The material in this handbook covers basic information on setting up an electric mining shovel for digging, principles

of dipper performance, various operating techniques, safety precautions, and suggestions for dipper maintenance. It is
not intended as a replacement for shovel manufacturers' operating or service manuals, only as a supplement to them.

© 2001 Harnischfeger Corporation. All rights reserved. All materials contained herein are protected by the United
States copyright law and may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, displayed, published or broadcast without
the prior permission of Harnischfeger Corporation. You may not alter or remove any trademark, copyright or other
notice from copies of the content.
DIPPERS
CONTENTS
Section Page
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Setting Up for
Productive Digging . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Understanding Dipper
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Operating Procedures
and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Ground Engaging
Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Dipper Maintenance . . . . . . . 27

7 Dipper Changeout. . . . . . . . . 35

8 Frequently Asked
Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1 - Introduction
Deriving maximum performance and productiv-
ity from a cable shovel involves more than the
efficient application of digging forces at the
dipper lip. The shovel operator’s role is also
essential, but without the support of well-
planned and maintained operations upstream
and downstream, even the best operator’s per-
formance will be limited (Figure 1).
Although an in-depth discussion of open-pit
mining operations is well beyond the scope of
this handbook, a brief discussion of a few of the
associated operations that can limit peak dipper
performance will help put the following pages
in perspective.
Figure 1 Achieving peak performance and productivity from a dipper depends on many factors.
The significance of dipper selection, for exam-
ple, has gained its just and proper place in
recent years by mine operators and equipment
manufacturers alike. The decision-making
process must be a team effort involving the
mine’s production and maintenance personnel
and the shovel and dipper manufacturer.
The selection process must include a clear
understanding of the mine’s production goals,
pit geometry and layout, truck loading parame-
ters, drilling and blasting levels, material char-
acteristics, maintenance objectives and previous
dipper experience. Matching the dipper and
haul truck capacities for even-pass loading is
Page 1
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
also essential to achieving peak performance
for both pieces of equipment.
Dipper selection based on incorrect evaluations
or assumptions of actual operating conditions
can result in a variety of problems and unsatis-
factory dipper performance. A team effort with
input from all concerned parties helps avoid
such problems.
Haul road maintenance is another associated
operation that can impact dipper performance.
When a shovel operator sits idle with a sus-
pended load for 30 seconds waiting for a haul
truck, the dipper can't be faulted for the short-
fall in production. As the vital link between the
shovel, mill and waste dump, the haul road’s
design and maintenance can either help or hin-
der the coordination of truck and shovel opera-
tions.
Besides planning the proper surface, crown,
width and grade, efficient road design considers
haul distance, truck sizes and weights, rolling
resistance, curve and switchback design, traffic
layout and a host of other issues.
Addressing a few key questions can help avoid
bottlenecks in the system: Is the road surface
smooth and clean? Does it drain water proper-
ly? Is the road wide enough to prevent trucks
driving on the berm?
Page 2
Proper road maintenance includes keeping the
truck’s path clear of large rocks and debris, not
allowing spillage to accumulate, promptly
dealing with rutting and grooving, and with
snow and ice conditions. Turning radii need to
be kept as wide as possible, especially in dump
areas where the greatest traffic congestion can
occur.
Today’s truck dispatching, load weighing and
information management systems, and other
technologies, are all designed to help improve
operations that impact dipper performance
either directly or indirectly. But each new sys-
tem places its own demands on the mine in
terms of increased levels of skill and training.
Similarly, the evolution of dipper design holds
the promise of advancing productivity and per-
formance while simplifying maintenance and
reducing production costs. But as truck and
shovel capacities continue to increase in size,
the need for upgrading the skill sets of opera-
tors will continue to rise, as will the need for
new maintenance skills.
While we cannot address all these issues, the
following pages are intended to provide infor-
mation to help shovel operators, maintenance
personnel and mine managers optimize dipper
performance and productivity.
2 - Setting Up For
Productive Digging

100˚
Operators sometimes locate shovels and 70˚
60˚
trucks in such ways that they achieve less
than optimum work cycle times. Besides 50˚ 130˚
45˚
increasing cycle times, unsuitable location
of a shovel relative to the working face and
haul trucks wastes available digging power.
A good understanding of digging geometry
and digging forces can provide an apprecia-
tion for proper set up of the shovel and haul
truck for productive digging.
180˚

Digging Geometry
The relationship of the boom angle, boom
length, dipper handle pivot point (shipper Swing Arcs vs. Productivity
shaft) and handle length, are fundamental to Figure 2 Keeping the swing arc as narrow as possible
the delivery of maximum digging forces to helps minimize truck loading times.
the dipper lip. Operator performance and
shovel location relative to the bank and the
Swing Arc Approximate Percentage
haul unit are critical to the efficient applica- of Optimum Output
tion of the working geometry of the shovel
and dipper. 45° 126%
50° 116%
60° 107%
The Swing Arc
70° 100%
The time spent in the swing phase of the
digging cycle represents the greatest part of 100° 88%
the entire cycle time. Keeping the swing
arc as narrow as possible helps enhance 130° 77%
operating efficiency (Figure 2). A swing arc 180° 70%
of 70° is considered standard, i.e. 100%.
Increasing the size of the arc decreases Chart 1 There is an inverse relationship between the
output while decreasing the arc increases size of the swing arc and the shovel's output; the small-
output (Chart 1). er the swing arc, the greater the output.

Page 3
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
Pitch Brace Length, Tooth
Angle and Dipper Rake Angle
The dipper tooth angle and rake angle are major
factors in determining how the dipper fills and
how much power is consumed in the filling
process. The rake angle is defined as the angle
formed between the level ground line from the
leading edge of the dipper lip to the point at
which an individual rack pinion tooth contacts
the dipper handle rack (Figure 3). As the rake
angle is adjusted up or down, the tooth angle
adjusts with it (Figure 4).
Essentially, the idea is to have the largest tooth
angle possible for maximum cutting action, bal-
anced with reasonable heel band clearance for
acceptable wear. If the tooth angle is too high
for an application, the dipper will heel out early
and heavy wear will occur on the heel band and
bottom of the tooth adapters. If the tooth angle
is too low, the dipper will not fill properly and
will “rake” instead of “cut” the bank, and heavy
wear will occur on the top of the tooth adapters.
Figure 3 The rake angle has a direct influence on the tooth angle and the digging force applied to
the working face, as well as the amount of wear on the dipper. The rake angle is optimized by adjust-
ing the length of the pitch braces.
Page 4
The greatest influence on the size of the rake
angle is the length of the pitch braces. Along
with proper placement of the shovel relative to
the bank, setting up with the optimum rake
angle will have a major impact on dipper per-
formance and shovel productivity.
In easy digging, where wear is less of a con-
cern, a steeper angle provides the greatest effi-
ciency. In heavy digging, where abrasive wear
can be extreme, a lower rake angle is recom-
mended. Excessive heeling can degrade pene-
tration, even in non-abrasive material.
For dippers with pitch braces mounted on the
upper side of the dipper, increasing the length
of the braces tilts the dipper further forward and
lifts the rear of the dipper away from the floor
and the bank during normal digging. For dip-
pers with pitch braces mounted on the lower
side of the dipper, the inverse is true, i.e.,
decreasing the pitch brace length tilts the dipper
further forward.
 2 - SETTING UP FOR PRODUCTIVE DIGGING
Pitch Brace
e
enc
fer
Re
nd
ou
Gr
Figure 4 Increasing the rake angle puts more of the dipper lip to work,
resulting in improved efficiency and reduced power consumption.
Tilting the dipper forward and lifting the dipper
heel away from the floor and the bank during
normal digging has the effect of decreasing the
dipper rake angle. A small rake angle forces the
tooth tips and lip into the bank very hard, almost
tips first, with little or no heel band contact. This
consumes excessive power as the teeth dig in
and gouge material from the working face.
Increasing the rake angle flattens the approach of
the lip and teeth, which decreases penetration
and bending of the teeth and lip. This reduces
power consumption and tends to peel or shave
the material from the face. An operator can
achieve the same effect by positioning the shovel
closer to the face, thereby driving the teeth in
hard, or by standing back from the face, and
shaving the face away.
Note that the tooth angle is not the same as the
rake angle. Thus, for a particular application, the
recommended rake angle may be 58.45° while
the recommended tooth angle is 51.45°.
Signs that the pitch braces
are too long* (Heavy
Penetration)
• Excessive material carried back
Rake Angle on the dipper lip after dumping.
Tooth Angle • Greater wear on the top legs of
the tooth adapters than on the
bottom legs.
• Excessive wear on the inside of
the lip.
• Excess heel band and latch
keeper clearance with the
material as the dipper cuts
Tooth Radius
through the bank.
• Difficulty holding the grade
• Excessive hoist motion; stalling
in the bank.
Signs that the pitch braces
are too short* (Lack of
Penetration)
• Rapid heel band and latch keeper wear with a
short interval between heel band and/or latch
keeper rebuild or replacement.
• Excessive latch keeper maintenance due to
increased loading on the dipper heel with little
or no heel band clearance from the bank.
• Greater wear on the bottom legs of the tooth
adapters than on the top legs.
• Poor shovel operation with difficulty holding a
level floor when standing back from the bank;
the shovel will not want to penetrate the bank
due to lack of heel band clearance pitch.
Excessive hoist and crowd motion are required
to make the dipper dig.
*Note: The symptoms above, both for heavy
penetration and lack of penetration, are for
dippers with pitch braces mounted on the
upper side of the dipper. For dippers with pitch
braces mounted on the lower side of the dip-
per, the effects are reversed, i.e. “the pitch
braces are too long” should read “the pitch
braces are too short” and vice versa.
Page 5
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
When the pitch braces are at their optimum
length, the operator can hold a level floor grade
without difficulty. The dipper will penetrate and
slice through the bank easily and fill in about
two and-a-half lengths of the dipper’s front.
Filling will be fastest at the bottom (toe) of the
bank, and the dipper will be full well before the
time it reaches the dump height.
With the optimum pitch brace length, the latch
keeper and heel band clearances will be about
three to six inches (76-152 mm) from the face
as the dipper slices through the bank. In the
vertical position, the dipper handle should
extend about three feet (1 m) above the shipper
shaft. With this configuration, the dipper will
also dump loads cleanly with little or no carry
back of material on the dipper lip.
How to Optimize the Rake
Angle
Some manufacturers use computer modeling to
determine the approximate rake angle and pitch
brace length for a given shovel and dipper con-
figuration, based on the digging conditions at
the mine. The rake angle may need adjustment
Figure 5 To properly measure the rake angle, the shovel must be on level ground. To assure that the
dipper is level, the dipper’s latch keeper and tooth adapters must also be resting on the ground.
Page 6
or fine tuning, however, after a few weeks of
operation. Field alterations to the dipper with
new fronts or lips, or both, or the use of tooth
adapters with downward-pitched adapter noses
may also necessitate fine tuning of the rake
angle.
The best way to check and adjust the rake angle
is to have a certified land surveyor do the job.
This is because the needed adjustment is fre-
quently quite small, requiring precision instru-
ments. Although the needed adjustment may be
only a fraction of one degree, the effect on per-
formance is well worth the effort.
If one or more operators are satisfied with a
particular shovel’s digging performance, the
surveyor can determine that shovel's rake angle
and check that other shovels of the same model
have the same angle.
To measure the rake angle, the shovel and dip-
per must be on level ground (Figure 5). To
assure that the dipper is level, both the latch
 2 - SETTING UP FOR PRODUCTIVE DIGGING

