Undulating Relativity
Author: Alfredo Dimas Moreira Garcia
E-mail: avaliac@sjc.sp.gov.br
ABSTRACT
The Special Theory of Relativity takes us to two results that presently are considered “inexplicable” to many
renowned scientists, to know:
-The dilatation of time, and
-The contraction of the Lorentz Length.
The solution to these have driven the author to the development of the Undulating Relativity (UR) theory,
where the Temporal variation is due to the differences on the route of the light propagation and the lengths
are constants between two landmarks in uniform relative movement.
The Undulating Relativity provides transformations between the two landmarks that differs from the
transformations of Lorentz for: Space (x,y,z), Time (t), Speed ( u ), Acceleration ( a ), Energy (E), Momentum
( p ), Force ( F ), Electrical Field ( E ), Magnetic Field ( B ), Light Frequency ( y ), Electrical Current ( J ) and
“Electrical Charge” ( ρ ).
From the analysis of the development of the Undulating Relativity, the following can be synthesized:
- It is a theory with principles completely on physics;
- The transformations are linear;
- Keeps untouched the Euclidian principles;
- Considers the Galileo’s transformation distinct on each referential;
- Ties the Speed of Light and Time to a unique phenomenon;
- The Lorentz force can be attained by two distinct types of Filed Forces, and
- With the absence of the spatial contraction of Lorentz, to reach the same classical results of the special
relativity rounding is not necessary as concluded on the Doppler effect.
Both, the Undulating Relativity and the Special Relativity of Albert Einstein explain the experience of Michel-
Morley, the longitudinal and transversal Doppler effect, and supplies exactly identical formulation to:
v v2
Aberration of zenith tgα
/ 1 2 .
c c
c 1
Fresnel’s formula c' v(1 2 ) .
n n
v2
Mass ( m ) with velocity ( v ) = [resting mass ( mo )]/ 1 2 .
c
E m.c .
2
Momentum p mo.v .
2
1 v2
c
Relation between momentum (p) and Energy (E) E c. mo .c p .
2 2 2
V
Relation between the electric field ( E ) and the magnetic field ( B ) B 2 E .
c
μο .I
Biot-Savant’s formula B μ.
2.π . R
x c2
Louis De Broglie’s wave equation ψ(x,t) a . s i n 2 πγ t ; u
u v
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Other Works:
§ 9 Explaining the Sagnac Effect with the Undulating Relativity.
§ 10 Explaining the experience of Ives-Stilwell with the Undulating Relativity.
§ 11 Transformation of the power of a luminous ray between two referencials in the Special Theory of
Relativity.
§ 12 Linearity.
§ 13 Richard C. Tolman.
§ 14 Velocities composition.
§ 15 Invariance.
§ 16 Time and Frequency.
§ 17 Transformation of H. Lorentz.
§ 18 The Michelson & Morley experience.
§ 19 Regression of the perihelion of Mercury of 7,13”.
§§ 19 Advance of Mercury’s perihelion of 42.79”.
§ 20 Inertia.
§ 20 Inertia (clarifications)
§ 21 Advance of Mercury’s perihelion of 42.79” calculated with the Undulating Relativity.
§ 22 Spatial Deformation.
§ 23 Space and Time Bend.
§ 24 Variational Principle.
§ 25 Logarithmic Spiral.
§ 26 Mercury Perihelion Advance of 42.99".
§ 27 Advancement of Perihelion of Mercury of 42.99” "contour Conditions".
§ 28 Simplified Periellium Advance.
§ 29 Yukawa Potential Energy “Continuation”.
§ 30 Energy Continuation Clarifications
§ 31 Simple Quantum Mechanics Deduction of Erwin Schrödinger's Equations
§ 32 Relativistic Version of Erwin Schö dinger Equation
§33 Hyperbolic Relativistic Energy
§34 Hyperbolic equations similar to Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac's equations
§ 35 The Geometry of Transformations by Hendrik Lorentz
§ 35 Continuation
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Author: Alfredo Dimas Moreira Garcia
e-mail: avaliac@sjc.sp.gov.br
Translator: Rodolfo Marcos Venâncio
e-mail: sooter@terra.com.br
Undulating Relativity
§ 1 Transformation to space and time
The Undulating Relativity (UR) keep the principle of the relativity and the principle of Constancy of light
speed, exactly like Albert Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory defined:
a) The laws, under which the state of physics systems are changed are the same, either when referred to a
determined system of coordinates or to any other that has uniform translation movement in relation to the
first.
b) Any ray of light moves in the resting coordinates system with a determined velocity c, that is the same,
whatever this ray is emitted by a resting body or by a body in movement (which explains the experience of
Michel-Morley).
