). Some principles of human intelligence and their application. Fort Leavenworth, KS:
School of Advanced Military Studies.
Steele, R. D. (2010). Human intelligence: All humans, all minds, all the time. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies
Institute.
Wright, D. P., & Reese, T. R. (2008). On point II: Transition to the new campaign—the United States Army in
Operation Iraqi Freedom May 2003-January 2005. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press.

Encyclopedia of Military Science

Page 4 of 4

View publication stats