keeper and tooth adapters must be

Suggested Starting Points for Adjusting
resting on the ground.
the Tooth Angle and Rake Angle
As a starting point, the rake angle
Hard Rock Digging Medium Digging
in hard digging conditions should
be between 57° and 59°; in medium Tooth Angle 46°-48° 48°-50°
digging, the starting point should
be between 59° and 61° (Chart 2). Rake Angle 57°- 59° 59°- 61°
The rake angle can then be fine
tuned for optimum performance Chart 2 The optimum rake angle will vary according to the
according to the material density density of the material being mined, and the thoroughness
and the quality and consistency of and consistency with which it is blasted. Also note that the
blasting. size of the tooth angle relative to the rake angle may vary
from one dipper style to another, e.g. a dipper designed for
It is important to understand that taconite vs. one used for coal or overburden removal.
the size of the tooth angle relative
to the rake angle may vary with the
dipper style. Changing the length from 55 inches (1397 mm)
To adjust the rake angle, disconnect the pitch to 44 inches (1117.6 mm), for example, is a
braces at one end. Propel the shovel forward or drastic change and should be a clear signal that
backward, as needed, until the desired angle is either the starting pitch brace angle or the
achieved. It will then be necessary to adjust or adjusted angle is seriously inadequate.
modify the length of the pitch
braces to reconnect them.
For shovels equipped with P&H
patented adjustable pitch
braces, their lengths can be eas-
ily adjusted three inches (76.2
mm) in either direction, or a
total of six inches (152.4 mm)
(Figure 6). For shovels without
adjustable pitch braces, it will
be necessary to cut and/or weld
the pitch braces or replace
them.
Changing the pitch brace length
one inch (25.4 mm) is roughly
equivalent to changing the rake
angle one degree. Remember
that adjustments are often just
fractions of a degree and sel-
dom exceed two or three
degrees. Accordingly, pitch Figure 6 P&H patented adjustable pitch braces provide easy
brace length adjustments sel- adjustment of the rake angle. They are available for retrofit on
dom exceed two or three inches. various shovel models.

Page 7
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
Positioning the Shovel
It is common for operators to locate the shovel
too far back from the bank rather than too close
to it. Working too far back, however, makes the
operator reach for material, and can reduce the
effectiveness of the dipper’s available digging
power. When an operator complains that the
pitch braces are not right, the problem could be
that the shovel is not positioned close enough to
the bank.
The length of the dipper handle protruding
above the shipper shaft at the start of the dig-
ging cycle tells the foreman where the shovel
should be positioned. Since the shipper shaft
serves as a pivot point for the dipper handle, the
leverage it provides decreases as the handle is
extended, i.e., as the length of handle protrud-
ing beyond the shipper shaft decreases. Keeping
about two to four feet of the handle above the
shipper shaft will provide the best power for
digging.
For maximum efficiency, the shovel should be
positioned with the front of the crawlers close
to the toe of the bank. The operator can then
Figure 7 Positioning the shovel for the best digging performance.
Page 8
move forward until the crawlers reach the toe
of the material. Alternatively, the operator can
position the handle 20° below horizontal, with
the handle protruding 2 to 4 feet (610 - 1219
mm) beyond the shipper shaft, and move for-
ward until the dipper teeth almost touch the
bank.
A dipper moving up the bank with the hoist
ropes close to vertical is a sign of a well-posi-
tioned machine. The shovel’s greatest hoisting
force will be applied to the dipper teeth, maxi-
mizing digging efficiency.
The following method can help in positioning
the shovel for the best digging performance
(Figure 7):
1. Retract the dipper handle until the top end
protrudes approximately three feet (one meter)
beyond the shipper shaft.
2. Bring the dipper up to about 20° and drive
forward until the teeth contact the bank.
3. Allow enough clearance to tuck the dipper in
front of the crawlers to begin each digging
cycle.
 2 - SETTING UP FOR PRODUCTIVE DIGGING

Whenever possible, avoid digging on an incline.
If you must dig on grades of more than 5%,
consult your shovel manufacturer.
Positioning the Haul Truck
Truck spotting time can be minimized with the
use of the double back-up method of
shovel/truck set-up, whereby two trucks are
assigned to the shovel, one on either side
(Figure 8). As the outbound truck is being
loaded, the inbound truck uses that time to turn
and back into position. When the loaded truck
leaves, the operator begins loading the waiting
truck on the opposite side of the shovel.
As the mining area becomes restricted, it will
probably be necessary to switch to the single
back-up loading method due to the limited
room for trucks to maneuver. The single back-
up method may also be preferred when pit floor
conditions limit mobility, or when the shovel
must dig hard toe.
With either back-up method, spot the truck by
positioning the dipper over the desired loading
position. The truck’s centerline should be
approximately under the swing path of the
shovel’s boom point. The truck should be close
enough that the operator does not have to reach
with the dipper to load the truck (Figure 9).
On the first pass, the operator should place the
dipper in the truck bed close to the far side of
the truck body so that when the door opens it
does not hit the near side of the truck body side
wall. This is especially true with today’s larger
trucks.
Some mines have devised unique methods to
help drivers position their trucks. For example,
one mine uses flags on long poles mounted to
the back of the shovel. As the shovel swings to
one side to load a truck, the flag on the other

Figure 8 Optimizing haul road efficiency includes provision of waiting areas for inbound trucks,
ample room for trucks to turn and back into position, and placement of the cable bridge well behind
the shovel.

Page 9
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

Figure 9 A typical double back-up method showing optimal truck positioning.

side provides the inbound

driver a reference point for
backing into position. More
traditional methods include
setting out fluorescent
highway cones or other
high-visibility markers.
The truck travel route
should provide a wait-
ing/turning area where
inbound trucks can
maneuver to back into
position. Whenever
possible, the travel
route should also pro-
vide room enough so
that trucks can avoid tight
turns, especially when loaded.
Back-up distances should also be
kept to a minimum. Positioning the At least
cable bridge well behind the shovel, 150'-200'
as shown in Figure 10, will help pro-
vide the room needed for efficient Figure 10 Diagrammatic illustration of the double back-up operation.
truck maneuvers.

Page 10
3 - Understanding
Dipper Performance

As with any job involving mechanical work, hav-
ing the right tool for the job determines how effi-
ciently the job can be performed. A shovel's dip-
per is a complex tool that uses leverage to perform
work.
It may seem reasonable to assume that a larger
dipper will move more material than a smaller
one, but size alone does not determine actual per-
formance. The dipper’s weight, shape and geome-
try, as well as the composition of the material
being mined, are just a few of many factors affect-
ing how much material a dipper can move.
Understanding the principles that govern dipper
performance can explain why one operator may
load 30 trucks in a given time frame compared to
only 20 trucks for another operator using the same
equipment. Operator training is essential to proper
application of these principles.
Material Digability and
of the dipper’s struck volume will be filled when
the material is pulled loose from the bank (Chart
3). The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the
actual loose cubic yards or meters of material in
the dipper compared to the dipper’s struck vol-
ume.
Dipper Fill Factor = Loose volume per load
Dipper rated volume
(struck)
Thus, for a 90 cubic yard dipper that averages
94.6 cubic yards per load, its fill factor is:
94.6 x 100 = 105.11%
90
It is important to note that while fill factors indi-
cate how easily a given material flows, a dipper’s
design and construction can enhance or limit its
filling characteristics. Thus, the fill factor for the
same material in two dippers of the same capacity
may be different. Custom designed dippers operat-
ing in well-fragmented materials can achieve fill
factors of 100 to 120% and more.