Let’s imagine first that two observers O and O’ (in vacuum), moving in uniform translation movement in
relation to each other, that is, the observer don’t rotate relatively to each other. In this way, the observer O
together with the axis x, y, and z of a system of a rectangle Cartesian coordinates, sees the observer O’
move with velocity v, on the positive axis x, with the respective parallel axis and sliding along with the x axis
while the O’, together with the x’, y’ and z’ axis of a system of a rectangle Cartesian coordinates sees O
moving with velocity –v’, in negative direction towards the x’ axis with the respective parallel axis and sliding
along with the x’ axis. The observer O measures the time t and the O’ observer measures the time t’ (t ≠ t’).
Let’s admit that both observers set their clocks in such a way that, when the coincidence of the origin of the
coordinated system happens t = t’ = zero.
In the instant that t = t’ = 0, a ray of light is projected from the common origin to both observers. After the
time interval t the observer O will notice that his ray of light had simultaneously hit the coordinates point A (x,
y, z) with the ray of the O’ observer with velocity c and that the origin of the system of the O’ observer has
run the distance v t along the positive way of the x axis, concluding that:
2 2 2 2 2
x +y +z –c t =0 1.1
x’ = x – v t. 1.2
The same way after the time interval t’ the O’ observer will notice that his ray of light simultaneously hit with
the observer O the coordinate point A (x’, y’, z’) with velocity c and that the origin of the system for the
observer O has run the distance v’t’ on the negative way of the axis x’, concluding that:
2 2 2 2 2
x’ + y’ + z’ – c t’ = 0 1.3
x = x’ + v’ t’. 1.4
Making 1.1 equal to 1.3 we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x + y + z – c t = x’ + y’ + z’ – c t’ . 1.5
Because of the symmetry y = y’ end z = z’, that simplify 1.5 in
2 2 2 2 2 2
x – c t = x’ – c t’ . 1.6
To the observer O x’ = x – v t (1.2) that applied in 1.6 supplies
2 2 2 2 2 2
x – c t = (x – v t) – c t’ from where
v 2 2vx
t' t 1 . 1.7
c 2 c 2t
To the observer O’ x = x’ + v’ t’ (1.4) that applied in 1.6 supplies
2 2 2 2 2 2
(x’ + v’ t’) – c t = x’ – c t’ from where
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v' 2 2v' x'
t t' 1 2 . 1.8
c2 c t'
Table I, transformations to the space and time
x’ = x – v t 1.2 x = x’ + v’ t’ 1.4
y’ = y 1.2.1 y = y’ 1.4.1
z’ = z 1.2.2 z = z’ 1.4.2
v 2 2vx v'2 2v' x'
t' t 1 1.7 t t' 1 2 1.8
c 2 c 2t c2 c t'
From the equation system formed by 1.2 and 1.4 we find
v t = v’ t’ or v t v't ' (considering t>o e t’>0) 1.9
what demonstrates the invariance of the space in the Undulatory Relatitivy.
From the equation system formed by 1.7 and 1.8 we find
v 2 2vx v' 2 2v' x'
1 . 1 2 = 1. 1.10
c 2 c 2t c2 c t'
If in 1.2 x’ = 0 then x = v t, that applied in 1.10 supplies,
v2 2
1 2
. 1 v' 2 = 1. 1.11
c c
If in 1.10 x = ct and x’ = c t’ then
v v'
1 .1 1 . 1.12
c c
To the observer O the principle of light speed constancy guarantees that the components ux, uy and uz of
the light speed are also constant along its axis, thus
x dx y dy z dz
ux , uy , uz 1.13
t dt t dt t dt
and then we can write
v 2 2vx v 2 2vux
1 = 1 2 . 1.14
c 2 c 2t c2 c
With the use of 1.7 and 1.9 and 1.14 we can write
v t' v 2 2vx v 2 2vux
= 1 2 2 = 1 2 . 1.15
v' t c c t c c2
Differentiating 1.9 with constant v and v’, or else, only the time varying we have
v dt '
v dt v' dt ' or , 1.16
v' dt
v v 2 2vux v 2 2vux
but from 1.15 1 then dt ' dt 1 2 . 1.17
v' c2 c2 c2 c
v t'
Being v and v’ constants, the reazons and in 1.15 must also be constant because fo this the
v' t
v 2 2vx x dx
differential of 1 2 2 must be equal to zero from where we conclude ux , that is exactly
c c t t dt
the same as 1.13.
