Course: PHYSICS-I (PH1001)

Subject nature: Theory

Credits: 3 (2-1-0)
Section: F, Slot: TK
Dr. J. P. Kar
karjp@nitrkl.ac.in, 0661-246-2732
Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, NIT Rourkela
Autumn semester, 2020-2021, Monday: 2.15 pm-3.10 pm,
Tuesday: 1.15-2.10 pm, Friday: 3.15 pm-4.10 pm
 SYLLABUS
RELATIVITY: Galilean relativity and Galilean transformation, Special relativity, Michelson
Morley experiment and postulates of relativity, Length contraction and time dilatation,
Doppler effect, Lorentz transformation & velocity addition, Relativistic momentum, Mass-
energy relation.
QUANTUM MECHANICS:
INADEQUACIES IN CLASSICAL PHYSICS: Black body radiation, Photoelectric effect, X-ray
diffraction, Compton Effect, Pair production, Davisson-Germer experiment
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY: Particle nature of wave, Wave nature of particle, de Broglie
waves, Group waves, Phase velocity & group velocity, Uncertainty principle and its
application
WAVE FUNCTION: Probability & wave equation, Linearity and superposition of wave
functions, Expectation values
SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION (SE): Time dependent and time independent SE, Eigenvalue &
eigenfunctions, Boundary conditions on wave function
APPLICATION OF SE: Particle in a box, Finite potential well

PH1001/2
 BOOKS

1 2 3
1. A. Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, Tata-McGraw Hill, 2009 (6th Edition)
2. K. Krane, Modern Phyiscs, John wiley & sons, 2011(3rd Edition)
3. R. Eisberg & R. Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids,
Nuclei and Particles, Wiley, 2006 (2nd Edition).
PH1001/3
 Topics
Mid-sem End-sem
Part-1: Relativity Part-3: Wave properties
of particles
Part-2: Particle properties
of waves Part-4:Quantum Mechanics

Mark Distributions: GRADE Distributions:

Mid Term: 30%  90  Ex
End Term: 50%  80  A
TA: 20%  70  B
Assignments
 60  C
TA: ATTENDANCE of PH 1001  50  D
ASSIGNMENTS
Faculty: Dr. J.P. Kar
Section: F
 35  P
OVERALL ATTITUDE Name: XYZ  35  F
Roll no.: 0000
Date: XY.XY.20XY
References: XYZ
Signature: abc
PH1001/4
 Relativity

 Special Theory of Relativity

 The Lorentz Transformation
 Time Dilation
 Doppler effect
 Length Contraction
 Relativistic Momentum
 Mass and Energy
 Energy and Momentum

PH1001/5
 Special Theory of Relativity
Classical and Modern Physics
Classical Physics - Modern Physics-
Larger, slow moving • Relativity – Fast moving objects
• Newtonian Mechanics • Quantum Mechanics – very small
• EM and Waves
• Thermodynamics
10% c
Speed
Classical Relativistic

Atomic/molecular size
Size
Quantum Classical
PH1001/6
 Reference Frames
A frame of reference in physics, may refer to a coordinate
system or set of axes within which to measure the
position, orientation, and other properties of objects in it
y

O x

Inertial frames z Non-Inertial frames

 in which no accelerations are
observed in the absence of external
forces
 that is not accelerating.
 Newton’s laws hold in all inertial
reference frames
 that is accelerating with respect
to an inertial reference frame
 bodies have acceleration in the
absence of applied forces
PH1001/7
 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

The postulates of relativity as stated by Einstein in1905

1. Equivalence of Physical Laws

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial
frames of reference.
2. Constancy of the Speed of Light
The speed of light in a vacuum, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, is the
same in all inertial frames of reference, independent of the
motion of the source or the receiver.

PH1001/8
 Galilean Transformation

y
y x  x  vt
S
v
y  y
S
O x
z  z
O x
t t
z
y y S
z S EVENT
v

vt x
x
Time is absolute
O x O x

The Galilean transformation is the commonsense relationship which agrees

with our everyday experience (postulate of classical physics).
PH1001/9
 Velocity Component
dx 
vx   vx  v
dt 
dy 
vy   vy
dt 
dz 
vz   vz
dt 
Drawbacks:
1. Violates both of the postulate of special theory of relativity
[i] Same equations of physics in S and S, but the equations of
electricity and magnetism is entirely different.
[ii] c = c - v
Go for different transformation
PH1001/10
Before Einstein’s work, a conflict had existed between the
principles of mechanics, which were then based on Newton’s laws
of motion, and those of electricity and magnetism, which had
been developed into a unified theory by Maxwell.
Einstein showed that Maxwell’s theory is consistent with special
relativity
At higher speeds Newtonian mechanics fails and must be
replaced by the relativistic version

Searching for an absolute Reference System

 Ether was proposed as an absolute reference system, in
which the speed of light was constant and from which other
measurements could be made.
 The Michelson-Morley experiment was an attempt to show
the existence of ether
PH1001/11
 Ether Medium
Galilean transformation: A preferred frame of reference in which the speed
of light has the precise value of c and other frames in relative motion in
which the speed of light would differ.