Dipper Fill Factors

Material Approximate
Digability refers to the amount of resis- Digability Dipper Fill Factor
tance a particular material presents to
being extracted from a working face. Easy Digging 1.05-1.20
The amount of resistance depends on Medium Digging 1.00-1.15
the hardness of the material as well as
its weight, density and various other fac- Hard Digging 0.90-1.00
tors. For example, material weights can
vary widely due to mineral and moisture Very Hard Digging 0.80-0.90
content, as well as the material's grain
Chart 3 The above classifications and figures are only
size and structure.
approximations. While coal and fine crushed stone may be
A material’s digability is determined by classified as “easy digging,” actual fill factors for any given
the dipper fill factor, i.e., how easily the material can only be determined by practical knowledge of
material flows into the dipper. The easi- the material and on-site observation and measurement.
er it is for the material to flow, the more

Page 11
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
Hydraulic excavator suppliers quote their
machines’ bucket capacity in “heaped” cubic
meters/yards, in effect, stating the maximum
potential payload of their machines. In contrast,
electric rope shovel manufacturers rate their
machines’ dipper capacity in “struck” (i.e. water-
line capacity) cubic meters/yards (Figure 11).
Hydraulic
Excavator ed
Heap
k tation but results in chunks of such size and shape
Struc
Struck
Electric
Shovel
Figure 11 Heaped vs struck comparison.
Other major influences on fill factors include:
operator skill (proper bank penetration); machine
control (e.g., P&H OptiDig™); and machine per-
formance (e.g., high cutting force at peak power).
Easy digging applies to all loose, free-running
materials of a granular form, such as natural sand
and gravel that require occasional blasting. It also
includes stockpile materials such as coal, fine
crushed stone and ore concentrate. As shown in
Chart 3, easy digging is typified by fill factors of
1.05 to 1.20. In other words, the loose material
fills the dipper to between 105 and 120% of the
dipper’s struck capacity, on average.
Page 12
Medium digging pertains to materials that are
dug from natural beds that require some blasting.
Such materials typically include dry earth and
clay, clay gravel with some boulders, unclassified
excavation, and coal. In medium digging, the dip-
per usually obtains a full load with filling aided by
the material’s natural tendency to flow when frag-
mented by the dipper lip.
Hard digging is typified by materials that
require blasting. Blasting provides good fragmen-
that cause many empty spaces or voids between
the fragments. Some ores requiring light blasting
include limestone, gypsum, shale, and cemented
gravel. Hard digging also applies to some unblast-
ed material, including wet earth, clay and oil
sands. In hard digging, the dipper averages less
than a full load because of the voids and/or diffi-
culty in digging.
Removing face material at the base of a bank of
hard material results in shallow penetration or no
penetration at all. The dipper literally bounces off
the hard base material, resulting in partially filled
dippers and extra passes to fill the haul unit.
Very hard digging applies to materials that
requires heavy blasting. Materials blast into inter-
locking chunks and fines that are difficult to pull
loose from the bank. They include taconite, gran-
ite, trap rock, laminated shale, some forms of
limestone, and conglomerate overburden. The dip-
per averages considerably less than a full load due
to the many larger chunks that obstruct filling and
hinder pick-up of smaller pieces.
Material Density
While a dipper’s capacity is measured in volume
(cubic yards or meters), its practical limitation is a
matter of weight. Therefore, the relationship
between a material’s volume and its weight must
be known to evaluate dipper performance.
 3 - UNDERSTANDING DIPPER PERFORMANCE

The relationship between weight and volume is

illustrated by the classic riddle: Which is heavier,
a pound of feathers or a pound of lead? The rid-
dle’s real issue is not one of weight but of relative
material density. A pound of feathers weighs the
same as a pound of lead, but lead is much denser.
The Swell Factor
Similar to the dipper fill factor, the swell factor is
the ratio of the weight of a volume of loose mater-
ial to the weight of the same volume of material
when it’s embedded in the bank (Chart 4).

Relative density, also called specific gravity, is the
ratio of the density of a substance to that of a stan-
dard substance. The usual standard of comparison
is water, with a density of 1.0 kg per liter (62.4
lbs. per cubic foot).
Specific gravity is the basis of methods used
throughout history to concentrate ores. Panning,
jigging, shaking, spiral separation, and heavy-
medium separation are among the ore-dressing
methods that depend on differences in specific
gravity to obtain concentrated ore.
Specific gravity is highest in rocks rich in iron,
magnesia and the heavy metals, and lowest in
those rich in alkalis, silica, and water.
Swell Factor = Loose cubic yard weight
Bank cubic yard weight
The swell refers to the fact that material volume
increases or swells because voids are introduced
in the material when it is blasted or when the dip-
per breaks it loose from the bank. The greater the
swell factor, the more dipper loads will be needed
to move a given bank volume of material.
Conversely, with today’s larger dippers, we are
noticing a slight compaction of material as it
flows into the dipper. The best way to tell what
weight is actually going into the dipper is to under
load the truck with, say, two or three full passes,
then weigh the truck to get an average dipper load
weight.

Comparative Weights and Swell Factors

of Some Common Materials

Material Weight Specific Swell

Lbs./Cu. Yd. Gravity Factor
(Bank)
Anthracite Coal 2200 1.31 35%
Bituminous Coal 1900 1.13 35%
Copper Ore 3800 2.25 35%
Iron Ore 6672 3.94 25-60%
Sandstone 4140 2.45 40-60%
Taconite 6210 3.68 70%

Chart 4 The swell factor accounts for the voids or empty space introduced between fragmented
pieces of material when it is blasted or broken loose from the bank.

Page 13
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

Rated and Maximum

Suspended Loads
In addition to the weight of the material in the
dipper, a shovel must also lift the weight of the
dipper itself. Thus, for a given model and configu-
ration, a shovel is rated or limited by the sum of
the dipper weight and payload or suspended load.
The rated suspended load (RSL) is the weight of a
fully loaded dipper plus the weight of the dipper
itself and its associated components. The maxi-
mum suspended load (MSL) limitation may be
based on any number of factors inherent in a spe-
cific shovel model, including structural or thermal
limits, or a combination of limits.

Bail Pull
A shovel’s ability to lift the dipper and provide
adequate cutting force is a function of bail pull
and attachment geometry. Bail pull is the force
exerted by the hoist ropes on the dipper.

Conclusion
While dipper size, suspended load ratings, and
bail pull were once the dominant factors in dipper
selection, other key considerations, including
those presented here, have earned their rightful
place in understanding dipper performance. An
appreciation of the principles at work and how
they impact performance can only help improve
productivity and reduce the mine’s operating cost
per ton (tonne).

Page 14
4 - Operating Procedures
and Techniques
Due to the wide variety of mining operations and
conditions, this section cannot cover every appli-
cation or task. Instead, it is intended to suggest
general operating procedures and techniques.
Specific procedures will vary from mine to mine.
Before operating any shovel, the operator should
be aware of not only the equipment’s capabilities
but also of its limitations. Operating beyond the
machine’s design limits can create safety risks,
degrade productivity, damage equipment and
property, increase maintenance costs, and other-
wise impair performance and productivity.
Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s operating
instructions and perform all the pre-start service
checks and procedures to ensure that the shovel is
properly maintained and is in good working order
before each shift.
Figure 12 The digging cycle consists of four distinct phases. The dumping phase is shown here.
The Digging Cycle
The digging cycle consists of four distinct phases:
digging, swinging, dumping and returning
(Figure 12).
The digging phase involves crowding the dip-
per into the bank, hoisting to fill the dipper, and
retracting the dipper from the bank. A proper bal-
ance of crowd and hoist forces is essential to effi-
cient and productive digging.
The swinging phase begins when the dipper
clears the bank vertically and horizontally. During
this phase, the operator controls the position of the
dipper through a planned swing path and dump
height, until the dipper is positioned over the haul
unit.
Page 15
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
The dumping phase begins before the loaded
dipper passes over the end of the haul unit and fin-
ishes when the swing motion stops and reverses
direction to return the dipper to the bank. During
the dumping phase, the operator trips open the
dipper door to dump the load while controlling the
dump height to avoid injury to mine personnel and
damage to the truck bed, especially during the
first load.
The returning phase includes swinging the
upper structure back to the bank and lowering the
dipper into the tuck position to close the dipper
door, engaging the door latch.
Digging Motions
The basic digging cycle motions are crowd, hoist
and swing. In addition to proper positioning of the
shovel, the crowd and hoist motions are particular-
ly critical to the shovel’s digging efficiency and
cycle times. Safe and efficient digging, however,
requires coordinated control of the crowd, hoist
and swing motions in a smooth-flowing sequence
of steps.
Crowd
The crowd motion provides the thrust required to
force the dipper into the bank and the dipper teeth
under enough material to make effective use of the
available bail pull. Proper adjustment of the
crowd/retract limit switches must be maintained at
all times.
Today’s generally wider dippers and lip geometry
are designed to slice through banks rather than
plow through them. The crowd motion should be
used to control the depth of the cut. Penetration
should not be so deep as to stall the shovel or lift
the entire bank. The depth of penetration should
allow the material to be shaved off.
Adequate fill factors cannot be achieved without
adequate penetration, yet excessive penetration
will cause hoist speed to slow or stall. A good
operator will monitor this and keep the dipper
moving near peak power.
Page 16
Once the dipper stalls in the bank, momentum is
lost and cycle times can increase dramatically –
up to 50% or more. New technologies such as
P&H’s OptiDig™ are designed to prevent stalling
by sensing an imminent stall condition and auto-
matically adjusting the crowd position.
Hoist
The hoist is the tensioning of the hoist ropes to
pull the dipper up through the bank. The type and
weight of the material being extracted affects both
the hoist and swing motions.
Equipment damage may result if the hoist rope
equalizer or equalizers are hoisted into the boom
point sheaves. Maintain control of the dipper posi-
tion at all times to avoid contact between the
equalizer(s) and boom point.
If it is necessary to suspend a load while waiting
for a haul unit, bring the hoist motion to a com-
plete stop, then set the hoist brake.
WARNING: Releasing the hoist brakes will result
in some dipper movement, which can cause injury,
death or property damage. Use the hoist controls
to control the movement of the dipper.
BOOM JACKING occurs when excessive crowd
force is applied without a proportional hoist force
being applied simultaneously (Figure 13).
As the boom is drawn back, the motion can cause
the boom’s support pendants to slacken. As the
boom returns to its normal position, the falling
boom being caught by the suspension system can
produce enormous stresses, causing the pendants
to stretch or snap, creating further stress on the
boom, hoist ropes, dipper and dipper handle.
Experienced operators develop a sixth sense for
the proper balance of crowd and hoist forces, but
even the most seasoned operator can jack the
boom without being aware of it. Signs of boom
jackings often include extreme wear on the bottom
of the dipper and ground engaging tools.
A relatively minor boom jacking, sometimes
referred to as a “Stage 1” incident, may go unde-
 4 - OPERATING PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES

Begin the swing motion when the dipper has

completely cleared the bank horizontally and
vertically. Accelerate smoothly through the first
half of the swing arc, then begin to decelerate.
Acceleration and deceleration are proportional to
the swing controller movement.
To minimize damage to the haulage unit, the dip-
per should be positioned at a height where the dip-
per door swing just clears the unit or the top of the
load. To minimize damage with today’s larger dip-
pers and deeper truck boxes, position the dipper in
the truck bed with the front of the dipper close to
the far side so that the opening door will not strike
the near side.
To secure the upper structure from rotation, bring
it to a complete stop using the swing controller,
then set the swing brake.