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To the observer O’ the principle of Constancy of velocity of light guarantees that the components u’x’, u’y’,
and u’z’ of velocity of light are also constant alongside its axis, thus
x' dx' y' dy' z' dz'
u' x' , u' y' , u' z' , 1.18
t' dt' t' dt' t' dt'
and with this we can write ,
v' 2 2v' x' v' 2 2v' u ' x'
1 = 1 . 1.19
c2 c 2t ' c2 c2
With the use of 1.8, 1.9, and 1.19 we can write
v't v' 2 2v' x' v' 2 2v' u ' x'
= 1 2 2 = 1 2 . 1.20
v t' c c t' c c2
Differentiating 1.9 with v’ and v constant, that is, only the time varying we have
v' dt
v' dt ' v dt or , 1.21
v dt '
v'v' 2 2v' u ' x' v'2 2v' u ' x'
but from 1.20 1 2 then dt dt ' 1 . 1.22
v c c2 c2 c2
v' t
Being v’ and v constant the divisions and in 1.20 also have to be constant because of this the
v t'
v' 2 2v' x' x' dx'
differential of 1 2
2 must be equal to zero from where we conclude u' x' , that is
c c t' t ' dt '
exactly like to 1.18.
Replacing 1.14 and 1.19 in 1.10 we have
v 2 2vux v'2 2v' u ' x'
1 2 2 . 1 2 = 1. 1.23
c c c c2
To the observer O the vector position of the point A of coordinates (x,y,z) is
R x i yj z k , 1.24
and the vector position of the origin of the system of the observer O’ is
Ro' vti 0 j 0k Ro' vti . 1.25
To the observer O’, the vector position of the point A of coordinates (x’,y’,z’) is
R' x' i y ' j z ' k , 1.26
and the vector position of the origin of the system of the observer O is
R ' o v ' t ' i 0 j 0 k R ' o v ' t ' i . 1.27
Due to 1.9, 1.25, and 1.27 we have, Ro' R ' o . 1.28
As 1.24 is equal to 1.25 plus 1.26 we have
R Ro' R' R ' R Ro' . 1.29
Applying 1.28 in 1.29 we have, R R' R' o . 1.30
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To the observer O the vector velocity of the origin of the system of the observer O’ is
dRo'
v vi 0 j 0 k v vi . 1.31
dt
To the observer O’ the vector velocity of the origin of the system of the observer O is
dR ' o
v' v ' i 0 j 0k v ' v ' i . 1.32
dt '
From 1.15, 1.20, 1.31, and 1.32 we find the following relations between v and v '
v'
v 1.33
v ' 2 2v ' u ' x '
1 2
c c2
v
v' . 1.34
v 2 2vux
1 2 2
c c
Observation: in the table I the formulas 1.2, 1.2.1, and 1.2.2 are the components of the vector 1.29 and the
formulas 1.4, 1.4.1, and 1.4.2 are the components of the vector 1.30.
