EP1108 - Special Relativity Part 1

Shantanu Desai

January 2022

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References for Special Relativity
There are tons of references for special relativity (from basic to
intermediate to advanced). In this class we shall focus on special
relativity covered in Modern Physics books. However, for students
fascinated with the subject, some advanced references shall also be
provided. References for relativity this course are as follows:
I Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser
I Elements of Modern Physics by S.H. Patil
I Introduction to Modern Physics by H.S. Mani and G.K. Mehta
I http:
//galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/home.html
I https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=toGH5BdgRZ4 (Lenny
Susskind youtube lectures on Special Relativity)
I https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.02121 (Advanced)
I Relativity and Common Sense by Hermann Bondi (Advanced
and also includes General Relativity)
I Introduction to Special Relativity by Robert Resnick
(Advanced)
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Prelude- Warmup to Michelson- Morley experiment

The picture of how light behaved circa 1880s

I Light behaves like a wave.
I It propagates in a medium, which permeates all space called
“ether”, and has a fixed velocity with respect to ether
I If we can determine velocity of ether with respect to the Earth,
we can calculate the velocity of light in any direction as seen
by an earth bound observer.
Michelson and Morley designed an ingenuous experiment to
determine the speed of this "Ether wind".
Note however that there were some hints that this picture of "light
propagating in a medium called ether" is not correct, as it was in
conflict with electromagnetism (i.e. Maxwell’s equations)

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Layout of Michelson-Morley experiment
HW: Read about the analogy of two boats across the river. (Ref:
Beiser or this url)

Michelson-Morley experiment

A pulse of light is directed at an angle of 45 degrees at a beam

splitter (half transparent, half silvered), so that half of the pulse
goes through glass and the other half is reflected. Both these
beams are reflected from the distant mirrors and then again to
beamsplitter. They are again half transmitted and half reflected
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Michelson Morley experiment analysis

Michelson-Morley experiment

If there is an ether pervading space, we move through it with the

same speed (v ) as Earth’s motion around the Sun (30 km/sec).
Assume speed of light is denoted by c

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Difference in path lengths

The time taken for light to travel from A to B and back is given by
l1 l1
t1 = +
c −v c +v
The time for light to travel from A to C and back is equal to
2l2
t2 = √
c2− v2
Difference in time (∆ ) is given by:

2l1 c 2l2
∆ = t1 − t2 = −√
c2−v 2
c − v2
2

Path difference = c∆

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If the apparatus is turned by 90◦ , the roles of l1 and l2 are
interchanged and

2l1 2l2 c
∆0 = t10 − t20 = √ − 2
c2−v 2 c − v2
The shift in interference fringe at D is given by

(∆0 − ∆)
δ = c
λ " #
2(l1 + l2 ) 1 1
= −
1 − v 2 /c 2 1 − v 2 /c 2
p
λ
(l1 + l2 ) v 2
 
≈ −
λ c2

In M-M experiment, l1 + l2 ≈ 20m and λ ≈ 5.9 × 10−7 m.

=⇒ δ ≈ 0.37. However, no such shift was observed. Therefore,
the null result of the M-M experiment rendered untenable the ether
hypothesis.
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Postulates of Special Relativity

The special theory of relativity was formulated by Einstein in 1905.

It is based upon the following postulates:
1. The law of physics may be expressed in the same form in all
frames of references moving with a constant velocity with
respect to one another. These frames are also called inertial
frames.
2. The speed of light in free space has the same value for all
observers regardless of their state of motion.
The first postulate also expresses the absence of any universal
frame of reference.

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Galilean Transformations

Consider an inertial frame S’ moving with respect to inertial frame

S at constant velocity v . Event in S ≡ (x,y ,z). What will be the
co-ordinates of this event in the frame S’ (x 0 ,y 0 ,z 0 ,t 0 )?
x 0 = x − vt
y0 = y
z0 = z
t0 = t 9 / 19
Problems with Galilean Transformations
To convert the velocity components in S frame to S’

dx 0
vx0 = = vx − v
dt 0
dy 0
vy0 = 0 = vy
dt
dz 0
vz0 = 0 = vz
dt

This violates the second postulate of special relativity, which

assumes the same speed of light c in all frames of reference. If the
speed of light in the x-direction is frame S to be c, in the S’ system
it will c 0 = c − v .
They are also not consistent with theory of electromagnetism
postulated by Maxwell in 1865.