Propel
Figure 13 Boom jacking is the result of exces- The propel motion is used to relocate the shovel
sive crowd force applied during the hoist phase for its next cut as well as to penetrate further into
of the digging cycle. the bank. Planning ahead to relocate the shovel for

tected because of the shovel’s constant movement Start

Accelerate
during the digging cycle. But frequent severe
Smoothly
“Stage 2” boom jackings can cause serious dam-
age to the shovel.
Various types of shovel controls such as P&H’s
Automatic Boom Soft Setdown (ABSS) are
designed to protect against boom jacking. But it is Decelerate
also the operator’s responsibility to use the skills
and cautions necessary to prevent such incidents
from occurring. Repeated boom jacking of even
minor intensity can induce stress cracks in the
boom and excessive wear on front end compo-
nents, requiring costly repair and mainte-
nance service.

Swing
The swing motion involves rotating the
entire upper structure until the dipper is over
the haul unit. The weight of the material in
the dipper affects machine stability as well
as the rate of swing acceleration and decel- Figure 14 The weight in the dipper affects shovel stability
eration (Figure 14). as well as the rate of acceleration and deceleration.

Page 17
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
each successive cut saves time and boosts overall
productivity. Slewing the tracks in preparation for
a move to the next cut helps simplify moves as
well as reduce relocation time, as explained
below.
By saving just two minutes per operating hour in
propelling, a 30 cubic yard shovel could conserva-
tively load one more 170-ton truck per hour,
adding 4000 tons of material movement per day.
With larger capacity dippers and trucks, the gains
in productivity are proportionally greater.
Digging Sequence
Planning an efficient digging sequence depends to
a large degree on the loading method employed.
Whether using the single back-up or double back-
up method, however, a few general principles
apply.
Whenever possible, dig material on the same side
as the truck being loaded, keeping the swing angle
as narrow as possible. A typical digging sequence
Figure 15 A typical digging sequence for the double back-up method of loading. Note that the
maximum swing angle is 90° when digging on the same side as the truck being loaded.
Page 18
for the double back-up method is shown in Figure
15, but other sequences may also be appropriate.
For example, it may be more beneficial to reverse
the sequence, starting the first cut directly in front
of the shovel, and working toward the haul unit
rather than away from it.
Continue digging until full extension (not over-
extension) is required to get adequate penetration,
then reposition the shovel for the next cut.
Additional penetration into the bank will reduce
the overall number of shovel moves required, but
this strategy can make positioning the haul unit
unmanageable. Face clean-up of adjacent cuts will
also be difficult.
When the shovel moves forward for the last time,
prepare to relocate by slewing the crawlers 45°
away from the next cut. Also have the cable crew
ready the trail cable for the move. This method of
turning the tracks reduces the amount of turning
and steering and the time required for the move.
Simply propel in reverse, then square up the tracks
with the face of the next cut and propel forward to
position the shovel, as shown in Figure 16.
Maximum
Swing
Minimum
Swing
 4 - OPERATING PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES

The single back-up method is Material for last truck load

taken from this area
effective where the digging
area is restricted. It is also well
suited to low bench heights due
to the need to relocate trucks
more frequently. The key disad-
vantages are that the shovel can
load from only one side,
changeover times for inbound
and outbound trucks are longer,
and the swing angles needed to
load trucks exceed 90° for a Last truck
load prior
significant portion of the dig- to shovel
ging. move
Shovel tracks
Although productivity is reduced already turned
due to longer cycle times, the single back- through 45°
up method can usually accommodate irregularly
shaped bench faces more readily than the double
back-up method. In addition, the single back-up
method allows selective mining of specific pock- Have cable ready
for the move
ets of material to facilitate control of ore grad-
ing. Driver skill requirements are also less
demanding because the shovel operator can use
the waiting time to position the dipper to help
drivers spot their trucks. Figure 16 Slewing the tracks facilitates faster, easier shov-
el relocation with less turning and steering required than
propelling straight back.
Precautions - Digging Do’s
and Don’ts
DO maintain a clean and level pit floor.
Conditions underfoot affect cycle time,
machine life and overall operating costs.
Clean the floor before moving the
shovel into the bank. If needed, pro-
pel backward a short distance to
remove material in front of the
crawlers and carbody.
DON’T overextend the dipper
(Figure 17). Attempting to dig
with the dipper handle extended
beyond the boom point dissipates
the available bail pull when the
hoist force opposes the crowd Figure 17 Extending the dipper beyond the boom point sheave dissipates
force. On newer shovels with the available bail pull. The maximum bail pull is provided when the hoist
longer booms, overextending can ropes are in a vertical line with the boom point.

Page 19
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

increase the risk of structural

fatigue in the boom.
DO engage the bank with the
dipper at a point approximately
in line under the boom point.
The rise of the dipper should be
as vertical as possible. Proper
engagement results in maxi-
mum force in line with the cut.
DON’T dig so close to the
front of the shovel that the dip-
per strikes the crawlers, side
frames or the underside of the
boom. The crawler shoes and
lower boom plating can sustain
extensive damage by dipper
impact.
DON’T “sweep,” i.e., swing
the upper structure with the
dipper in the lowered position
(Figure 18).
DON’T attempt to lift the
entire bank. Material must be
shaved or peeled off the bank.
DON’T reach for haulage units
or material. The crowd motion
should be controlled at the
beginning of the pass and as
the dipper is raised through the
bank. If necessary, move closer
to the working face so the
major portion of digging is per-
formed under the boom point
or slightly beyond.
Figure 18 “Sweeping” the dipper can damage the dipper and front
DON’T crowd or retract the end machinery if any large rocks are encountered.
dipper handle beyond its oper-
ating limits. Approaching the limits at high speeds DON’T overcrowd or jack the boom.
can cause the handle to overrun the limits. In turn, Overcrowding is the use of excessive crowd thrust
this will cause the limit switches to stop the while the dipper is engaged in the bank, resulting
crowd/retract motion until the control is manually in jacking of the boom. Repeated or excessive
placed in the opposite direction. jacking stretches the suspension cables and leads
to premature failure of related components.

Page 20
 4 - OPERATING PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
DO avoid stall conditions at all times. The effec-
tive life of the hoist machinery and hoist cables, as
well as digging productivity, depend on the opera-
tor’s skill in avoiding stall conditions. In high pro-
duction environments where the shovel never has
to wait for the truck, stalling can result in substan-
tial decreases in productivity.
DO carefully control the desired depth of cut and
the hoist power demands. Hard and very hard dig-
ging conditions often require hoist and crowd
motions to maneuver around oversized and firmly
lodged obstructions in the bank rather than trying
to lift the entire bank (Figure 19).
DO watch closely for broken teeth, adapters or
other foreign material entering the dipper.
Extensive crusher damage and downtime will
result if any sizable metal object is hauled and
dumped into the crusher. Inbound truck drivers are
in the best position to see if foreign material drops
into the dipper. All drivers need to watch for any
such occurrences and alert the shovel operator to
stop until the item can be removed.
4100A
CL ROTATION
Figure 19 Hard and very hard digging conditions often require hoist and crowd motions to pull over-
sized and firmly lodged obstructions away from the bank or to maneuver the dipper around them.
DON’T operate the dipper with a missing tooth or
adapter. Operating with a missing tooth causes
severe wear of the dipper lip and/or tooth adapter,
and will degrade digging effectiveness. A missing
tooth adapter will cause excessive wear on the lip,
resulting in rapid loss of the fit between the
adapter and lip.
DO avoid digging on a slope whenever possible,
especially on a down slope. Digging on a slope
increases the load on the roller circle and struc-
tures, resulting in premature wear and fatigue
damage.
DO position the teeth and lip into the bank with
actual digging taking place in a zone slightly
behind or in front of a vertical line through the
boom point.
DO manipulate the controllers to engage the bank.
Hoist the dipper until it is full. When the dipper is
full, return the controller to neutral and retract the
dipper slightly. Never begin the swing motion
until the dipper clears the bank vertically and hori-
zontally.
Page 21
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

DON’T leave operator’s coop with the dipper sus-

pended. If you must leave the coop, lower the dip-
per to the ground first.

Load Spills
WARNING: Load spills can cause severe injury,
death or property damage. Never swing or suspend
a load over personnel, trail cables, related electri-
cal components or other equipment or vehicles.
Establish a method of loading haulage units to pre-
vent swinging the loaded dipper over people, truck
cabs or other equipment. Avoid any abrupt move-
ment that can cause spillage. Never propel with a
load in the dipper. When propelling, the dipper
door must be open and the handle extended.

