General Relativity

Harshit Arora
July 2023

1 Introduction to Special Relativity

1.1 Galilean transformations
An event is specified by its location and time (t,x,y,z) relative to one particular
inertial frame of reference S. As an example, (t,x,y,z) could denote the position
of a particle at time t, and we could be looking at these positions for many
different times to follow the motion of the particle. Suppose a second frame
of reference S’ moves with velocity v with respect to the first. For simplicity,
assume this relative velocity is along the x-axis. The relation between the time
and coordinates in the two frames of reference is then given by-
x′ = x − vt (1)
y′ = y (2)
′
z =z (3)
′
t =t (4)
Using the notation (t,x,y,z)=(t,r), equations 1-4 can be generalised to the case
where v is not parallel to an axis as
r’ = r − vt (5)

1.2 Failure of the Galilean group for electrodynamics

1.2.1 Galilean Transformations and Newton’s Laws
Galilean transformations were developed by Galileo Galilei to relate the posi-
tions, velocities, and accelerations of objects between different inertial reference
frames. These transformations are based on the assumptions of absolute time
and space, meaning that time and space are the same for all observers, regardless
of their relative velocities. Newton’s laws of motion, which form the foundation
of classical mechanics, are formulated based on these assumptions.
These laws work well for describing the motion of everyday objects at low ve-
locities compared to the speed of light. Galilean transformations successfully
relate the positions and velocities of these objects between different observers
in inertial frames.

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1.2.2 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetism:
Maxwell’s equations describe the behavior of electric and magnetic fields and
their interactions with charged particles. They were formulated by James Clerk
Maxwell in the mid-19th century and play a fundamental role in electromag-
netism.
Maxwell’s equations, in their differential form, are:

a) Gauss’s Law for Electricity: ∇.E = ϵρ0

This equation relates the electric field (E) to the charge density (ρ) and the
electric constant (ϵ0 ), which represents the permittivity of free space.

b) Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: ∇.B = 0

This equation states that magnetic field lines do not have sources or sinks
(monopoles); magnetic field lines always form closed loops.

c) Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: ∇ × E = − ∂B ∂t

This equation describes how a changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
The negative sign indicates the direction of the induced electric field.

d) Ampère’s Law with Maxwell’s Addition: ∇ × B = µ0 J + ϵ0 µ0 ∂E ∂t

This equation relates the magnetic field (B) to the current density (J) and the
rate of change of the electric field . The term involving ϵ0 µ0 represents the dis-
placement current, which accounts for the changing electric field’s contribution
to the magnetic field.

Maxwell’s equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, including

light, and they unify electric and magnetic phenomena into a coherent theory
of electromagnetism.
As scientists started investigating phenomena at higher velocities, particularly
close to the speed of light, it became clear that Galilean transformations were
inadequate to describe the complete behavior of electric and magnetic fields.
There is an inherent conflict between the symmetry of Maxwell’s equations and
the symmetry of Newton’s second law. They do not change in a consistent way
if we change to a moving frame of reference. We must make a choice between
modifying Maxwell’s equations or modifying Newton’s law.

Lorentz transformations are the appropriate equations for transforming physical

quantities, including electric and magnetic fields, between different inertial ref-
erence frames in the context of special relativity. These transformations involve
a combination of spatial and temporal changes to maintain the constancy of the
speed of light for all observers.
Under Lorentz transformations, Maxwell’s equations maintain their form. This
means that if you were to observe electromagnetic phenomena from a moving
frame of reference, the equations that govern those phenomena would still be
recognizable and consistent. This symmetry is critical to ensuring that electro-

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magnetic laws hold true in different reference frames, even when dealing with
significant relative velocities.

The key consequences of Lorentz transformations are:

a) Time Dilation: Time appears to pass more slowly for an object in motion
relative to a stationary observer.

b) Length Contraction: The length of an object appears to be shorter when

it is moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light.

c) Relativistic Addition of Velocities: The law of addition of velocities is mod-

ified to ensure that no object can move faster than the speed of light in any
inertial frame.