§2 Law of velocity transformations u and u'
Differentiating 1.29 and dividing it by 1.17 we have
dR ' dR dRo' u v u v
u' . 2.1
dt ' v 2 2vux v 2 2vux K
dt 1 2 2 1 2 2
c c c c
Differentiating 1.30 and dividing it by 1.22 we have
dR dR'dR' o u 'v ' u 'v '
u . 2.2
dt v' 2 2v' u ' x' v' 2 2v' u ' x' K'
dt ' 1 2 1 2
c c2 c c2
Table 2, Law of velocity transformations u and u'
u v u ' v '
u' 2.1 u 2.2
K K'
ux v u ' x ' v '
u ' x' 2.3 ux 2.4
K K'
uy u' y'
u' y' 2.3.1 uy 2.4.1
K K'
uz u' z'
u' z' 2.3.2 uz 2.4.2
K K'
v v'
v' 1.15 v 1.20
K K'
v 2 2vux v' 2 2v' u ' x'
K 1 2 2.5 K' 1 2.6
c2 c c2 c2
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Multiplying 2.1 by itself we have
v 2 2vux
u 1 2
u' u2 u . 2.7
2
v 2vux
1 2 2
c c
If in 2.7 we make u = c then u’ = c as it is required by the principle of constancy of velocity of light.
Multiplying 2.2 by itself we have
v'2 2v' u ' x'
u' 1
u u'2 u '2 . 2.8
v'2 2v' u ' x'
1 2
c c2
If in 2.8 we make u’ = c then u = c as it is required by the principle of constancy of velocity of light.
cv
If in 2.3 we make ux = c then u ' x' c as it is required by the principle of constancy of
v 2 2vc
1 2 2
c c
velocity of light.
c v'
If in 2.4 we make u’x’ = c then ux c as it is required by the principle of constancy of
v ' 2 2v ' c
1 2 2
c c
velocity of light.
Remodeling 2.7 and 2.8 we have
u2
1
v 2 2vux c2 .
1 2 = 2.9
c2 c u '2
1 2
c
u'2
1
v' 2 2v' u ' x' c2 .
1 = 2.10
c2 c2 u2
1 2
c
The direct relations between the times and velocities of two points in space can be obtained with the
equalities u ' 0 u' x' 0 ux v coming from 2.1, that applied in 1.17, 1.22, 1.20, and 1.15 supply
v 2 2vv dt '
dt ' dt 1 dt , 2.11
c2 c2 v2
1 2
c
v' 2 2v' 0 dt
dt dt' 1 2 dt' , 2.12
c2 c v' 2
1 2
c
v' v'
v v , 2.13
v' 2 2v' 0 v' 2
1 2 2 1 2
c c c
v v
v' v' . 2.14
v 2 2vv v2
1 2 2 1 2
c c c
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Aberration of the zenith
To the observer O’ along with the star u’x’ = 0, u’y’ = c and u’z’ = 0, and to the observer O along with the
Earth we have the conjunct 2.3
ux v uy v2
0 ux v , c uy c 1 , uz = 0,
v 2 2vux v 2 2vv c2
1 2 1
c2 c c2 c2
2
v2
u ux 2 uy 2 uz 2 v 2 c 1 2 0 2 c exactly as foreseen by the principle of relativity.
c
To the observer O the light propagates in a direction that makes an angle with the vertical axis y given by
ux v v/c
tangα 2.15
uy v2 v2
c. 1 2 1 2
c c
that is the aberration formula of the zenith in the special relativity .
If we inverted the observers we would have the conjunct 2.4
u'x' v' u'y' v' 2
0 u'x' v' , c u'y' c 1 , u’z’=0,
v' 2 2v'u'x' v' 2 2v' v' c2
1 1
c2 c2 c2 c2
2
v' 2
u' u'x' u'y' u'z'
2 2 2
v' 2
c 1 2
02 c
c
u'x' v' v'/c
tangα 2.16
u'y' v' 2 v' 2
c. 1 2 1 2
c c
that is equal to 2.15, with the negative sign indicating the contrary direction of the angles.
Fresnel’s formula
Considering in 2.4, u ' x' c / n the velocity of light relativily to the water, v ' v the velocity of water in
relation to the apparatus then ux c' will be the velocity of light relatively to the laboratory
1
c/ nv c/ nv v 2 2v 1 v 2v
2
c 2
c
c' v 1 2 v 1 2
v 2 2vc / n v 2 2v n c nc n 2 c nc
1 2 2
1 2
c c c nc
2 2
Ignoring the term v / c we have
c v c v v2
c ' v 1 v 2
n nc n n nc
2
and ignoring the term v / nc we have the Fresnel’s formula
c v c 1
c ' v 2 v 1 2 . 2.17
n n n n
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Doppler effect
Making r 2 x2 y2 z 2 and r' 2 x' 2 y' 2 z' 2 in 1.5 we have r 2 c 2 t 2 r' 2 c 2 t' 2 or
r ct r' ct' r' ct' replacing then r ct , r ' ct' and 1.7 we find r ct r' ct' 1
v 2 2vx
r ct c 2 c 2t
2
w w' 1
as c then kr wt 1 k' r' w' t' 1 v 2 2vx where to attend the principle of relativity
k k' k k' c c 2t
v 2 2vx
we will define k' k 1 2.18
c 2 c 2t
Resulting in the expression kr wt k' r' w' t' symmetric and invariable between the observers.