Page 22
5 - Ground
Engaging Equipment
Selection and use of ground engaging equipment
designed specifically for a given digging applica-
tion is essential to peak dipper performance. With
the vast array of types, shapes and sizes of dipper
teeth, adapters, lips, shrouds and related hardware
to choose from, the dipper manufacturer or dis-
tributor is the best source of specific equipment
recommendations.
Tooth Assemblies
A tooth assembly consists of a system of inter-
locking components that include the tooth point,
tooth adapter, a wedge and ‘C’ clamp or spool,
and a pin to hold the tooth to the adapter (Figure
20). For hard, very hard and abrasive digging con-
ditions, the assembly usually also includes a wear
cap.
Tooth assemblies are offered in a variety of sizes
or classes, typically WH6, WH8, WH10, WH11
and WH12. The tooth adapters are mechanically
attached to the dipper lip.
A precision fit between the lip and tooth adapter
is essential to minimize or eliminate lip
rework and the grinding that is some-
Pin
Tooth Point
Figure 20 A typical dipper tooth system
times necessary to fit-up tooth hardware. If the
tooth adapter fit is too loose, the adapter will
thrash about, damaging the lip fit and causing the
adapter to break prematurely.
The “WH,” or Whisler®, sizes were developed to
help standardize the fit between tooth adapters and
dipper lips. Generally speaking, dipper lip thick-
ness and, therefore the Whisler fit, increases with
dipper capacity (Chart 5).
NOTE: Avoid using a mix-and-match or will-
fit approach for tooth point replacements.
The fit between each manufacturer’s tooth
points and adapters is proprietary. In short, it
is generally not possible to mix one manufac-
turer’s tooth points with another manufactur-
er’s adapters.
Tooth adapters of the same size from any
supplier, e.g., WH10, are designed to fit any
manufacturer’s dipper lip of the corresponding
thickness.
Wear Cap
Wedge
Tooth Adapter
Page 23
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

Points are made in a variety of shapes Typical

and lengths to fit particular adapters Tooth Assembly Dipper Size
and applications. General purpose Size (Cu. Yd.)
points often have a slim penetration
profile combined with other design WH-8 10-24 yd
features for use in applications rang- WH-10 25-60
ing from easy to hard digging.
Appropriate applications may include WH-12 50-75
road building, overburden removal,
and mining of various materials. Chart 5 This chart shows approximate tooth assembly sizes
General purpose points may also required for different dipper capacities. Note that dipper lip
incorporate features such as self sharp- thickness increases with dipper capacity, but shovel size and
ening designs. power and digging conditions also influence hardware choic-
es. For example an 80 cubic yard coal dipper may not need
Points designed for digging rock pro-
WH12.
vide high strength and long wear prop-
erties with materials, construction and
sizes tailored to specific applications. Maintain A Tight Fit
Point life depends largely on the application and When a mechanically attached tooth adapter is
hardness of material. An 18-inch (457 mm) point first installed, the wedge must be driven in tight
used in copper mining may last for weeks while with a hammer. After approximately six to 12
the same point used in taconite may last only eight hours of operation, inspect and re-tighten the
hours. wedge. This procedure should be repeated again
after 48 to 72 hours of additional operation, or as
instructed by the manufacturer (Figure 21). Check
that all the clearances and bearing surfaces are
Installing A Tooth Point within the manufacturer's prescribed limits.
Safety First! As the wedge is driven in, the bottom edge will
Removal and installation of tooth points and protrude beyond the bottom of the lip. Burn off
adapters demand adherence to all appropriate any excess after each re-tightening, or heat and
safety precautions to avoid personal injury. bend the tang back to secure it in place. If the top
of the wedge is flush with the top of the lip,
Wear the appropriate personal protective
equipment, including a hard hat, safety
glasses, steel-toed work shoes and
work gloves. Perform a
pre-work tool inspec-
tion and use only tools
that are in proper
working order. Keep
non-essential people
out of the work area.

Figure 21 To maintain tight fitting tooth assembly components, follow the

manufacturer's instructions for checking and re-tightening.

Page 24
 5 - GROUND ENGAGING EQUIPMENT

replace the wedge with

the next larger size.
Bearing surfaces of
adapter noses and dip-
per lips eventually
wear from the loading
forces placed on them.
Gradually, the parts
loosen, increasing the
loading forces on the
adapter and lip. Figure 22 Wear caps help protect tooth assemblies in the areas of highest
Unless preventive wear. They are typically used in hard and very hard digging applications.
maintenance proce- Various styles of wear caps are available.
dures are followed,
parts can break or fall off. midpoint and lower part of the wing. Common
shroud types include ‘C’ clamp or spool-and-
A broken tooth that falls into the dipper and finds wedge styles, and pin-and-plug designs (Figure
its way to the crusher can bring the crusher to a 23).
grinding halt, causing serious damage and costly
production losses. To avoid loss of points in Lip Shrouds should be replaced before they wear
extreme work conditions, match the pin type to through completely to ensure adequate protection
the point. Always use new pins with new points. of the lip and wing shroud bearing surfaces. When
replacing lip shrouds, all shroud locking devices
(worn ‘C’ clamps, spools, wedges, etc.) should
also be replaced.
Wear Caps
As the name suggests, wear caps are designed
to bear the brunt of the high wear that occurs
where the leading edge of the tooth adapter
meets the base of the tooth (Figure 22). Some
adapters are designed to have wear caps on
both the top and the bottom sides of the
adapter, while other styles may use a cap only
on the top side.

Wear Shrouds
Wear shrouds protect the lip and wing base
metal from wear and possible failure due to
repeated or improper welding near the dipper’s
leading edges. This is where wear and shock
loads are greatest.
Figure 23 Wing shrouds protect the edges of the
Wing Shrouds may be used in the upper, dipper in hard and abrasive digging conditions.

Page 25
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

Heel Bands are available to protect the corners

and intermediate sections of the dipper heel. In
highly abrasive and high impact materials, the
heel band is covered with a thick replaceable cast-
ing or plate. In the case of high abrasiveness, the
preferred heel band thickness is approximately 3
to 5 inches (76-127 mm).
In less abrasive conditions, the heel band may
vary from a heavy, thru-hardened casting or plate,
to carbide over a layer of weld-clad wear plate. In
many mines with high-impact material, heavy
plate or cast heel bands are preferred. All heel
bands are welded in place.
Heel shrouds should be checked routinely and
replaced before wear occurs to the parent metal of
the front. It is often more efficient to install the
shrouds with the dipper upside down.
Different operating conditions will produce differ-
ing wear patterns and wear rates on the corner
heel bands. In some digging conditions, corner
heel band service life may be extended by adding
a piece of wear plate to the high wear area.

If the heel band wears rapidly when a new dipper

goes to work, the pitch brace length will need
adjustment, as explained in the topic, “Pitch Brace
Length, Tooth Angle and the Dipper Rake Angle”
located in Section 2.

Page 26
 6 - Dipper Maintenance

Regular maintenance helps ensure long dipper life
and maximum performance and productivity.
Inspection and maintenance intervals are typically
every 250 hours.
Begin with an overall inspection of the dipper
body for structural wear and cracks (Figure 24).
• Wear plate worn through to parent metal over
10% or more of the area covered
• Bushings worn through to the parent
structural bore
• Pins worn to half their original diameter or to
3/4 inch (19 mm) or less

Check the pins, bushings, trip mechanisms and
snubbers for excessive wear. Repair, replace or
adjust the mechanisms as needed, according to the
manufacturer's specifications. As a guideline,
excessive wear may be defined as follows:
Operate and inspect the latch bar to see that it
engages properly with the latch keeper. Engage-
ment should be no less than 3/4 inch and no more
than 1 inch (14 mm-25 mm), or as specified by
the manufacturer.

Back Connection Pins

Bail

Door

Bail Pin

Heel Band

Wing Shroud

Front

Lip Shroud
Lip Point
Adapter

Figure 24 Dipper Components.

Page 27
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

Most dipper door latch mechanisms include shims For friction disc type snubbers, check the discs for
on the latch bar to allow adjustment of the door wear. Replace the discs when they are worn to a
latch assembly. As the latch bar wears, the shims thickness of 1/8 inch (3.175 mm), or as specified
must be removed to provide clearance within the by the manufacturer.
range specified by the manufacturer. Refer to the
manufacturer’s instructions for removal.
Also check the latch bar wear plate for clearance. Primary Wear Areas
The nominal clearance between the latch bar and
Primary wear areas should be inspected regularly
wear plate should be 1/4 inch (6.35 mm), or as
and repaired or replaced as needed (Figure 25).
specified by the manufacturer. If the clearance
These include the leading edge of the dipper shell,
reaches the maximum allowable tolerance, or if
the outside corners of the lip and front, and the
the latch bar starts rubbing on the dipper door,
leading edge of the protective wings. Each of
replace the wear plates.
these high wear areas can be protected with wear-
Check the dipper door snubber adjustment. A reg- resistant bar or any easily welded material.
ular check for excessive slamming of the door and
Maintain the shroud fit areas of the lip by weld
adjustment as needed will help slow the door
build-up of the bearing pads. Use templates as a
swing and prevent damage of the dipper due to the
guide for welding repairs. Maintain proper clear-
slamming of the door. Installation of a hydraulic
ance between the front of the shroud keyslot and
snubber can substantially reduce snubber mainte-
the front of the lip keyslot, as specified by the
nance.
manufacturer.

General Outside
Wear Plate
A replaceable wear plate is nor-
mally added to the corners of the
dipper body and upper band
(box section under the lip on
most dippers). This plate only
needs to protect the high wear
areas and only needs to be thick
enough to last from one dipper
relining or restoration to the next
(Figure 26).
The door usually includes pro-
tective wear plate on the area of
the door that drags through the
mined material as the dipper
leaves the truck to return to the
bank. This normally encompass-
High Wear
es the lower one-third of the
door. Here, too, it is necessary
Figure 25 Primary wear areas should be inspected regularly. only to make the plate thick