Due to time dilation and length contraction, electric and magnetic fields ob-
served in one reference frame can appear differently to an observer moving
relative to that frame. The electric and magnetic fields are combined into a uni-
fied electromagnetic field tensor, which transforms consistently under Lorentz
transformations.

1.3 Lorentz Boost

A Lorentz boost is a fundamental transformation that arises in the theory of
special relativity. A Lorentz boost is a coordinate transformation that relates the
measurements of space and time between two inertial reference frames moving
relative to each other at a constant velocity. It accounts for the effects of time
dilation and length contraction, which are peculiar phenomena that arise when
objects move at relativistic speeds.
In the context of Lorentz transformations, the space-time interval between
two events is preserved, meaning that it is an invariant quantity, regardless of the
observer’s reference frame. Lorentz boosts play a crucial role in understanding
the equivalence of different reference frames in special relativity.
Consider an observer in frame F records an event at t,x,y,z, and another
observer in the frame F’, moving with a velocity v in the x direction, records
the same event with the coordinates

x′ = γ(x − vt) (6)

y′ = y (7)
z′ = z (8)
vx
t′ = γ(t − 2 ) (9)
c
where
1
γ=q (10)
v2
1− c2

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Using the notation (t,x,y,z)=(t,r)
r can be spilt into components perpendicular(1) and parallel(2) to v

r = r1 + r2 (11)
and r’ as
r’ = r1 ’ + r2 ’ (12)
Then the coordinate transformations are as

r2 ’ = γ(r2 − vt) (13)

r1 ’ = r1 (14)
r2 = (r.n)n, r1 = r - (r.n)n
where n represents the direction of motion
So, the Lorentz boost in direction n is given as

r’ = r + (γ − 1)(r.n)n − vtnγ (15)

vn.r
t′ = γ(t − ) (16)
c2

1.4 Electrodynamics and Relativity

Consider a string of positive charges moving along to the right at speed v.
Assume the charges are close enough together so that string can be supposed
to have a continuous line charge λ. Superimposed on this positive string is a
negative one, −λ proceeding to the left at the same speed v. We have, then, a
net current to the right, of magnitude

I = 2λv (17)

Meanwhile, a distance s away there is a point charge q travelling to the right at

speed u¡v. Because the two line charges cancel, there is no electrical force on q
in this system(S). Consider the frame S’, which moves right with the speed u.
In this reference frame, q is at rest. The velocities of the positive and negative
lines is written as
v∓u
v± = (18)
1 ∓ vu
c2
Because v− is greater than v+ , the Lorentz contraction of the spacing between
-ve charges is more severe than that between the positive charges. In the S’
frame, the wire carries a net -ve charge.

λ± = ±(γ± )λ0 (19)

where
1
γ± = q 2
(20)
v±
1− c2

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 1
γ± = q (21)
1 vu −2
1− c2 (v ∓ u)2 (1 ∓ c2 )

The net line charge in S’ is thus given as

−2λuv
λtot = λ− + λ+ = λ0 (γ+ − γ− ) = q (22)
2
c2 1 − uc2

λtot
The line charge sets up an electric field, E = 2πϵ0 s ,
So, there is an electrical force on q in S’,
λv qu
F ′ = qE = − 2
q (23)
πϵ0 c s 1 − u2
c2

The force in S is given by

r
u2 ′ λv qu
F = 1− F = (24)
c2 πϵ0 c2 s

where c2 = (ϵ0 µ0 )−1 , and I = 2λv (equation 17) So, equation 24 can be written
into a more familiar form as
µ0 I
F = −qu( ) (25)
2πs
This force is precisely the expression for Lorentz force law in system
S. The term in parenthesis is the magnetic field of a long straight
wire.

1.5 Field Transformations

Consider a system S0 in which a parallel plate capacitor is aligned along the
xz plane. The charges are at rest and therefore there is no magnetic field. To
derive a general rule for field transformations, consider a system S, again with a
parallel plate capacitor in the xz plane, with both electric and magnetic fields.