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Galilean to Lorentz Transformations
We explain how the Galilean transformations can be extended to
incorporate laws of special relativity. Assume

x 0 = k(x − vt) (1)

. Since laws of Physics have the same form in both S and S’, one
can write x in terms of x 0 and t 0 in the same way by replacing v
with −v
x = k(x 0 + vt 0 ) (2)
Since the motion of S’ wrt S is only along X-direction, y 0 = y and
z 0 = z Plugging Eq. 1 into Eq. 2, we get:

x = k 2 (x − vt) + kvt 0

1 − k2
 
0
t = kt + x (3)
kv

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Derivation of Lorentz Transformations
At instant t = 0 the origins of the two frames coincide and t 0 = 0
Suppose a flare is set off at the common origin of S and S’ at t = 0
and the observers in each system proceed to measure the speed at
which light spreads out. From second postulate of relativity both
observers must find the same speed equal to c. Therefore

x = ct (4)
0 0
x = ct (5)

Substituting (1) and (3) in (5)

1 − k2
   
k(x − vt) = c kt + x (6)
kv
 
1 + v /c
=⇒ x = ct (7)
1 − (1/k 2 − 1) vc

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Lorentz Transformations
Comparing (4) and (7)
 
1 + v /c
=1
1 − (1/k 2 − 1) vc
1
=⇒ k = √ . Therefore, Lorentz transformation equations
1−v 2 /c 2
are as follows
1
x0 = p (x − vt) (8)
1 − v 2 /c 2
1
t0 = p (t − vx/c 2 ) (9)
2
1 − v /c 2

y0 = y (10)
0
z =z (11)

Note that if the frame S’ is moving in Y and Z directions, then y’

and z’ will not be the same as y and z
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Inverse Lorentz Transformations
One can go from S’ to S using
1
x=p (x 0 + vt 0 ) (12)
1− v 2 /c 2
1
t=p (t 0 + vx 0 /c 2 ) (13)
1 − v 2 /c 2
y = y0 (14)
0
z =z (15)

Two observations of Lorentz transformations

I Measurements of time as well as position depend upon the
frame of reference of the observer so that two events which
occur simultaneously in one frame at different places need not
be simultaneous in another.
I Lorentz transformations reduce to Galilean transformations
when v << c
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Lorentz-Fitzgerald Length Contraction
Consider a rod lying along the X-axis of a frame of reference S. If
x1 and x2 are coordinates of the end of the rod, length of the rod is
L0 = x2 − x1
Qt: What will be the length of rod (L) measured from the frame
S’ ?
x 0 + vt 0
x1 = p 1
1 − v 2 /c 2
x 0 + vt 0
x2 = p 2
1 − v 2 /c 2
So

L0 = x2 − x1
x 0 − x10
=p 2
1 − v 2 /c 2

By definition: L = x20 − x10

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Therefore,
L
L0 = p
1 − v 2 /c 2
p
or L = L0 1 − v 2 /c 2
Since the relative velocity only appears as v 2 , length contraction is
symmetric between S and S’.

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Time dilation
Clock moving with respect to an observer appears to tick less
rapidly than they do when they are at rest. This is called time
dilation.
Imagine a clock at the point x’ in the moving frame S’. When an
observer in S’ finds the time is equal to t10 , the observer in S will
measure it at t1 . Then we get
0
t10 + vx
c2
t1 = p
1 − v 2 /c 2

For the observer in S’, after a time interval t0 , observer in moving

system finds that time is now t20 according to his clock t0 = t20 − t10 .
The observer in S measures the same interval to be
0
t 0 + vx
t2 = p 2 c2
1 − v 2 /c 2
.
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The total elapsed duration in S is equal to

t 0 − t10
t = t2 − t1 = p 2
1 − v 2 /c 2

Therefore
t0
t=p
1 − v 2 /c 2

A stationary clock measures a longer time interval between events

occurring in a moving frame of reference than does a clock in the
moving frame.

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Time dilation example-Decay of muons
Lifetime of a muon (known as µ-mesons in older books) in its rest
frame is equal to 2µs. Its speed relative to the Earth is equal to
2.994 × 108 seconds. Muons are produced in Earth’s atmosphere,
about 6 km from the surface of the Earth. Non-relativistically, a
muon would cover a distance of l = v τ of 600 m and should never
reach the Earth. However, many such muons are detected on
surface of the Earth. We can analyze this from two points of view
I From Earth: Muon p lifetime undergoes time dilation and is
given by t = τ / 1 − v 2 /c 2 ≈ 32µs The distance travelled by
muon = vt ≈ 9.6 km.
I From muon: Earth moves towards the muon. Distance from
muon to the Earth undergoes length contraction as seen from
the muon.
p The distance as seen from the muon =
0
z = z 1 − v 2 /c 2 ≈ 375m. Therefore, the Earth reaches the
muon after a time t = z 0 /v ≈ 1.25µs < τ , i.e. shorter than
muon lifetime.
This experiment has actually been done Ref: Phys. Lett 55B, 420
(1975) 19 / 19