Like water medium, which medium is required for propagation of light

waves ?

The physicists of the 19th century, postulated the existence of an invisible, massless
medium, called the ether, which filled all space, was undetectable by any mechanical
means, and existed solely for the propagation of light waves.

The first detailed and precise search for the preferred frame was
performed in 1887 by the American physicist Albert A. Michelson
and his associate E. W. Morley.

Albert A. Michelson (1852–1931, United States). He spent 50 years doing

increasingly precise experiments with light, for which he became the first U.S.
citizen to win the Nobel
Prize in physics (1907).
PH1001/12
 Michelson-Morley Experiment
Experiment designed to measure small changes in the
speed of light was performed by A. Michelson (1852-1931,
Nobel) and Edward W. Morley(1838-1923)

“Motion of earth through the ether”

“Ether”: a hypothetical medium
pervading the universe in which light
waves were supposed to occur.

• Used an optical instrument called an

interferometer that Michelson invented
• Device was to detect the presence of the
ether

A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, American Journal of Science, 134, 333 (1887)

PH1001/13
 Upstream-Downstream-Crossstream Paths
There are two contributions to the phase difference
between the beams. S
(a) The first contribution comes from the path
difference AB − AC; one of the beams may travel a
longer distance.
(b) The second contribution, which would still be S/
present even if the path lengths were equal, comes
from the time difference between the upstream-
downstream and cross-stream paths and indicates
the motion of the Earth through the ether.
S
Michelson and Morley used a clever method to isolate
this second contribution—they rotated the entire
apparatus by 90◦!

They also repeated the expt. after six months, to study S/

the effect of orbital motion of the Earth.
No observable change in the fringe pattern has
occurred.
In no experiment, Michelson and Morley were able to detect the motion of the Earth
through the ether. PH1001/14
 Lorentz Transformation
x  k ( x  vt)
y
y x  vt
S x 
v
1 v2 / c2
S
O x y  y
O x z  z
vx
t
z c2
t 
z 1 v2 / c2

 Basic formulas of A more symmetric form:

electromagnetism are the
same in all inertial frames

PH1001/15
 Lorentz Transformation
A reasonable guess about the nature of the correct relationship
between x and x/ is

Here k is a factor that does not depend upon either x or t but

may be a function of v.

And

Because the equations of physics must have the same form in both S
and S/, we need only change the sign of (in order to take into account the
difference in the direction of relative motion) to write the corresponding
equation for x in terms of x/ and t/:

The factor k must be the same in both frames of reference since there is
no difference between S and S/ other than in the sign of v.
Putting the value of X/
PH1001/16
 Lorentz Transformation

The above equations constitute a coordinate transformation that satisfies the

first postulate of special relativity.
The second postulate of relativity gives us a way to evaluate k.

At the instant t = 0, the origins of the two frames of reference S and S/ are
in the same place, according to our initial conditions, and t/ = 0 then also.
Suppose that a flare is set off at the common origin of S and S/ at t = t/ = 0,
and the observers in each system measure the speed with which the
flare’s light spreads out.

Both observers must find the same speed c ,

In the S frame, x = ct,

In the S/ frame, x/ = ct/

Substituting the value of x/ and t/, in the above equation PH1001/17
 Lorentz Transformation

Solving for x,

We know, x= ct. So,

PH1001/18
 Inverse Lorentz Transformation
To obtain the inverse transformation, primed and unprimed
quantities are exchanged, and v is replaced by -v:

S/
S

PH1001/19
 Time Dilation
 to dilate is to become larger
 A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest

Actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured

by observers moving relative to each other

Time where clock is at rest

Time where clock is relative to the observer. Proper
moving relative to the time
observer

t0
t
1 v2 / c2

Clocks moving relative to an observer are measured by that observer to

run more slowly, as compared to the clock at rest.

 This effect arises neither from technical aspects of the clocks nor from the
fact that signals need time to propagate, but from the nature of space-
time itself.
PH1001/20
 Time Dilation
The figure shows the laboratory
clock in operation.

The time interval between ticks is

the proper time t0 and

The time needed for the light pulse

to travel between the mirrors at the
speed of light c is t0/2.