Page 28

Figure 26 Replaceable outside wear plates.
enough to last from one rebuild to the next. Any
excess weight will increase loads on the snubber
and add to snubber maintenance. Excess weight
also increases loads on the whole machine and
reduces swing speeds.
Inside Wear Liners
Replaceable wear liners are normally
added to the lower inside of the dipper,
but coverage may extend from the
lower one-third to the top of the dipper
depending on the type of material being
mined, its abrasiveness and its level of
impact on the dipper (Figure 27).
There are several grades of wear plate
hardness that are used inside a dipper.
If wear abrasiveness is not a factor but
impact to the liners is great, a thru-
hardened alloy plate of 360 to 500
BHN should be used. If digging pro-
duces both high abrasion and high
impact, it is best to use high hardness
thru-hardened alloy plate.
6 - DIPPER MAINTENANCE
Where there is mostly high abrasion, carbide
overlay weld-clad material of approximately
600 BHN should be used. Also, when there is
a weight restriction on the number of liners
that can be used, the higher the hardness the
better.
After the initial set of wear plates wears
through and the wear patterns are visible, the
wear patterns can be used to guide the instal-
lation of replacement wear plate in such a
manner that it will all wear out at the same
time. Use thicker plate where wear is great-
est, and less thickness where less wear
occurs.
For example, if there is more wear on the
inside liner by the door, make the liner thick-
er in that area. If the sides don’t wear very
much, make the plate thin enough so that it
will wear through at the same time as the rest
of the plates.
Using thinner plate where possible will help keep
suspended load weights to a minimum, and will
allow easier swing motion and easier cutting
through the bank. It will also allow for more effi-
cient wear plate maintenance and replacements.
Figure 27 Typical inside wear plate in a dipper.
Page 29
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
Additional Wear Areas -
Latch Mechanism
Latch Bar
Manganese latch bar ends can be restored by
welding and grinding them smooth. Alloy steel
latch bars can be restored with welding but it
requires proper pre-heating and considerable skill
to do the job successfully.
Because they work together, the latch bar and
latch keeper insert wear at about the same rate
(Figure 28). When the end of the latch bar wears
off and needs to be replaced, replace the latch
keeper insert at the same time.
Latch Keeper
The latch keeper supports and holds the latch
keeper insert in place. Most latch keeper breakage
occurs when the latch keeper strikes the crawler
shoes. The shovel operator must therefore exercise
care when tucking the dipper back to start a new
digging cycle. Latch keeper damage may also
Pinless Latch
Mechanism
Latch Bar
Latch Keeper
Insert
Insert Bolts
Figure 28 Typical dipper door assembly.
Page 30
occur if the operator hits a large rock when clean-
ing up the pit floor around the machine.
In all types of material, the latch keeper area is
typically protected with thru-hardened alloy plate.
Inserts must maintain square edges (90°) for con-
tinued satisfactory latch operation. The latch bar
may be burned off and adjusted as described
before, or the end of the bar may be hard surfaced
as needed. Maintain the clearance between the
door and the bottom of the dipper with the latch
bar engaged in the keeper to ensure that the latch
mechanism will work properly.
Latch Keeper Insert
Latch keeper insert bolts must be torqued to 100%
of proof load, i.e. the maximum load that can be
put on the capscrews (see the manufacturer’s ser-
vice manual for specifications).
When the insert is worn on one side, it may be
removed, flipped end-over-end and reinstalled
with the unworn end providing a new engagement
Latch Lever
 6 - DIPPER MAINTENANCE

surface with the latch bar. The insert must be sup-
ported at the bottom opposite side of the latch bar
or the insert will break from repeated strikes with
the latch bar (Figure 28).
Tip: When changing the latch keeper
insert, be sure to clean its surfaces and
torque the bolts properly. Replace the bolts
with new SAE Grade 8 bolts when chang-
ing.
Latch Lever
When the latch bar does not engage properly and
all shims have been used, it’s a sign that the latch
lever has worn away at the pivot point and ful-
crum point. Proper engagement can be restored
with welding build-up and grinding. The hole at
the end of the lever where the chain or cable
attaches will elongate over time, but it can be
restored.
Note: When cracks appear along the
edges of the lever, it’s time to replace the
lever.
Pinless Latch Mechanism
To compensate for latch bar wear on a pinless
latch mechanism, make the following adjustments
(Figure 29):
• Move the latch bar to the top of the pivot box,
away from the shims. Hold the lever clear by
inserting a pin or bolt through the top slot in
the front of the pivot box.
• Remove the number of shims from the pivot
box necessary to obtain the required latch bar
engagement. Each shim removed increases
the engagement by about 1/2" (13 mm). Do
not remove the bottom shim as it prevents the
lever from coming out of the pivot box.
• The latch bar inserts located in the door
guides should be checked for wear and
replaced if they allow the latch bar to rub
against the door itself.
• Lubricate the wear inserts each time the
machine and the dipper are lubricated to
ensure a free working mechanism.

Latch Mechanism Adjustment • Shims removed from the bottom must be

Latch bar engagement should be 3/4 in. - 1 in. inserted in the top part of the pivot box to
(19-25 mm), or as recommended by the manufac- keep the retainer bolt straight.
turer. Less engagement may cause the bar to
slip out. More engagement may cause diffi-
culty in adjusting and maintaining the door Pin
and trip mechanism. Latch
Pivot Bar
After the dipper is installed, adjust the trip Box
chain or cable. The latch lever should rest
on the forward or lower end of the latch
lever guide when the latch bar is fully
engaged in the latch keeper. Shims

Adjust the stroke of the trip mechanism so

the latch lever does not strike the back or
top end of the lever guide slot with the full
force of the trip mechanism; otherwise the
lever or shackle may be damaged.

Figure 29 Pinless latch mechanism adjustment.

Page 31
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS

Lip Rebuilding and Restoration
(General Cast Lip)
Lip restoration is required when the fits for tooth
adapters, lip protectors and wing shrouds wear
out, or when fatigue cracks or broken pieces are
evident. If the ‘C’ clamp and wedge can’t provide
adequate holding power to fasten the adapter to
the lip, the worn lip can be cut off and replaced
with a new one. Manufacturers’ gauges are avail-
able to check the fits.
build-up of the bearing pads. Templates and
guides are available for most bearing pads.
Snubbers
If the dipper door slams and bangs shut, the snub-
bers are not working properly. Excessive slam-
ming of the door more than doubles the fatigue
stress on the door components and welds, requir-
ing major repairs and rebuilding of the door in just
a few months or less.

Whisler Lip Adapters Snubbers should be adjusted so that the door does
Bearing pads must be restored periodically, not slam when it closes. If the snubbers are too
according to the manufacturers’ recommendations. tight, it will be difficult or impossible to close the
The typical practice is to use repair templates and door.
gauges provided by the dipper manufacturer or
ground engaging equipment supplier. Some ven- Hydraulic Snubber
dors can also supply guidelines on when to restore Friction disc snubbers bolted together and loaded
fit pads. with Belleville washers or elastomer pads can be
replaced with the patented P&H SnubRite®
If the gap between the template and the rear back- hydraulic snubber (Figure 30). The SnubRite
ing of the pad exceeds the allowable tolerance, requires no adjustment or maintenance other than
weld build-up and grinding of the area are
required.
If the adapter pad wear exceeds its tol-
erances, determine the areas to be
rebuilt. Normally, only the leading edge
of the pad requires building up and
grinding, but it may also be necessary to
build up and grind the back.
Also check the keyslot for wear and
rebuild as needed using the template to
determine the forward edge of the
keyslot location.

Shrouds and Lip Protectors

Check the tightness of shroud locks
during routine service checks. Wedges
that work loose can lead to premature
failure or loss of shrouds. Wear is to
be expected between parts over the
life of the dipper lip but the amount of
wear will vary with the application.
Maintain the shroud fit areas by weld Figure 30 Patented P&H SnubRite hydraulic snubber

Page 32

periodic inspections to ensure proper operation.
Belleville Snubber
After the snubber has worked at least eight hours,
it may need adjustment (Figure 31). To increase
the snubbing force, tighten the center pivot bolt
hex nut. To decrease the snubbing force, loosen
the nut. After this initial adjustment, the snubber
should not need further adjustment until the lin-
ings need to be replaced.
Because Belleville washers can lose their adjust-
ment quickly, snubbing action should be checked
during every preventive maintenance period or
twice per month, and the nut should be tightened
as needed.
Snubber linings should last four to six months,
depending on the application. Linings should be
replaced when they wear to less than 1/8 inch
Belleville washers
or elastomer pads
Figure 31 Disc snubber assembly
6 - DIPPER MAINTENANCE
(3 mm) thick. Note that improper stacking of
Belleville springs may result in a loss of snubbing
force or damage to the friction discs.
Disc type snubbers generate a lot of heat, which
can shorten washer life. When the washers can no
longer be properly tightened, replace all the wash-
ers. Broken washers are evidence that washer life
is gone.
Elastomer Snubber
The latest disc-type snubbers have elastomer
donuts in place of Belleville washers to exert pres-
sure on the discs (see Figure 31).
Kits are available to convert Belleville style snub-
bers to the elastomer style.
As with Belleville snubbers, the elastomer style
should be checked periodically for snubbing
action and the nut re-tightened to increase the load
on the disc.
Friction
Discs
Page 33
Page 34
7 - Dipper Changeout

Be sure that the mechanics and shovel operator

A Standard Operating have radio or visual communication prior to start-
Procedure (SOP) for Dipper ing. Use only one signal person to direct the oper-
ator.
Changeouts
Following a prescribed, step-by-step procedure Be sure that the shovel is parked with ample clear-
helps provide a safe and efficient means of repair- ance to the bank.
ing or replacing dippers. Since different mines use
different methods, the one below is offered only Preparations
as a guideline. Always follow all applicable mine Park the shovel on level ground and with the dip-
safety rules and regulations. per flat; the dipper teeth and heel band must con-
tact the ground (Figure 32).
Equipment Required Rack out the dipper trip mechanism.
• Boom truck and approved man-basket
WARNING: Clear the area of unnecessary per-
• Crane sufficient to move the dipper and dipper
sonnel. Alert all others that the shovel’s power
components
will remain on and that the shovel will be moved
• Tools to remove and install large pins throughout the changeout operation.
• Extension ladder and step ladder
• Welder
• Two slings and two shackles with
ample rated capacity to lift the dip-
per, bail and related components

Note: Specific sizes and capacities

of equipment required for dipper
changes will vary according to the
size of the dipper. Be sure to verify
that all lifting equipment and acces-
sories have sufficient capacity for
the job at hand.

Precautions
The dipper must not be lifted off the
ground once the bail is removed from
the dipper and the cable is connected to
the bail and stick.
Figure 32 Removal of the dipper requires careful preparation.

