EC2601:SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS-Part 1

By
AJIT KUMAR SAHOO
Asst.Prof (ECE)
NIT,Rourkela

1
 TEXT BOOK:
SIGNALS & SYSTEMS
By
ALAN V.OPPENHEIM
ALAN S.WILLSKY
WITH S. HAMID NAWAB

2
 CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
This chapter involves the development of the analytical framework for signals and systems
by introducing their mathematical description and representations.
Information in a signal is contained in a pattern of variations of some form.
Signals are represented mathematically as function of one or more independent variables.
Examples
• A speech signal can be represented mathematically by acoustic pressure as a function
of time.
• A picture can be represented by brightness as a function of two spatial variable.
f is a function of n independent variables i.e., 𝑓(𝑡1 , 𝑡2 … , 𝑡𝑛 ) then each{ 𝑡𝑘 } is
called independent variable.
The function f is referred as dependent variable.
In this course we will focus on signals involving a single independent variable (i.e., time).
3
 Types of Signals
Two basic types of signals
(1)Continuous-time Signals: The independent variable is continuous. These signals are
defined for continuum of values of the independent variable.
• E.g: Speech Signal as a function of time
(2)Discrete-time Signals: The independent variable takes only discrete set of values.
These signals are defined only at discrete times.
• E.g: Stock market index
Notations
Continuous-time Signals: Symbol 't' is for independent variable and parenthesis (.) will be
used to enclose it.
Discrete-time Signals: Symbol 'n' is for independent variable and bracket [.] will be used to
enclose it.
4
 Graphical Representation

Continuous-time Signals

A continuous-time signal is called a function

5
 Graphical Representation
Discrete-time Signals
Discrete-time Signal 𝑥[𝑛] is defined only for integer values of independent
variable. For the non-integer values the signal is undefined.

A discrete-time signal is called a sequence 6

 Graphical Representation

x[n] 4 𝑥1 [n] 4
3 3

1 1
0 1 2 3 n -1 0 1 2 n
-2 -2
𝑥[0] = 1 𝑥1 [−1] = 1
x[n]=[1 -2 3 4 ] 𝑥 1 = −2 𝑥1 0 = −2
𝑥1 [n] =[1 -2 3 4 ]
𝑥[2] = 3 𝑥1 [1] = 3
𝑥[3] = 4 𝑥1 [2] = 4
7
 Graphical Representation

𝑥[𝑛] = [… − 1 − 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 0 0 … ]

𝑥[0] = 1
𝑥[−1] = 1
𝑥[1] = 1
𝑥[−2] = 0.5
𝑥[2] = 1
𝑥[−3] = −0.5
𝑥[3] = 0.5
𝑥[−4] = −1
𝑥[4] = 0

8
 Signal Energy and Power
Let 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) are instantaneous voltage and current across a resistor 'R'.
Instantaneous Power
1 2
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 . 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑅
Total energy expended over the time interval 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 is
𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑣 2 (𝑡)
න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡
𝑅
𝑡1 𝑡1

Average power over this time interval is

𝑡2
𝑡2
1 1 1 2
න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑣 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑅
𝑡1

9
 Signal Energy and Power
With the motivation from the above example, it is a common and worthwhile

convention to use similar terminology for power and energy for any continuous-time

signal 𝑥(𝑡) or any discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛]

Total energy over the time interval 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 in a continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡) is

defined as
𝑡2
‫|)𝑡(𝑥| 𝑡׬‬2 𝑑𝑡 [𝑥(𝑡) can be a complex]
1

Time-averaged power is
𝑡2
1
න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1

10
 Signal Energy and Power

Total energy in a discrete time signal 𝑥[𝑛] over the time interval 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 is
defined as
𝑛2

෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛=𝑛1

Average-power is defined as
1
σ𝑛𝑛=𝑛
2
1
|𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛2 −𝑛1 +1

11
 x[n] 4
3

1
0 1 2 3 n

-2

x[n]=[1 -2 3 4 ]

Energy of the signal is 12 + −22 + 32 +42 = 30

12
Power and Energy in a signal over an infinite interval
Energy
• Continuous-time signal
𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡 ∞
𝐸∞ ≜ lim ‫׬‬−𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞
• Discrete-time Signal
𝑁 ∞

𝐸∞ ≜ lim ෍ |𝑥 𝑛 |2 = ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−∞
• For some signals the integral (continuous-time) or summation (discrete-time) might not
converge.
• Such signals have infinite energy. E.g. 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] equals a non-zero constant value
for all times.
• The signal with 𝐸∞ < ∞ have finite energy.
13
Power and Energy in a signal over an infinite interval
Power
• Time-averaged power over an infinite interval is defined as
1 𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑃∞ ≜ lim ‫׬‬−𝑇
|𝑥(𝑡)| [Continuous-time]
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
1
and 𝑃∞ ≜ lim σ𝑁𝑛=−𝑁 |𝑥[𝑛]|2 [Discrete-time]
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁+1

• With these definitions, we can identify three important classes of signals

(1)Signals with finite total energy i.e., 𝐸∞ < ∞
• Such a signal must have zero average power [Energy Signal]

14
• E.g.
∞ 1
𝐸∞ =‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 1𝑑𝑡 = 1
𝑃∞ =0

(2)Signals with finite average power 𝑃∞

𝑃∞ > 0 and 𝐸∞ = ∞ [Power Signal] x[n]

Eg: 𝑥[𝑛]=4 has infinite energy but average power=16 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

……… ……..