Hence t0/2 = L0/c

PH1001/21
 Time Dilation
The figure shows the
moving clock with its
mirrors perpendicular to
the direction of motion
relative to the ground.
The time interval
between ticks is t.

Because the clock is moving, the light pulse, as seen from the
ground, follows a zigzag path.

On its way from the lower mirror to the upper one in the time t/2,
the pulse travels a horizontal distance of v(t/2) and a total
distance of c(t/2).
PH1001/22
 Time Dilation
Since L0 is the vertical
distance between the
mirrors,

As 2L0/c is the time interval t0

between ticks on the clock on
the ground,

t0 = time interval on clock at rest relative to an observer

=proper time
t = time interval on clock in motion relative to an observer
v = speed of relative motion
c = speed of light PH1001/23
 every observer finds that clocks in motion relative to him tick
more slowly than clocks at rest relative to him
Experimental verification
• Time Dilation and Muon Decay
Muon Decay
 Cosmic rays enter the upper
atmosphere and interact with
particles in the upper atmosphere
creating  mesons (pions), decay
into other particles called muons
 Obey radioactive law:

 ( 0.693t t1 / 2 )
N  N 0e
N: no. of muons at t
No: no. of muons at t=0
Half life: t1/2 =1.5 x 10-6 sec
PH1001/24
 v=0
 0 = 2.2 s v = 0.995 c
  = 22 s = 10 0

The observer and the muon are now in the same frame of reference,
and in this frame the muon’s lifetime is only 2.2 µs.

To the observer, the muon can travel only 0.66 km before decaying.

The only way to account for the arrival of the muon at ground level is
if the distance it travels, from the point of view of an observer in the
moving frame, is shortened by virtue of its motion.

The principle of relativity tells us the extent of the shortening—it must

be by the same factor of “k” that the muon lifetime is extended from
the point of view of a stationary observer.

PH1001/25
Example
1. What is the lifetime of a muon travelling at 0.60 c (1.8 X 108 m/s) if its rest
lifetime is 2.2 s?
Ans. t0 2.2 10 6 s
t t  2.8 10 6 s
1 v2 / c2 1  (0.6c) 2 / c 2

2. How long will a 100 year trip (as observed from earth) seem to the astronaut
who is travelling at 0.995 c?
t0
Ans. t 10 year
1 v2 / c2

3. A particle travels at 1.90×108 m/s and lives 2.10×10−8 s when at rest relative to an
observer. How long does the particle live as viewed in the laboratory?
Ans:
t0 2.10 10 8 s
t   2.7110 8 s
1 v2 / c2
1
1.9 108 s 2

3.0 108 s 2

PH1001/26
4. A spacecraft is moving relative to the earth. An observer on the earth finds that,
between 1 P.M. and 2 P.M. according to her clock, 3601 s elapse on the spacecraft’s
clock. What is the spacecraft’s speed relative to the earth?
Here to = 3600 s is the proper time interval on the earth and t = 3601 s is the
time interval in the moving frame as measured from the earth. Then

Today’s spacecraft are much slower than this. For instance, the
highest speed of the Apollo 11 spacecraft that went to the moon
was only 10,840 m/s, and its clocks differed from those on the
earth by less than one part in 109.
Most of the experiments that have confirmed time dilation made
use of unstable nuclei and elementary particles which readily
attain speeds not far from that of light.
APPOLLO 11 PH1001/27
 Length Contraction Faster means shorter

Length where observer is Length where observer is

moving relative to the at rest relative to the
length being measured. length being measured.

L  L0 1  v 2 / c 2
The length of an object is measured to be shorter when it is
moving relative to the observer than when it is at rest.
Observers from earth would see a
spaceship shorten in the length of travel

(a)

(b) Only shortens in the direction of travel

PH1001/28
 Length Contraction
L  L0 1  v 2 / c 2

Clearly the length contraction is most

significant at speeds near that of light.

A speed of 1000 km/s seems fast to us, but it only results in a shortening in the
direction of motion to 99.9994 percent of the proper length of an object moving at
this speed.
On the other hand, something traveling at nine-tenths the speed of light is shortened
to 44 percent of its proper length, a significant change.

Like time dilation, the length contraction is a reciprocal effect. To a person in a

spacecraft, objects on the earth appear shorter than they did when he or she was on
the ground by the same factor of (1-v2/c2) that the spacecraft appears shorter to
somebody at rest.
The proper length L0 found in the rest frame is the maximum length any observer will
measure. As mentioned earlier, only lengths in the direction of motion undergo
contraction.
Thus to an outside observer a spacecraft is shorter in flight than on the ground, but it
is not narrower.
PH1001/29
 Doppler effect Why the universe is believed to be expanding

: Source frequency

: Observed frequency

Doppler effect in light differ from that in sound.