To the observer O an expression in the formula of ψ r,t f kr wt 2.19
represents a curve that propagates in the direction of R . To the observer O’ an expression in the formula of
ψ' r' ,t' f' k' r' w' t' 2.20
represents a curve that propates in the direction of R ' .
2π 2π
Applying in 2.18 k , k' , 1.14, 1.19, 1.23, 2.5, and 2.6 we have
λ λ'
λ λ'
λ' e λ , 2.21
K K'
that applied in c yλ y' λ' supply, y' y K and y y' K ' . 2.22
Considering the relation of Planck-Einstein between energy ( E ) and frequency ( y ), we have to the
observer O E hy and to the observer O’ E' hy' that replaced in 2.22 supply
E ' E K and E E ' K ' . 2.23
If the observer O that sees the observer O’ moving with velocity v in a positive way to the axis x, emits
waves of frequency y and velocity c in a positive way to the axis x then, according to 2.22 and ux c the
v
observer O’ will measure the waves with velocity c and frequency y' y1 , 2.24
c
that is exactly the classic formula of the longitudinal Doppler effect.
If the observer O’ that sees the observer O moving with velocity –v’ in the negative way of the axis x’, emits
waves of frequency y' and velocity c, then the observer O according to 2.22 and u' x' v' will measure
waves of frequency y and velocity c in a perpendicular plane to the movement of O’ given by
v' 2
γ γ' 1 , 2.25
c2
that is exactly the formula of the transversal Doppler effect in the Special Relativity.
§3 Transformations of the accelerations a and a'
Differentiating 2.1 and dividing it by 1.17 we have
du' du / K v dux / K K a v ax
u v 2 a' u v 2 2 . 3.1
dt' dt K c dt K K c K
Differentiating 2.2 and dividing it by 1.22 we have
du du' / K' v' du' x' / K' K' a' v' a' x'
u' v' 2 a u' v' 2 . 3.2
dt dt' K' c dt' K' K' c K' 2
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Table 3, transformations of the accelerations a and a'
a v ax a' v' a' x'
a' u v 2 2 3.1 a u' v' 2 2 3.2
K c K K' c K'
ax v ax a' x' v' a' x'
a' x' ux v 2 2 3.3 ax u' x' v' 2 2 3.4
K c K K' c K'
ay v ax a' y' v' a' x'
a' y' uy 2 2 3.3.1 ay u' y' 2 2 3.4.1
K c K K' c K'
az v ax a' z' v' a' x'
a' z' uz 2 2 3.3.2 az u' z' 2 2 3.4.2
K c K K' c K'
a a'
a' 3.8 a 3.9
K K'
v 2 2vux v' 2 2v' u' x'
K 1 2 2 3.5 K' 1 2 3.6
c c c c2
From the tables 2 and 3 we can conclude that if to the observer O u .a zero and c 2 ux 2 uy 2 uz 2 ,
then it is also to the observer O’ u'.a' zero and c u' x' u' y' u' z' , thus u is perpendicular to a
2 2 2 2
and u' is perpendicular to a' as the vectors theory requires.