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 n
(3)Signals for which neither 𝑃∞ nor 𝐸∞ are
finite. [Neither Power Signal nor Energy Signal]
Eg: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 [Ramp Signal]
15
 Transformations of Independent variables

(1)Time Shift [Translation]

Continuous-time Signal
• Time-shifting maps the input signal 𝑥(𝑡) to the output signal 𝑦(𝑡) as 𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) where 𝑡0 is a real number
• Such a transformation shifts the signal along the time axis (to the left or right)
• If 𝑡0 > 0 (Positive), 𝑦(𝑡) is shifted to the right by 𝑡0 relative to 𝑥(𝑡) (i.e., delayed
in time)
• If 𝑡0 < 0 (Negative), 𝑦(𝑡) is shifted to the left by 𝑡0 relative to 𝑥(𝑡) (i.e., advanced
in time)

16
 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
𝑦 0 =𝑥 1
𝑦 0 = 𝑥 −1
𝑦(1) = 𝑥(2)
𝑦(1) = 𝑥(0)
𝑦(−1) = 𝑥(0)
𝑦(0.5) = 𝑥(−0.5)

17
18
 Transformations of Independent variables
Discrete-time Signal
•Time-shifting maps the input signal 𝑥[𝑛] to the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] as 𝑦[𝑛] =
𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] where 𝑛0 is an integer.

•Such a transformation shifts the signal along the time axis (to the left or right)

•If 𝑛0 > 0 (Positive),𝑦[𝑛]is shifted to the right by 𝑛0 relative to 𝑥[𝑛] (i.e.,

delayed in time)

•If 𝑛0 < 0 (Negative),𝑦[𝑛] is shifted to the left by 𝑛0 relative to 𝑥[𝑛] (i.e.,

advanced in time)

19
 Transformations of Independent variables

n n n

𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 1] 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]

𝑦[0] = 𝑥[1] 𝑦[0] = 𝑥[−1]
𝑦[1] = 𝑥[2] 𝑦[1] = 𝑥[0]
𝑦[−1] = 𝑥[0] 𝑦[−1] = 𝑥[−2]

20
 Transformations of Independent variables

x[n] 4 𝑥1 [n] 4
3 3

1 1
0 1 2 3 n -1 0 1 2 n
-2 -2

x[n]=[1 -2 3 4 ] 𝑥1 [n] =[1 -2 3 4 ]

𝑥1 𝑛 = 𝑥[𝑛 + 1]
21
 Transformations of Independent variables
(2)Time Reversal [Reflection]
Continuous-time Signal
•Time-reversal signal of 𝑥(𝑡) is denoted by 𝑥 −𝑡 is obtained by a reflection
about 𝑡 = 0
•If 𝑥(𝑡) represents an audio tape recording then 𝑥(−𝑡) is same tape
recording played backward

22
 Transformations of Independent variables

Discrete-time Signal
• Time-reversal signal of 𝑥[𝑛], is denoted by 𝑥 −𝑛 , is obtained by a
reflection about 𝑛 = 0

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛
𝑦 0 =𝑥 0

𝑦 1 = 𝑥 −1

𝑦 2 = 𝑥 −2
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 1

23
 Transformations of Independent variables

(3)Time Scaling
Continuous-time Signal
• Time-scaling maps the input signal 𝑥(𝑡) to the output signal y(t) as 𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑥(𝑎𝑡) where a is a strictly positive real number
• If 𝑎 > 1, 𝑦(𝑡) is compressed signal along the horizontal axis by a factor of
a relative to 𝑥(𝑡)
• If 𝑎 < 1, 𝑦(𝑡) is expanded signal along the horizontal axis by a factor of
1/𝑎 relative to 𝑥 𝑡
If 𝑥(𝑡) is a tape recording, then 𝑥(2𝑡) is that recording played at twice the
speed and 𝑥(𝑡/2) is the recording played at half-speed.

24
 Transformations of Independent variables

a=1 a=1/2
a=2 𝑥(𝑡/2)
t
-4
4

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡) , 𝑦 0.5 = 𝑥(1) , 𝑦 1 = 𝑥(2), 𝑦 −1 = 𝑥(−2)

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡/2) , 𝑦 1 = 𝑥(0.5),𝑦 2 = 𝑥(1),𝑦 4 = 𝑥(2),𝑦 −1 = 𝑥(−0.5)

25
 Transformations of Independent variables

Discrete-time Signal
• Time-Scaling maps the input signal 𝑥[𝑛] to the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] as 𝑦[𝑛] =
𝑥[𝑎𝑛] where a is a strictly positive integer[Down-sampling].

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑥[2𝑛]
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑛
𝑦 0 =𝑥 0

𝑦 1 =𝑥 2

𝑦 2 =𝑥 4
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −2

𝑦 −2 = 𝑥 −4

26
 Transformations of Independent variables

Given 𝑥(𝑡), obtain 𝑥(𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽)

(i)delay or advance 𝑥(𝑡) in accordance with the value of 𝛽,

(ii)and then perform time scaling and/or time reversal on the resulting signal in accordance
with the value of 𝛼

27
 Example

3 2 5
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥( 𝑡 + 1) , 𝑦 = 𝑥(2) , 𝑦 1 = 𝑥( )
2 3 2

𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) is obtained by replacing 𝑡 with −𝑡 in 𝑥(𝑡 + 1). That is, 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) is the time
reversed version of 𝑥(𝑡 + 1). Thus, 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) may be obtained graphically by reflecting
𝑥(𝑡 + 1) about the 𝑡 axis 28
THANK YOU

29