Doppler effect in light by considering a light source as a clock that ticks ν0 times per second
and emits a wave of light with each tick

The observed frequency is always lower than the source frequency .

PH1001/30
PH1001/31
Doppler shifts in radar waves are used by police to measure vehicle
speeds,

Doppler shifts in the radio waves emitted by a set of earth satellites

formed the basis of the highly accurate Transit system of marine
navigation.
Stars emit light of certain characteristic frequencies called spectral lines,
and motion of a star toward or away from the earth shows up as a
Doppler shift in these frequencies.

The spectral lines of distant galaxies of stars are all shifted toward the
low-frequency (red) end of the spectrum and hence are called “red shifts.”

Such shifts indicate that the galaxies are receding from us and from one
another.

The speeds of recession are observed to be proportional to distance,

which suggests that the entire universe is expanding. This proportionality
is called Hubble’s law.
PH1001/32
Example-1

Ans

Example-2

Ans:

PH1001/33
 Velocity Addition
The light emitted from the S in the direction of its motion relative to another frame S
ought to have a speed of c + v as measured in S.

violets the postulate of relativity

Common sense is no more reliable as a guide in science than it is elsewhere

Suppose something is moving relative to both S and S . An observer in S measures its

three velocity components to be
dx dy dz
Vx  Vy  Vz 
dt dt dt
 dx  dy  dz 
While to an observer Vx  Vy  Vz 
dt  dt  dt 
By differentiating the inverse Lorentz transformation equations for x, y, z and t, we have
vdx
dx  vdt  dt  
dx  dy  dy dz  dz dt  c2
1 v / c
2 2
1 v2 / c2
PH1001/34
 dx
v
dx dx  vdt  dt 
and so Vx   
dt vd x  v dx
dt   2 1 2
c c dt 
Relativistic velocity transformation

Vx  v V y 1  v 2 / c 2
Vz 
Vz 1  v 2 / c 2
Vx  Vy  vV 
vVx vV 
1  2x 1  2x
1 2 c
c c

If Vx = c, if the light is emitted in the moving frame K in its direction of

motion relative to K, an observer in frame K will measure the speed:

Vx  v cv c (c  v )
Vx    c
vV  vc cv
1  2x 1 2
c c

PH1001/35
What is the speed of the second stage of the rocket shown with
respect to the earth?
Ans. u = v + u’
1 + vu’/c2
= 0.60c + 0.60c
1 + [(0.60c)(0.60c)/c2 ]
u = 0.88 c
(classical addition would give you 1.20c,
over the speed of light)

Suppose a car travelling at 0.60c turns on its headlights. What is the speed of the light
travelling out from the car?
Now the car is travelling at c and turns
 u = v + u’
on its headlights.
 1 + vu’/c2
u = v + u’
 u = 0.60c + c = 1.60c
1 + vu’/c2
 1 + [(0.60c)(c)/c2 ] 1.60
u=c+ c = 2c
 u=c
1 + [(c)(c)/c2 ] 2

u=c
PH1001/36
PH1001/37
  Relativistic Mass, Momentum and Energy
Classical mechanics: Linear momentum: p = mv,
v <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< c
Whether this formula is valid in relativistic inertial frames ?

Relativistic momentum: p  mu where :  

1
1 v2 / c2
In this form the conservation of momentum is valid in special relativity

Effect on mass: Mass

Mass observed by an Mass measured when
observer moving object is at rest relative
relative to the mass to the observer-rest mass

m0
m 
1 v2 / c2
The mass of an object is measured to increase as its speed increases.
PH1001/38
As the speed gets closer and closer to c, the momentum increases without
limit; note that the speed must be close to the speed of light before
Difference between classical and relativistic momentum is noticeable:

The object's velocity can

never reach c because its
momentum would then be
infinite, which is impossible.

The relativistic momentum

mv is always correct;

The classical momentum mv

is valid for velocities much
smaller than c.

Due to the new idea of relativistic mass, one can now redefine the
concepts of work and energy.
PH1001/39
 Now Newton’s second law can be modified to include the new
definition of linear momentum, and force becomes:

Relativistic second Law:

Find the acceleration of a particle of mass m and velocity v when it is acted upon by
the constant force F, where F is parallel to v.

Even though the force is constant, the acceleration of the particle decreases as its
velocity increases. As v → c, a→ 0, so the particle can never reach the speed of light
PH1001/40
  Mass and Energy
Where Eo = mc2 comes from ?
For simplicity, let the particle start from rest under the influence of the force
and calculate the kinetic energy K after the work is done.