Differentiating 1.9 with the velocities and the times changing we have, tdv vdt t' dv' v' dt' , but
considering 1.16 we have, vdt v' dt' tdv t' dv' 3.7
dv' dv a
Where replacing 1.15 and dividing it by 1.17 we have, or a' . 3.8
dt' dtK K
We can also replace 1.20 in 3.7 and divide it by 1.22 deducing
dv dv' a'
or a . 3.9
dt dt' K' K'
The direct relations between the modules of the accelerations a and a’ of two points in space can be
obtained with the u' 0 u' x' 0 a' x' 0 u v ux v coming from 2.1, that applied in 3.8 and
3.9 supply
a a a' a'
a' 2
2
and a 2
. 3.10
v 2vv v v' 2v' 0 v' 2
1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
c c c c c c
That can also be reduced from 3.1 and 3.2 if we use the same equalities
u' 0 u' x' 0 a' x' 0 u v ux v coming from 2.1.
§4 Transformations of the Moments p and p'
Defined as p mu u and p' m' u' u ' , 4.1
where mu and m' u' symbolizes the function masses of the modules of velocities u u and u' u' .
We will have the relations between m u and m' u' and the resting mass mo, analyzing the elastic
collision in a plane between the sphere s that for the observer o moves alongside the axis y with velocity uy
= w and the sphere s’ that for the observer O’ moves alongside the axis y’ with velocity u’y’ = -w. The
spheres while observed in relative resting are identical and have the mass mo. The considered collision is
symmetric in relation to a parallel line to the axis y and y’ passing by the center of the spheres in the moment
of. Collision.
Before and after the collision the spheres have velocities observed by O and O’ according to the following
table gotten from table 2
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Sphere Observer O Observer O’
uxs zero , uys w v' 2
Before s u' x' s v' , u' y' s w 1
c2
v2
Collision s’ uxs' v , uys' w 1 u' x' s' zero , u' y' s' w
c2
uxs zero , uys w
v' 2
After s u' x' s v' , u' y' s w 1
c2
v2
Collision s’ uxs' v , uys' w 1 u' x' s' zero , u' y' s' w
c2
To the observer O, the principle of conservation of moments establishes that the moments px mu ux
and py m u uy , of the spheres s and s’ in relation to the axis x and y, remain constant before and after
the collision thus for the axis x we have
m uxs 2 uys 2 uxs m uxs' 2 uys' 2 uxs' m uxs 2 uys 2 uxs m uxs' 2 uys' 2 uxs' ,
where replacing the values of the table we have
2 2
2 v 2 2 v 2
m v w 1 2 v m v w 1 2 v from where we conclude that w w ,
c c
and for the axis y
m uxs 2 uys 2 uys m uxs' 2 uys' 2 uys' m uxs 2 uys 2 uys m uxs' 2 uys' 2 uys' ,
where replacing the values of the table we have
2 2
2 v 2 v2 2 v 2 v2
mw w m v w 1 2 w 1 2 mw w m v w 1 2 w 1 2 ,
c c c c
simplifying we have
v2 v2
mw m v 2 w 2 1 2 1 2 , where when w 0 becomes
c c
v2 v2 v2 m0
m0 m v 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 m0 mv 1 2 mv ,
c c c v 2
1 2
c
but m0 is equal to the resting mass mo thus
m0 m0
mv , with a relative velocity v u mu 4.2
v2 u2
1 2 1 2
c c
m0 u
that applied in 4.1 supplies p mu u . 4.1
u2
1 2
c
With the same procedures we would have for the O’ observer
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m0
m' u' 4.3
u' 2
1 2
c
m0 u'
and p' m' u' u ' . 4.1
u' 2
1 2
c
m0
Simplifying the simbology we will adopt m mu 4.2
u2
1 2
c
m0
and m' m' u' 4.3
u' 2
1 2
c
that simplify the moments in p m u and p' m' u ' . 4.1
Applying 4.2 and 4.3 in 2.9 and 2.10 we have
v' 2 2v' u' x' v 2 2vux
m m' 1 m m' K ' and m' m 1 2 m' m K . 4.4
c2 c2 c2 c
dp d mu dp' d m' u'
Defining force as Newton we have F and F' , with this we can define then
dt dt dt' dt'
kinetic energy Ek , E' k as
u u d mu u u
E k F . dR
dt
. dR d mu .u u 2 dm mudu ,
0 0 0 0
u' d m' u' u'
u' u'
and E' k F'. dR'
dt'
. dR' d m' u' .u' u' 2 dm' m' u' du' .