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 S is moving with a velocity v0 with respect to S0 . The electric field is given
by-
σ
Ey = (26)
ϵ0
and there is a magnetic field due to the surface currents

K± = ∓σv0 x̂ (27)

According to the right hand rule, the magnetic field points in the -ve z direction.
The magnitude of this field can be given by Ampere’s law

Bz = −µ0 σv0 (28)

Consider another system S̄ which is travelling to the right with the speed v
relative to S. The fields would be
σ̄
Ēy = (29)
ϵ
B̄z = −µ0 σ̄v̄ (30)
where-

v̄ = qv+v0 , γ̄ = q 1
vv 2
1+ c20 1− vc2

σ̄ = γ̄σ0 (31)
γ̄ σ
Ēy = ( ) (32)
γ0 ϵ
γ̄
B̄z = −( )µ0 σv̄ (33)
γ0
γ̄
We can write γ as
γ̄ vv0
= γ(1 + 2 ) (34)
γ c
Thus writing Ēy and B̄z in terms of the components of E and B in S gives us

Ēy = γ(Ey − vBz ) (35)

v
B̄z = γ(Bz − Ey ) (36)
c2
If we allign the same capacitor parallel to the xy plan instead of the xz plane
the fields in S become
σ
Ez = ϵ0 , By = µ0 σv0

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Writing Ēz and B̄y in terms of the components of E and B in S gives us

Ēz = γ(Ez − vBy ) (37)

v
B̄y = γ(By + Ez ) (38)
c2
If the capacitor is placed parallel to the yz plane then

Ēx = Ex (39)

In this case there is no accompanying magnetic field, we cannot determine a

transformation rule for the x component of B. Therefore consider a long solenoid
aligned parallel to the x axis at rest in the system S. Then

Bx = µ0 nI (40)

where n is the number of turns and I is the current. Due to length contraction
in S̄ and time dilation in S
n̄ = γn , I¯ = γ1 I

Therefore the transformation of Bx

B̄x = Bx (41)

1.6 The Field Strength Tensor

It is clear that E and B do not transform like the spatial parts of the two 4-
vectors, the components of E and Bare stirred together when we move from one
inertial frame to another. So, to consider an object which has six components
and transforms according to the field transformations is an anti-symmetric, sec-
ond rank tensor, called the Field Strength tensor.
A second rank tensor transforms as

t̄µν = Λµλ Λνδ tλδ (42)

tµν = −tνµ (43)

Thus the antisymmetric tensor has the form

 

 0 t01 t02 t03 

 01
−t 0 t12 t13

tµν =

 −t02 −t12 0 23
t  
 03
−t −t13 −t23 0


Determine the transformation rules for the six distinct components

t̄01 = Λ00 Λ10 t00 + Λ00 Λ11 t01 + Λ01 Λ10 t10 + Λ01 Λ11 t11 = t01 (44)

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Similarly, transformation rules for other five components can be determined.
The complete set of transformation rules is

t̄01 = t01 (45)

t̄02 = γ(t02 − βt12 ) (46)

t̄03 = γ(t03 + βt31) (47)

t̄23 = t23 (48)

t̄31 = γ(t02 + βt03 ) (49)

t̄12 = γ(t12 − βt02 ) (50)

On direct comparison with equations the or transformations we can see that the
physical grounds for transforming electromagnetic is similar to equations 35-
40.We get- We can construct the Field Tensor F µν by comparing the elements
of the tensor to the equations we obtained earlier.
 Ex Ey Ez

 0 c c c 
 Ex
 
− c 0 Bz By

µν
F = Ey
− −Bz 0 Bx 
 Ecz

 

− c By −Bx 0
Thus relativity allows us to combine the electric and magnetic fields into a single
entity, F µν .