Page 35
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
Remove all keepers from the following:
• Inside pitch braces;
• Inside of dipper and door pins;
• Outside of bail pins;
• Snubber arms on door.
Tack weld spacers on the following:
• Inside of dipper and door pins;
• Bail pins.
Step 1
With the hydraulic jackhammer, remove both
pitch brace pins. Some crowd and hoist move-
ment may be required.
Remove the snubber arm pins from the door.
Step 2
Attach two slings, doubled, from the lifting lugs
on the torsion box. Shackles on the bail and box
should be of ample capacity for the lift.
Step 3
Crowd the handle out to its maximum reach and
set the dipper down with slight tension on the
hoist ropes. The bail should be almost under the
point sheaves.
With the hydraulic jackhammer, pound the bail
pins clear of the dipper, but still hanging on the
inside of the bail.
Step 4
Retract the handle in until the dipper is level.
Step 5
Take up the hoist ropes until there is slight tension
on the attached cables to prevent the handle from
swinging back when the pins are removed.
With the hydraulic jackhammer, pound the
door/stick-to-bucket pins out as far as the hammer
can reach.
Hook on to pins from outside with boom truck or
equivalent and pull the pins out until they are clear
Page 36
of the handle. Some crowd, hoist and swing
motion may be required until the pins are loose.
Step 6
Lock out the dipper trip mechanism.
Remove the dipper trip rope from the door.
Step 7
Crowd the handle in until it is clear of the dipper.
Back away and walk the shovel to the new dipper.
Ensure that the new dipper is sitting level and line
the shovel up with it as close and straight as possi-
ble.
Step 8
With the aid of a rubber tired dozer, line up the
pitch braces and insert the pins.
After the pitch braces have been connected, walk
back and crowd out until the door/handle boxes
line up. With the aid of the dozer, swing, crowd
and hoist slowly until the holes are exactly in line.
Push the pins in with the boom truck.
Step 9
Using the rubber tired dozer, build a ramp about 4
to 5 feet high in front of the dipper.
Drive the dozer up the ramp and, with the blade
up and using the shovel hoist, push the bail in
place until the pinholes line up.
Push the pins in with the boom truck.
Step 10
Replace all the keepers.
Attach the snubber arms and hook-up the dipper
trip cable.
Disconnect the sling from the bail.
8 - Frequently Asked Questions

Mine maintenance, purchasing and operations per- lack of a bail, and because the lugs are connected
sonnel and others, often ask about what they can at the back, the dipper has greater dump height.
do to get greater productivity and service life from The operator must watch carefully when relaxing
their dippers. Below are the answers to some of the ropes; allowing too much slack in the ropes
their most frequently asked questions can cause them to kink or dogleg. In general, the
ropes should have no more slack than to just touch
the back of the boom.
1. What factors affect whether a dipper should A dipper with a
or should not be equipped with a bail? “D” block bail
Normally a bail is used except where dump height has a better
is a problem, i.e. when a relatively small shovel is dump and dig
loading a large truck. A bailless dipper typically height than a
provides four to six feet more dumping height conventional
than a dipper with a bail. bail and equaliz-
er (Figure 35).
A bail-type dipper Again, the oper-
has an equalizer ator must watch Figure 35 P&H Optima Plus
pinned to it with carefully when Dipper with “D” Block bail.
an added pin joint relaxing the ropes.
(Figure 33). This This type of bail is used on P&H OPTIMA® Plus
helps when relax- dippers. It also increases dumping height.
ing the hoist
ropes during
machine shut 2. What are the pros and cons of three-pass
down. This type loading vs. four-pass loading?
Figure 33 Bail-type dipper.
of bail has the
greatest distance from the hoist ropes to the dipper The three-pass method is best for short truck hauls
pin when the equalizer is block-to-block with the of, say, 1/2 mile (0.8 km) from the shovel, and
boom point sheave. when there is very little or no spot time waiting
for trucks. It is also best when the shovel operator
With a bailless dipper, can get a full dipper load (90% or better) with
the equalizer connects each pass and does not have to partial fill the dip-
directly to the lugs on per to fully load the truck. Three-pass loading
the back of the dipper achieves approximately 5% greater production
(Figure 34) . A bailless compared to four-pass loading.
dipper body has
increased structural On the down side, three-pass loading usually
strength and rigidity to requires larger shovels and can be very hard on
compensate for the truck frames. Lost production can occur if the
Figure 34 Bailless dipper.

Page 37
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
trucks are underloaded in weight or overfilled
with large rocks spilling onto the roads.
Truck and shovel operators do not get bored wait-
ing for trucks to be filled. However, truck circuit
times can be affected by queues at the loading and
dumping areas, slower traffic and general conges-
tion in the mine.
When loading with three passes, it’s best that the
shovel operator does not have to dig material, just
load it. When the operator has to dig material, the
four-pass method is better.
Four-pass loading is best for longer haul distances,
say, 1/2 to 3 miles (0.8-4.8 km) from the shovel. It
is a matter of Productivity vs. Distance and Grade.
Truck requirements vary with haul length and pro-
duction can vary as much as 50% depending on
the number of trips per hour each truck can make.
On longer hauls, the production advantage of four-
pass loading is less than three-pass loading on
shorter hauls.
The four-pass method can be very beneficial if
there are enough trucks in the fleet and the shovel
and trucks do not have to wait very long for each
other. Short haul four-pass loading is only margin-
ally more costly per ton than three-pass loading.
Operating costs per ton can be lower with either
method, as long as the maximum number of
trucks possible are deployed.
Infrastructure capacity must also be taken into
account. For example, can the crusher accept and
process additional tonnage of input per hour?
3. When should I replace my dipper?
A dipper should be replaced when fatigue cracks
in the weld joints at the lugs in the back of the
dipper require weld repair from one relining to the
next. Joints will only withstand a certain number
of re-welds.
Page 38
4. When should I replace the lip and/or front
of the dipper?
The dipper lip should be replaced when all the fits
for the tooth adapters have been exhausted and
fatigue cracking is evident. When the lip is badly
worn, the front will be, too. At that point, it will
be less costly to remove the old lip and front and
replace them with a new lip and new front. At the
same time, the dipper size may be adjusted to pro-
vide even-pass loading of trucks.
5. What can I do to improve the life of the
dipper door?
Applying 100% full-
penetration welds and
grinding the surface
smooth whenever and
wherever a fatigue
crack develops in the
door will help extend
door life (Figure 36).
Several enhancement
kits are also available
that can increase the
strength and deflec- Figure 36 Typical dipper
tion of the door door.
under load. Keeping the outside surfaces of the
dipper door free of steps, notches, interruptions
and cracks also helps increase service life.
6. Is there a way to increase the life of the
latch bar so I don't have to replace the
whole latch mechanism each time?
P&H offers a latch bar with a replaceable insert
that slides across the latch keeper insert. When
both inserts are worn, both must be changed for
the latch mechanism to work properly. Both
inserts can be reversed end-over-end to replace the
worn end with the unworn end.