To find the correct relativistic formula for KE we start from the relativistic form of the
second law of motion

PH1001/41
Kinetic energy of an object is equal to the
difference between mc2 and mc2

Total Energy and Rest Energy

If we interpret mc2 as the total energy E of the object, we see that when it is at rest
and KE = 0, it nevertheless possesses the energy mc2. Accordingly mc2 is called the
rest energy E0 of something whose mass is m.

the rest energy

• Even when a particle has no velocity and therefore no kinetic energy, it still
has energy by virtue of its mass.
PH1001/42
Example
A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 1.0 kg that
move apart at speeds of 0.6c relative to the original body. Find the mass of
the original body.

Since mass and energy are not independent entities, their separate
conservation principles are properly a single one—the principle of
conservation of mass energy. Mass can be created or destroyed, but
when this happens, an equivalent amount of energy simultaneously
vanishes or comes into being, and vice versa. Mass and energy are
different aspects of the same thing.
PH1001/43
 Kinetic Energy at Low Speeds
When the relative speed v is small compared with c, the formula for kinetic energy
must reduce to the familiar 1/2mv2, which has been verified by experiment at such
speeds.
Let us see if this is true. The relativistic formula for kinetic energy is

Kinetic Energy

At low speeds the relativistic expression for the KE of a moving object does indeed
reduce to the classical one. So far as is known, the correct formulation of mechanics
has its basis in relativity, with classical mechanics representing an approximation that
is valid only when v<<c.
PH1001/44
  Energy and Momentum
Total energy and momentum are conserved in an isolated system, and the rest
energy of a particle is invariant. Hence these quantities are in some sense more
fundamental than velocity or kinetic energy, which are neither.

Total Energy

Momentum

Energy and Momentum

because mc2 is invariant, so is E2 -p2c2: this quantity for a particle has

the same value in all frames of reference
PH1001/45
 Massless Particles
Can a massless particle exist? Or can a particle exist which has no rest mass, but
which nevertheless exhibits such particle like properties as energy and
momentum? In classical mechanics, a particle must have rest mass in order to
have energy and momentum, but in relativistic mechanics this requirement does
not hold.
 For a particle having no mass:  For a massless particle:

E  pc vc
Rest energy of a particle: Example: E0 (proton)

Example10: An electron (m = 0.511 MeV/c2) and a photon (m = 0) both have momenta of

2.000 MeV/c. Find the total energy of each.

(a) Electron

(b) Photon
PH1001/47
11. Calculate the mass of an electron moving at 0.98 c in an
accelerator for cancer therapy.
9.1110 31 kg
Ans. m  4.58 10 30 kg(5m 0 )
1  (0.98c) 2 / c 2

12. How much energy would be released if a 0 meson (mo=2.4 X

10-28 kg) decays at rest.
Ans.
E = mc2
E = moc2 (particle is at rest)
E = (2.4 X 10-28 kg)(3.0 X 108 m/s)2
E = 2.16 X 10-11 J
13. An electron is moving at 0.999c in the CERN accelerator.
a. Calculate the rest energy
b. Calculate the relativistic momentum
c. Calculate the relativistic energy
d. Calculate the Kinetic energy Do this.
PH1001/47
 General Relativity

Special relativity is concerned only with inertial frames of reference, that is, frames
that are not accelerated.
Einstein’s 1916 general theory of relativity goes further by including the effects of
accelerations on what we observe. Its essential conclusion is that the force of gravity
arises from a warping of space time around a body of matter

As a result, an object moving through such a region of space in general follows a

curved path rather than a straight one, and may even be trapped there.
The principle of equivalence is central to general relativity:

An observer in a closed laboratory cannot distinguish between the effects produced

by a gravitational field and those produced by an acceleration of the laboratory.

PH1001/48
 Particle properties of waves

Black body radiation

Photoelectric effect
X-ray diffraction
Compton Effect
Pair production
Photon and gravity

• A. Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics , Tata-McGraw Hill, 6th edition (2009)

• D.J. Griffith, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics , Pearson (2007)
PH1001/81
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

4.3 x 1014 7.5 x 1014

Particle aspect of radiation

Classical physics: a particle : energy E and momentum p
Wave : an amplitude and wave vector k
PH1001/82
 General Consensus:
Particle: e.g e-: charge, mass : laws of particle mechanics
Waves: em waves: diffraction, interference, polarization etc

Principle of superposition
A characteristic properties of all waves

Young’s experiment: Light consists of waves PH1001/83

Classical approach Black Body Radiation

• An object at any temperature is known to emit thermal radiation

 Characteristics depend on the temperature and surface properties
 The thermal radiation consists of a continuous distribution of
wavelengths from all portions of the em spectrum