0 0 0 0
2
Remodeling 4.2 and 4.3 and differentiating we have m 2 c 2 m 2 u 2 m0 c 2 u 2 dm mudu c 2 dm and
2
m' 2 c 2 m' 2 u' 2 m0 c 2 u' 2 dm' m' u' du' c 2 dm' , that applied in the formulas of kinetic energy
m m'
supplies E k c 2 dm mc 2 m0 c 2 E E0 and E' k c 2 dm' m' c 2 m0 c 2 E' E0 , 4.5
m0 m0
where E mc and E' m' c
2 2
4.6
are the total energies as in the special relativity and E o mo c
2
4.7
the resting energy.
Applying 4.6 in 4.4 we have exactly 2.23.
From 4.6, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.1 we find
2 2
E c mo c 2 p 2 and E' c mo c 2 p' 2 4.8
identical relations to the Special Relativity.
Multiplying 2.1 and 2.2 by mo we get
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mo u ' mo u mo v E
m' u' mu mv p' p 2 v 4.9
u' 2
u 2
u 2 c
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
mo u mo u ' mo v ' E'
and mu m' u' m' v' p p' 2 v ' . 4.10
u 2
u' 2
u' 2 c
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
Table 4, transformations of moments p and p'
E E'
p' p 2 v 4.9 p p' 2 v ' 4.10
c c
E E'
p' x' px 2 v 4.11 px p' x' 2 v' 4.12
c c
p' y' py 4.11.1 py p' y' 4.12.1
p' z' pz 4.11.2 pz p' z' 4.12.2
E' E K 2.23 E E' K' 2.23
m0 m0
m mu 4.2 m' m' u' 4.3
u2 u' 2
1 2 1 2
c c
m' m K 4.4 m m' K' 4.4
E k E Eo 4.5 E' k E' Eo 4.5
E mc 2 4.6 E' m' c 2 4.6
E o mo c 2 4.7 E o mo c 2 4.7
2 4.8 2 4.8
E c mo c 2 p 2 E' c mo c 2 p' 2
Wave equation of Louis de Broglie
The observer O’ associates to a resting particle in its origin the following properties:
-Resting mass mo
-Time t' t o
-Resting Energy E o mo c
2
E o mo c 2
-Frequency y o
h h
-Wave function ψ o asen2π y o t o with a = constant.
The observer O associates to a particle with velocity v the following:
mo
-Mass m mv (from 4.2 where u v )
v2
1 2
c
to to
-Time t (from 1.7 with ux v and t' t o )
v 2 2vv v2
1 2 2 1 2
c c c
2
Eo mo c
-Energy E (from 2.23 with ux v and E' Eo )
2
v v2
1 2 1 2
c c
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yo mo c 2 /h
-Frequency y (from 2.22 with ux v and y' y o )
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
-Distance x = vt (from 1.2 with x’ = 0)
v2 v2 x c2
-Wave function ψ asen 2y o t o asen 2 π y 1 t 1 asen 2 π y t with u
c2 c2 u v
c 2 E yh h
-Wave length u y λ λ (from 4.9 with p' po 0 )
v p p p
To go back to the O’ observer referential where u' 0 u' x' 0 , we will consider the following variables:
-Distance x = v’t’ (from 1.4 with x’ = 0)
v' 2 2 v'0 v' 2
-Time t t' 1 t' 1 (from 1.8 with u' x' 0 )
c2 c2 c2
v' 2
-Frequency y y' 1 2 (from 2.22 with u' x' 0 )
c
v'
-Velocity v (de 2.13)
v' 2
1 2
c
that applied to the wave function supplies
vx v' 2
v' 2 v' 2 t'
ψ' asen 2 π y t 2 asen 2 π y' 1 2 t' 1 2 asen 2y' t' ,
c c c 2 v' 2
c 1
c2
but as t' t o and y' yo then ψ' ψ o .
§5 Transformations of the Forces F and F '
Differentiating 4.9 and dividing by 1.17 we have
d p' dp dE v 1 dE v 1 v
F' F F' F F .u 2 . 5.1
dt' dt K dt K c 2 K dt c 2 K c
Differentiating 4.10 and dividing by 1.22 we have
dp dp' dE' v ' 1 dE' v ' 1 v'
F F' F F' F'.u ' 2 . 5.2
dt dt' K' dt' K' c 2 K' dt' c 2 K' c
From the system formed by 5.1 and 5.2 we have
dE dE'
or F .u F'.u ' , 5.3
dt dt'
that is an invariant between the observers in the Undulating .Relativity.