7. My dipper trip chain wears out too fast.
What can I do?
If there is a problem with high wear on the dipper
chain and pendulum, a two-part trip system can be
used. Pin a sheave to the latch bar and dead-end
the cable from the dipper trip drum to the door
structure. No chain is involved. If the cable frays
or breaks, cut off the end and pull out the cable
from the dipper trip drum.
8. Is there a way that I can reinforce my
doors? They really took a beating when the
snubbers were out of adjustment.
Several types of reinforcement can be made:
• Reinforce the latch pivot box with a new sup-
port plate.
• Weld additional cross beams between the
upper and lower door beams.
• Reinforce the latch box area.
• Replace old style pivot boxes with the latest
design.
• Reinforce the hinge area of the door.
• Rebuild the latch box area to accept the latest
style of latch bar guide.
9. My tooth vendor is telling me to use down
pitched tooth adapters to reduce the wear
on the underside of the adapters. Will that
solve the problem?
Tooth vendors sometimes say there is a problem
with the dipper but the problem could be else-
where. When there is very good heel band clear-
ance with the bank and high wear on the bottom
sides of the adapters, the dipper’s leading edge
does not draw into the bank. It is also hard to hold
a grade because the dipper skids across the bank
like a sled. The real problem is that the pitch
braces need to be adjusted to provide the proper
rake angle.
8 - FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
10. How much wear lining should I use on my
dipper?
The lining should only be thick enough in each
area so that when it is time for a relining overhaul,
all the liners are worn out. Having extra thick lin-
ers where they are not needed increases the swing
time and Rated Suspended Load.
11. How can I organize my dippers? I have 12
of the same kind and size but can't tell
them apart.
P&H dippers built since 1988 are serialized with a
five-digit code on the back of the door to the left
of the pivot box. The same number is welded to
the dipper back in between the lugs and is also
stamped on the dipper nameplate. For older dip-
pers still working in the field, numbers can be
established. The best time to obtain and install
serial numbers is at major overhaul or relining of
the dipper.
12. Does P&H manufacture dippers for shov-
els other than the P&H brand?
P&H built over 375 dippers between 1987 and
2000, some of which were manufactured for other
brands of equipment.
13. What is the difference between a cast lip
dipper and a plate lip dipper?
The difference between cast and plate lip dippers
is the type of duty in which the dipper operates. A
cast lip is designed for hard rock mining such as
copper, gold and taconite. Plate lip dippers are
used where material is not very abrasive, such as
removing overburden for coal mining.
Page 39
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
14. Why are some dippers fabricated and
others cast?
Dipper structural design today is far different than
even just a few years ago. Full box section con-
struction is a newer, simpler approach that offers
greater torsional rigidity, requires less welding and
is less prone to cracking.
All cast dippers are comprised of 12 to 15 individ-
ual castings that are welded together. This design
approach reduces the handling weight of the
pieces, and makes it easier to alter the dipper’s
capacity by a few cubic yards.
An all cast heavy duty manganese dipper, howev-
er, is typically much heavier than a fabricated
extra heavy duty P&H OPTIMA dipper. This is
because, with the casting process, it is difficult to
control the wall thickness of the plates and lugs
that make up the dipper back. Fabricating provides
greater control for engineering dipper weight. Cast
pieces are also heavier because they have to add
weight for castability (flow, cooling and cleanout).
With the fabricated P&H OPTIMA designs, wear
liners are installed where they are most effective,
instead of basically treating the whole dipper as
one big wear liner. P&H OPTIMA dippers also
use castings where they are needed in high impact
areas and wear areas.
15. How can I improve dipper pin and bushing
life on older dippers?
In the past, P&H has used many combinations and
it was found that the longest life is obtained as
follows:
• For all rotating pin joints, use manganese bush-
ings with induction hardened pins.
• For stationary connections, use hardened steel
bushings with induction-hardened pins.
Page 40
16. How important is pitch brace length?
A dipper’s pitch brace length affects the rake
angle which, in turn, determines how the teeth and
lip separate the material flowing into the dipper.
See “Pitch Brace Length and the Dipper Rake
Angle” in Section 2 for a more complete discus-
sion.
17. How do I know my dipper is of correct
capacity?
Dipper capacity is determined by the working
weight of the dipper plus the average weight of
material in it. Dipper weight plus material weight
equals the shovel's suspended load. As long as the
suspended load is no more than the shovel’s Rated
Suspended Load, the shovel should work all day
without problems. When you consistently load the
shovel beyond its Rated Suspended Load, various
problems will develop, such as boom cracking,
handle fatigue, revolving frame cracking, roller
circle problems, premature track pad failure,
reduced gear life, and motor overheating.
The electric mining shovel industry rates dipper
SAE struck capacity in cubic yards or meters. The
hydraulic and front end loaders used in mines are
rated according to SAE heaped capacity.
To match the shovel’s Rated Suspended Load, we
need to know how much material weight is in the
dipper on average. In the past, dippers generally
filled to between 90 and 95% of SAE struck
capacity. Today, we are seeing dippers consistently
filling to between 105 and 110% of their SAE
struck capacity.
To achieve peak dipper performance, it is very
important that, on average, the dipper’s suspended
load (dipper weight plus the weight of material in
the dipper) does not exceed the shovel’s Rated
Suspended Load. Whether the volume capacity is
110% of SAE struck capacity or 95% of SAE
rated capacity does not matter. It’s the weight of
the material, or tonnage handled, that matters.
Glossary
BAIL — A yoke or spreader hinged to each side
of the dipper.
BAIL PULL — The force exerted by the hoist
ropes to lift the dipper.
BANK — Unblasted material (in situ) that
needs to be removed.
BENCH — A shelf or ridge formed in working
an open excavation on more than one level.
BENCH HEIGHT — The distance from the pit
floor to the top of the bank.
BOOM POINT — Extreme upper point of the
boom which holds the boom point sheaves.
BOOM POINT SHEAVES — Blocks that
guide and hold the hoist rope steady at the boom
point.
CROWD — The motion that thrusts the dipper
forward to extract material from a working face.
DENSITY — Denotes the ratio of the mass of a
substance to its volume, expressed in grams per
cubic centimeter or pounds per cubic foot.
DIGGING CYCLE — The range of actions
needed from the start of one work cycle to the
start of the next; consists of the four distinct
phases: digging, swinging, dumping and return-
ing.
DIPPER FACTOR — A combination of the
dipper fill factor and material swell factor; mod-
ifies the dipper fill factor to account for the
swell factor; dipper factor = (Dipper Fill Factor)
x (Swell Factor).
DIPPER FILL FACTOR — A measure of the
loose cubic yards or meters per load divided by
the dipper’s rated capacity (volume); determined
in part by material density.
DOUBLE BACK-UP METHOD — The
method of loading in which two haul trucks are
spotted, one on each side of the shovel; when
the shovel completes loading the truck on one
side, the shovel immediately begins loading the
truck on the other side.
EQUALIZER — Part of the bail that balances
the load on the hoist ropes.
EXCESSIVE WEAR — As a guideline, exces-
sive wear is indicated as follows: pins - wear
greater than 2 inches (51 mm) or 20% of the
original pin diameter; bushings - wear greater
than 50% of original wall thickness; wear plates
may be worn completely through as long as the
wear does not penetrate the parent metal.
FACE — Area of a bank being actively mined
by a shovel.
FRAGMENTATION — The process of break-
ing apart hard material into pieces by explosive
blasting.
HEEL BAND — The area at the lower outside
front of the dipper.
HOIST — The motion that lifts the dipper.
LIP — The leading edge of the dipper; the dip-
per lip serves as the base to which the tooth
adapters and teeth are attached.
MATERIAL DENSITY — The relationship of
a given volume of material to its weight.
MAXIMUM BAIL PULL — Maximum pull
on the hoist cable is limited by the shovel con-
trol system.
Page 41
 PEAK PERFORMANCE PRACTICES – DIPPERS
MAXIMUM SUSPENDED LOAD — See
rated suspended load.
PITCH BRACES — Support struts designed
to maintain the dipper at a set digging angle.
PIVOT BOX — Part of the dipper door latch
mechanism about which the latch lever pivots to
open and close the dipper door latch.
RAKE ANGLE — The angle formed between
the level ground line and the point at which an
individual rack pinion tooth contacts the dipper
handle rack.
RATED CAPACITY — Per SAE standard,
heaped capacity.
RATED SUSPENDED LOAD (RSL) — For a
given boom length, a shovel is rated or limited
by the maximum suspended load at the point
sheaves; rated suspended load (RSL) includes
the weight of a fully loaded dipper plus the
weight of the dipper itself and its associated
components. Maximum suspended load (MSL)
limitation is based on the average capacity of
the DC hoist motor.
RELATIVE DENSITY — The ratio of the
density of a substance to that of a standard sub-
stance, usually water which has a density of
1.000 kg per liter (62.4 pounds per cubic foot).
SHROUD — An abrasive resistant covering
applied to high wear areas of the dipper, i.e.
dipper lips, wings and heel.
SINGLE BACK-UP METHOD — The
method of loading in which one haul truck at a
time is assigned to a shovel.
SNUBBER — A device that moderates the
open and close motion of the dipper door to
prevent it from slamming.
Page 42
SPECIFIC GRAVITY — Ratio of the weight
of a given material to the weight of an equal
volume of water; e.g. the weight of a level, full
pail of dirt vs. the weight of the same pail filled
with water.
STRUCK CAPACITY — Per SAE standard,
the “level” measure of a dipper’s volume, as
opposed to its “heaped” volume.
SWELL FACTOR — The ratio of a material’s
loose volume weight to the weight of the same
volume of material in the bank.
SWING — The motion that rotates the shovel’s
upper frame to the left or right.
TOOTH ADAPTER — An attachment that
allows a tooth to be fitted to the dipper lip.
TOOTH ANGLE — Angle measured from the
centerline of the tooth to the lower leg of the
rake angle.
TOOTH POINT — The forward part of the
tooth system.
TRIP RELEASE — A cable, chain or other
mechanism used to open the dipper door.
WEAR LINER — A strip of steel used to pro-
tect the inside surfaces of a dipper from abra-
sion and impact.
WEAR PLATE — A steel covering applied to
the dipper to protect the base metal from high
abrasive wear or impact.
WORK CYCLE — Time required to make
one complete cycle of dig, swing, trip and
return to the bank.
Index
Automatic Boom Soft Setdown (ABSS) . . . . . .17
Bail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Bail Pull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Boom Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-17,20
Bushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27,40
‘C’ Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23,25,32
Cast Dipper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Crowd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Digability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Digging Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Digging Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Digging Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Digging Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Digging Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Dipper Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Dipper Changeout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35-36
Dipper Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38-39
Dipper Fill Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Dipper Trip Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Double Back-up Method . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-10,18
Dumping Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Easy Digging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Excessive Incline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Excessive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Fabricated Dipper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Four-pass Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37-38
Hard Digging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Heel Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Heeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Hoist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Latch Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30,38
clearance from wear plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
engagement with latch mechanism . . . . . . .31
Latch Keeper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Latch Keeper Insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30-31
Latch Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Latch Mechanism Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Lip
cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32,39-40
plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39-40
replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32,38
Lip Adapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Lip Protector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Lip Shroud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25,32
Load Spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27-33
Maximum Suspended Load (MSL) . . . . . . . . .13
Medium Digging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Overcrowding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27,40
Pinless Latch Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Pitch Brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-7
length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,40
Positioning
haul truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
shovel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Primary Wear Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Propel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-18
Rake Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-7
Rated Suspended Load (RSL) . . . . . . . . . . .14,40
Relative Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Returning Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Single Back-up Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,18
Slewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18-19
Snubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28,32
belleville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32-33
elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Sweeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Swell Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Swing Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Swinging Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21,23-26
broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Three-pass Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37-38
Tooth Adapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21,23-25
down pitched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Tooth Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-7
Tooth Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Tooth Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23,25
Tooth Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23-25
Very Hard Digging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Wear Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23,25
Wear Liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Wear Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28-29
Wear Shroud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23-25,32
Wing Shroud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Page 43
Notes
 Suggestions, Ideas?
It is our hope that you have found this handbook informative and helpful, but we recognize that every mine has its own
methods of operation, and that no single handbook can answer everyone’s needs.
If you have any suggestions, tips or techniques other mines might find helpful in achieving peak dipper performance,
we'd be pleased to consider them for inclusion in a future edition.
You can e-mail your suggestions to P&H Mining Equipment at ph-min@hii.com, or call us at (414) 671-4400 and ask
for the Dipper Group.
 A Support System
You Can Sink Your Teeth Into
As with all P&H products, P&H dippers include an unequaled package of aftermarket support
through P&H MinePro Services. We provide the scope and depth of service you need to help you
remain productive and profitable with your purchase long after the sale. With fully staffed,
equipped and stocked service and parts facilities in the world’s major mining centers, we provide
fast, reliable parts supply and expert service.

Total Life-Cycle Management

P&H provides a full slate of services to keep your equipment operating at peak performance
throughout its service life, including:
• New and Used Equipment
• Genuine OEM Parts
• Equipment Inspections
• Maintenance and Repair
Services
• Lubrication Management
• Predictive Diagnostics
• Operator and Maintenance
Training
Just as P&H dippers are an ideal
match for your haul trucks, our
support system is a perfect match
for P&H Dippers.

For further information, contact your local P&H MinePro® Services representative or call 1-888-MINEPRO.
Outside the U.S. and Canada, phone (414) 671-4400 or fax (414) 671-7785. Visit us on the internet at
www.minepro.com.

Note: All designs, specifications and components of equipment described above are subject to change at manufacturer's sole discretion at any time
without advance notice. Data published herein is informational in nature and shall not be construed to warrant suitability of product for any particular
purpose as performance may vary with conditions encountered. The only warranty applicable is our standard written warranty for this product.
P&H Mining Equipment, P. O. Box 310, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201

XS-1755 5FP-0401