If the substitution, Ec → B and B → −E c , is made in equations 26-31, we get

the same set of transformations except their order is changed, and comparing
the changed order with equations 35-40 leads to dual tensor, Gµν :
 
 0 Bx By Bz 
Ey 
− Ecz

−Bx 0
 
µν c
G = Ez Ex
B 0 − c 
 y c

 
Ey Ex
−Bz − c

c 0

1.7 Electrodynamics in Tensor Notation

After representing fields in relativistic notations, we reformulate the laws of
electrodynamics in tensor notation. We first need to determine how the sources
of the fields. ρ and J, transform. Imagine a cloud of charge that is moving, and
consider an infinitesimal volume V, which contains charge Q moving at velocity
u, the charge density is given by
Q
ρ= , J = ρu (51)
V

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In the rest system of the the charge
Q V0
ρ0 = ,V = (52)
V0 γ
Equations 51 can be written as-
ρ = ρ0 γ, J = ρ0 uγ (53)
Charge density and current density together make a 4-vector, called the current
density 4-vector:
J µ = ρ0 η µ (54)
whose components are
J µ = (cρ, Jx , Jy , Jz ) (55)
The continuity equation,
∂ρ
∇.J = − (56)
∂t
∂Jx ∂Jy ∂Jz ∂J i
∇.J = + + = (57)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂xi
while
∂ρ 1 ∂J 0 ∂J 0
= = (58)
∂t c ∂t ∂x0
In equation 56 − ∂ρ
∂t can be moved over to the right side
∂J µ
=0 (59)
∂xµ
So, the continuity equation states that the current density 4-vector is diver-
genceless.

In this notation, Maxwell’s equations can be written as-

∂F µν µ ∂Gµν
= µ0 J , =0 (60)
∂xµ ∂xν
Each of these stands for four equations- one for every value of µ. For µ = 0 the
first equation is

1 ∂Ex ∂Ey ∂Ez 1

= ( + + ) = (∇.E) (61)
c ∂x ∂y ∂z c
1 1
µ0 J 0 = µ0 cρ = (∇.E), → ∇.E = ρ (62)
c ϵ0
Thus we get the Gauss’s Law.

If µ = 1, we have
∂F 1 ν ∂F 10 ∂F 11 ∂F 12 ∂F 13
ν
= 0
+ 1
+ 2
+ (63)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x3

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 1 ∂Ex ∂Bz ∂Ey 1 ∂E
=− 2
( + − ) = (− 2 ( + ∇ × B)x (64)
c ∂x ∂y ∂z c ∂t
µ0 J 1 = µ0 Jx (65)
Comparing this with the equations corresponding to µ = 2 and µ = 3 gives
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 ϵ0 ∂E
∂t
which is Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction.

If µ = 0, the second equation in 60 becomes

∂G0 ν ∂G00 ∂G01 ∂G02 ∂G03
= + + + (66)
∂xν ∂x0 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
= ∇.B = 0 (67)
For µ = 1
∂G1 ν ∂G10 ∂G11 ∂G12 ∂G13
ν
= 0
+ 1
+ 2
+ (68)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x3
1 ∂B
=− ( + ∇ × E)x = 0 (69)
c ∂t
Comparing this with the equations corresponding to µ = 2 and µ = 3 gives,
∇ × E = − ∂B
∂t
which is Faraday’s law.

In terms of the Field energy tensor F µ ν, the Minkowski force on a charge q

is given by
K µ = qην F µν (70)
where ην is the proper velocity.

For µ = 1, we have
K 1 = qην F 1ν
q −1
u2
=q 1− c2 [E + (u × B)]x
For µ = 2 and µ = 3, the formula is similar, thus
r −1
u2
K = q 1 − 2 [E + (u × B)] (71)
c
Minkowski Force can be written as
dpµ
Kµ ≡ (72)
dτ
dt dp 1
K=( ) =q F (73)
dτ dt 1− u
2
c2
Therefore,
F = q[E + (u × B)]
This equation represents the Lorentz force law.

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1.8 Relativistic Potentials
Electric fields can be expressed as-
∂A
E = −∇V − (74)
∂t
and magnetic fields as-
B=∇×A (75)
where V is a scalar potential and A is a vector potential.