• At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are

mainly in the infrared region

• As the surface temperature increases, the wavelength changes

 It will glow red and eventually white

• The basic problem was in understanding the observed

distribution in the radiation emitted by a black body

 Classical physics didn’t adequately describe the observed

distribution
PH1001/84
Black Body
• A black body is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation
incident on it. When an object is heated, it radiates
electromagnetic energy as a result of the thermal agitation of
the electrons in its surface. The electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a black body is called blackbody radiation
• A good approximation of a black body is a small hole
leading to the inside of a hollow object
• The nature of the radiation leaving the cavity
through the hole depends only on the temperature
of the cavity walls

Blackbody Experiment Results

• The total power of the emitted radiation increases with temperature
– Stefan’s Law: P =  A e T4: For a blackbody, e = 1
• The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as
the temperature increases
– Wien’s displacement law: λmax T = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K
PH1001/85
Intensity of Blackbody Radiation
 The intensity increases with increasing temperature
 The amount of radiation emitted increases with increasing temperature
 The area under the curve
 The peak wavelength/frequency decreases/increases with increasing temperature

Rayleigh & Jeans

Radiation inside a cavity: series
of standing waves.
Density of standing waves in
cavity:

8 2 d
G ( )d 
c2
Classical average energy per
standing wave:   kT
EXPERIMENTAL
8kT 2
Rayleigh-Jeans formula: u ( )d  G( )d  2  d
c
Rayleigh’s assumption: a standing wave can exchange any amount
(continuum) of energy with matter
Classical: continuous energy distribution PH1001/86
Consequences:
Ultraviolet catastrophe
As  increases toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, the energy density
should increase as 2. In the limit of infinitely high , u()d should also go to .
In reality, the energy density falls to 0 as   . This discrepancy called
ultraviolet catastrophe.
Classical physics failure  introduction of Q.M.
Planck’s formula
The energy exchange between radiation and matter must be
discrete and energy of radiation E = nh
h
Average energy per standing wave 
e h / kT 1
Planck’s modifications
8h  3d
u ( )d  2 h / kT 1
c e
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s Max Planck (1918 Nobel prize)
PH1001/87
 At low  At high 
h << kT h >> kT
1

1 e h / kT  
e h / kT 11  h / kT  1 u( )d  0
 kT / h

8h 3  kT 
u ( )d  2   d
c  h 
8kT 2
 3
 d # of modes per Probability of Average
c unit frequency occupying modes energy per
per unit volume mode

CLASSICAL 8 2 kT
Rayleigh & Jeans c3
Equal for all modes

observation Quantized modes:

h
QUANTUM
8 2 require h energy to
h
c3 excite upper modes,
e kT
1
less probable
PH1001/88
 Photoelectric effect
Provides a direct confirmation for
the energy quantization of light.
The phenomenon of ejection of electron from the surface of a metal when light
of a suitable frequency strikes on It, is called photoelectric effect. The emitted
electrons are called photo-electrons.

The time between the incidence and emission of a photoelectron is

very small,  10–9 s. PH1001/89
 When the V is increased to V0, of the order of several volts, no more
photoelectrons arrive, as indicated by the current dropping to zero. This extinction
voltage corresponds to the maximum photoelectron KE.
Experimental Findings:
 If the frequency of the incident radiation is smaller than the metal’s
threshold frequency(a frequency that depends on the properties of metal), no
electron can be emitted regardless of the radiation’s intensity.
 No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be
ejected instantly the moment the frequency of the radiation exceeds the
threshold frequency.

 At a fixed frequency, the number of ejected electrons increases with the

intensity of the light but doesn’t depend on its frequency.

A bright light yields more photoelectrons than a dim one of the same frequency,
but the electron energies remain the same. The em theory of light, on the
contrary, predicts that the more intense the light, the greater the energies of the
electrons.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but
not on the intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron
increases linearly with the incident frequency.
PH1001/90
 Einstein interpretation(1905)
Light comes in packets of energy (photons)
E = h
An electron absorbs a single photon to leave the material
K
Work function: W = h0
Larger W more energy
needed for an electron to leave

Classical physics fails: for dependence of the 0
effect on the threshold frequency 0 = threshold frequency
E = h 0 E = h
Photoelectric effect:
K = h - W = h - h0
KEmax
The stopping potential : at which all = h - h 0
of the electrons will be turned back
before reaching the collector KE = 0
h W hc W
VS     metal
e e e e PH1001/91
Experimental Observation

PH1001/92
Applications of the Photoelectric Effect
• Detector in the light meter of a camera
• Phototube
– Used in burglar alarms and soundtrack of motion picture films
– Largely replaced by semiconductor devices
• Photomultiplier tubes
– Used in nuclear detectors and astronomy

Ex-1: When two UV beams of wavelengths 1 = 280nm and 2 = 490nm fall

on a lead surface, they produce photo electrons with maximum kinetic
energies 8.7eV and 6.67eV, respectively. (a) calculate the value of planck
constant. (b) Calculate the work function and the cutoff frequency of lead.
ANS.(a)
K1= hc/ 1 – W and K2= hc/ 2 – W Use 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
K1  K 2 12
h  6.62 10 34 Js
c 2  1
(b) W = hc/ 1 –K1 = - 4.14eV
The cutoff frequency of the metal is 0 = W/h = 1015 Hz
PH1001/93
The photoelectric effect provides convincing evidence that photons of light
can transfer energy to electrons.
Is the inverse process also possible? That is, can part or all of the kinetic
energy of a moving electron be converted into a photon? As it happens, the
inverse photoelectric effect not only does occur but had been discovered
(though not understood) before the work of Planck and Einstein.

X-rays EM radiation with 0.01

to 10 nm  x-rays

1.24 10 16

X-ray production: min  V.m
V
PH1001/94
 X-ray diffraction
Crystal structure
determination

Incident
wave

2d sin = Path
2
d  difference

d sin

Bragg’s Law:
2d sin = n
PH1001/95
According to the quantum theory of light, photons behave like
particles except for their lack of rest mass.

Can we consider a collision between a photon and an

electron as if both were billiard balls?
Compton effect
An X-ray photon strikes an electron (assumed to be
initially at rest in the laboratory coordinate system)
and is scattered away from its original direction of
motion while the electron receives an impulse and 1927 Nobel

begins to move.
We can think of the photon as losing an amount of energy in the collision
that is the same as the kinetic energy KE gained by the electron, although
actually separate photons are involved

Further confirmation of photon model

PH1001/96
 E  h  h 
E  mc 2
p  h  / c h 
c sin 
Incident photon h 
p0
-   c
cos  c

E  h p sin 
Target  
p  h / c electron p p cos 
- E m c p c
2
0
4 2 2

p p
Scattered
electron

Scattering of X-rays from electrons in a carbon target and found scattered X-rays
with a longer wavelength than those incident upon the target.
• Compton’s experiments showed that, at any given angle, only one frequency of
radiation is observed
Initial momentum = final momentum
In the original photon direction:
h h 
0  cos   p cos 
c c
h 
in the perpendicular direction: 0 sin   p sin 
c

PH1001/97
 pc cos   h  h  cos 
pc sin   h  sin 

 p 2c 2  (h ) 2  2(h )(h ) cos   (h ) 2

Form the total energy expression we have:

E  KE  mc2
E p 2 c 2  mc4

Equating the two expressions for the total energy of a particle

KE  mc  2 2
 p 2c 2  mc4
p 2c 2  KE 2  2KEmc 2

KE  h  h /
PH1001/98
 Substituting the value of KE

p 2c 2  (h ) 2  2(h )(h )  (h ) 2  2mc2 (h  h )

Substituting the value of p2c2

 2mc2 (h  h )  2(h )(h )(1  cos  )

Dividing by 2h2c2

mc   /   /
(  ) (1  cos  )
h c c c c
Since
 1 / 1
 and 
c  c /

mc 1 1 (1  cos  )
(  /)
h    /
PH1001/99
 Compton effect or shift: (   )  c (1  cos  )
/

Compton wavelength (λC): gives the scale of the wave length

change of the incident photon
h
C   0.00243nm
mc

PH1001/100
Why X-ray ?
h
(/   )  c (1  cos  ) C   0.00243nm
mc

The Compton wavelength gives the scale of the wavelength change of the incident
photon.

The greatest wavelength change possible corresponds to ϕ =180°, when the

wavelength change will be twice the Compton wavelength λc.

Because λc = 2.426 pm for an electron, and even less for other particles owing to
their larger rest masses, the maximum wavelength change in the Compton
effect is 4.852 pm.

Changes of this magnitude or less are readily observable only in x-rays.

The shift in wavelength for visible light is less than 0.01 percent of the initial
wavelength, whereas for X-rays of λ = 0.1 nm it is several percent.

Thus, X-rays lose energy when they pass through matter.