Aµ = (V /c, Ax , Ay , Az ) (76)

In terms if this 4-vector potential, the electromagnetic field tensor can be written
as
∂Aν ∂Aµ
F µν = − (77)
∂xµ ∂xν
This expression can be verified for different values of µ and ν.

∂ ∂Aν ∂ ∂Aµ
( ν )− ( ) = µ0 J µ (78)
∂xµ ∂x ∂xν ∂xν
1 ∂V
∇.A = − (79)
c2 ∂t
becomes, in relativistic equation,
∂Aµ
=0 (80)
∂xµ
In the lorentz gauge, equation 78 reduces to

□2 Aµ = −µ0 J µ (81)

where □2 is the d’ Alembertian

∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
□2 = ∂xν ∂xν = ∇2 − c2 ∂t2

To prove the covariance of the Maxwell’s equations under Lorentz Transforma-

tion, consider equation 81. If the equation shows

□2 Āµ = −µ0 J¯µ (82)

then it can be considered to be Lorentz covariant. First determine the transfor-

mation rules for Aµ
Āµ = Λµν Aν (83)
Vγ vγ
Ā0 = − A1 (84)
c c
−V γv
Ā1 = + A1 γ (85)
c2

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 Ā2 = A2 (86)
Ā3 = A3 (87)
µ
and J
J¯µ = Λµν J ν (88)
γv
J¯0 = cργ − J 1 (89)
c
¯1
J = −ργv + J γ 1
(90)
¯2
J =J 2
(91)
J¯3 = J 3 (92)
Now using the de’Alembertian operator on the transformed vector field
¯ 2 Āµ = □2 Āµ
□ (93)

Vγ vγ
□2 Ā0 = □2 ( − A1 ) (94)
c c
Vγ vγ
= (□2 − □ 2 A1 ) (95)
c c
−ργ vγ
=( + µ0 J 1 ) (96)
ϵ0 c c
= −µ0 J¯1
(97)
Similary, the same set of operations can be conducted over values of µ, and
combining them we obtain the equation 82.

1.9 Fluids
In many situations in astrophysical GR, the source of the gravitational field
can be taken to be a perfect fluid as a first approximation. In general, a ’fluid’
can be considered as a continuum. A continuum is a collection of particles so
numerous that the dynamics of individual particles cannot be followed, allowing
descriptions of the collection as average or bulk quantities: density of energy,
number of particles per unit volume, density of momentum, pressure, tempera-
ture, etc.

A fluid is basically a continuum that flows, although most solids will flow under
high enough pressure as well. Th difference between the two comes from the
forces parallel to the interface between two elements. A continuum isn’t rigid
unless it can prevent elements from sliding along their common boundary.

A perfect fluid is defined as one in which all anti-slipping forces are zero, and
the only force between neighbouring fluid elements is pressure.

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1.9.1 Dust
Dust is considered to be a collection of particles, all of which are at rest in
some one Lorentz Frame. It is the simplest case to understand the relativistic
description of a fluid.

[Not sure how much to write about fluids yet ]

1.10 Stress-energy Tensor

Newtonian theory gives mass as the ’source’ of the gravitational field. However,
in relativistic theory, mass, energy and momentum are all related, expresses in
the energy-momentum reltion-

E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 (98)

It therefore seems reasonable to assume that the source of the gravitational field
in the general relativity should include momentum and energy in addition to
mass.
Recall that four-momentum is given by

P µ = (E/c, p) = (E/c, px , py , pz ) (99)

and provides a complete description of the total relativistic energy E (its time
component) and relativistic momentum p (its spatial components) of a particle.
The density and flow of this river of four-momentum is the source of the grav-
itational field in general relativity. A tool is thus required to describe the mo-
mentum and energy of not one particle but many. This tool is the energy-
momentum tensor, T µν , also known as the stress-energy tensor. The
stress-energy tensor in terms of its components in some arbitrary frame can be
written as
˜ α , dx
T(dx ˜ β ) = T αβ := flux of α momentum across a surface of constant xβ

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