PH1001/101
Experimental Demonstration

A.H. Compton, Phys. Rev. 22

409 (1923)

PH1001/102
Ex-1
High energy photos (-rays) are scattered from electrons initially at rest. Assume
the photons are backscattered and their energies are much larger than the
electron’s rest mass energy, E >> mec2.
(a) calculate the wavelength shift,
(b) show that the energy of the scattered photons is half the rest mass energy of the
electron, regardless of the energy of the incident photons,
(c) calculate the electrons recoil kinetic energy if the energy of the incident photons
is 150 MeV.
ANS:
(a) Here  = , wave length shift or Compton shift:
h 2h 4c
       (1  cos  )    4.8  10 12
m
m0 c me c me c 2
(b) Energy of scattered photon E:
hc hc me c 2 me c 2
E    
    2h /( me c) me c  /( hc)  2 me c 2 / E  2
2

If E >> mec2 we can approximate by

1
me c 2 2me c 2  me c 2 (me c 2 ) 2 me c 2
E  1       0.25MeV
2  E  2 E 2
(c) Kinetic energy of recoil electron: Ke = E - E  150 MeV-0.25 MeV = 149.75 MeV

PH1001/103
Pair production
- Electron

p

p cos 
Photon
h / c  p cos 
p
Nucleus + Positron

In a collision a photon can give an electron all of its energy (the photoelectric effect)
or only part (the Compton effect). It is also possible for a photon to materialize into
an electron and a positron, which is a positively charged electron. In this process,
called pair production, electromagnetic energy is converted into matter
Energy and linear momentum could not both be conserved if pair production were
to occur in empty space, so it does not occur there
Pair production requires a photon energy of at least 1.02 MeV.
e- or e+
m0c2 = 0.51 MeV (rest mass energy),
 additional photon energy becomes K.E of e- and e+.
The pair production : direct consequences of the Einstein mass-energy relation; E = mc2.
Pair annihilation: e- + e +   + 
PH1001/104
pair production cannot occur in empty space
From conservation of energy,
h  2mc2
where hν is the photon energy and γmc2 is the total energy of each member of
the electron –position pair.
h
 2 p cos 
c
h  2 pc cos 
Since p = γmv for the electron and positron,

v
h  2mc2   cos 
c
As V < c and cosθ ≤ 1, hν < 2γmc2

But conservation of energy requires that h  2mc2

Hence, it is impossible for pair production to conserve both energy and momentum
unless some other object is involved in the process to carry away part of the initial
photon momentum.
PH1001/105
Pair production

No conservation principles are

violated when an electron-
positron pair is created near
an atomic nucleus.

 The sum of the charges of the electron (q = - e) and of the positron (q = +e) is
zero, as is the charge of the photon.

 The total energy, including rest energy, of the electron and positron equals the
photon energy.

 The linear momentum is conserved with the help of the nucleus, which carries
away enough photon momentum for the process to occur.

 Because of its relatively enormous mass, the nucleus absorbs only a negligible
fraction of the photon energy.
PH1001/106
Photon Absorption
The three chief ways in which photons of light, X-rays, and gamma rays interact with
matter. In all cases photon energy is transferred to electrons which in turn lose energy
to atoms in the absorbing material.

Pair production requires a photon energy of at least 1.02 MeV.

PH1001/107
Photon Absorption

At low photon energies: the photoelectric effect The greater the atomic number of the
absorber, the higher the energy at which the photoelectric effect remains significant.

In the lighter elements, Compton scattering becomes dominant at photon energies of a few
tens of keV, whereas in the heavier ones this does not happen until photon energies of
nearly 1 MeV are reached

PH1001/108
Photon Absorption

Pair production becomes increasingly likely the more the photon energy exceeds
the threshold of 1.02 MeV.

The greater the atomic number of the absorber, the lower the energy at which pair
production takes over as the principal mechanism of energy loss by gamma rays.

In the heaviest elements, the crossover energy is about 4 MeV, but it is over 10
MeV for the lighter ones.

Thus gamma rays in the energy range typical of radioactive decay interact with
matter largely through Compton scattering.
PH1001/109
Linear attenuation coefficient
The intensity I of an X- or gamma-ray beam is equal to the rate at which it transports
energy per unit cross-sectional area of the beam.

The fractional energy dI/I lost by the beam in passing through a thickness dx of a
certain absorber is found to be proportional to dx: dI
  dx
I
The proportionality constant is called the linear attenuation coefficient and
Its value depends on the energy of the photons and on the nature of the
absorbing material.

Radiation intensity
I  I 0 e  x

Absorber thickness
I
ln 0
x I


The intensity of the radiation decreases exponentially with absorber thickness x.

PH1001/110
PH1001/287
PH1001/288
PH1001/289
PH1001/290
PH1001/291
PH1001/292
PH1001/293
PH1001/294
PH1001/295
PH1001/296
PH1001/297
PH1001/298
PH1001/301
PH1001/302
PH1001/303