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Table 5, transformations of the Forces F and F '
1 v 1 v'
F' F F .u 2 F F' F'.u ' 2
K c 5.1 K' c 5.2
1 v 1 v'
F' x' Fx F .u 2 Fx F' x' F'.u ' 2
K c 5.4 K' c 5.5
F' y' Fy/ K 5.4.1 Fy F' y' / K' 5.5.1
F' z' Fz/ K 5.4.2 Fz F' z' / K' 5.5.2
dE' dE
dt' dt 5.3 F .u F'.u ' 5.3
§6 Transformations of the density of charge ρ , ρ' and density of current J and J '
dq
Multiplying 2.1 and 2.2 by the density of the resting electric charge defined as ρo we have
dvo
ρo u ' ρo u ρo v
ρ'u' ρu ρv J' J ρv 6.1
u' 2 u2 u2
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
ρo u ρo u' ρo v '
and ρu ρ' u' ρ' v ' J J' ρ' v ' . 6.2
u2 u' 2 u' 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
Table 6, transformations of the density of charges ρ , ρ' and density of current J and J '
6.1
6.2
J' J ρ v J J' ρ'v '
J' x' Jx ρv 6.3 Jx J'x' ρ'v' 6.4
J ' y' Jy 6.3.1 Jy J ' y' 6.4.1
J' z' Jz 6.3.2 Jz J' z' 6.4.2
6.5
6.6
J ρu J' ρ' u'
ρo ρo
ρ ρ'
2
u 6.7 u' 2 6.8
1 2 1 2
c c
ρ' ρ K 6.9 ρ ρ' Κ' 6.10
From the system formed by 6.1 and 6.2 we had 6.9 and 6.10.
§7 Transformation of the electric fields E , E' and magnetic fields B , B'
Applying the forces of Lorentz F q E u B and F' q E' u ' B' in 5.1 and 5.2 we have
q E u B q E u B .u c
1 v
q E' u ' B' 2
K
1 v'
and q E u B q E' u ' B' q E' u ' B' .u ' c 2 , that simplified become
K'
v v'
1 1
E' u ' B' E u B E .u 2 and E u B E' u ' B' E'.u ' 2 from
K c K' c
where we get the invariance of E .u E' u ' between the observers as a consequence of 5.3 and the
following components of each axis
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1 Exuxv Eyuyv Ezuzv
E' x' u' y' B' z' u' z' B' y' Ex uyBz uzBy 7.1
K c2 c2 c 2
1
E' y' u' z' B' x' u' x' B' z' E y u z B x u x B z 7.1.1
K
1
E' z' u' x' B' y' u' y' B' x' E z u x B y u y B x 7.1.2
K
1 E' x' u' x' v' E' y' u' y' v' E' z' u' z' v'
Ex uyBzuzBy E' x' u' y' B' z' u' z' B' y' 7.2
K' c2 c2 c2
1
E y u zB x u xB z E' y' u' z' B' x' u' x' B' z' 7.2.1
K'
1
E z u xB y u yBx E' z' u' x' B' y' u' y' B' x' 7.2.2
K'
To the conjunct 7.1 and 7.2 we have two solutions described in the tables 7 and 8.
Table 7, transformations of the electric fields E , E' and magnetic fields B e B'
Ex vux E' x' v' u' x'
E' x' 1 2 7.3 Ex 1 7.4
K c K' c2
Ey v 2 vux vBz E' y' v' 2 v' u' x' v' B' z'
E' y' 1 2 2 7.3.1 Ey 1 2 7.4.1
K c c K K' c c 2 K'
Ez v 2 vux vBy E' z' v' 2 v' u' x' v' B' y'
E' z' 1 2 2 7.3.2 Ez 1 2 7.4.2
K c c K K' c c 2 K'
B' x' Bx 7.5 Bx B' x' 7.6
v v'
B' y' By 2 Ez 7.5.1 By B' y' 2 E' z' 7.6.1
c c
v v'
B' z' Bz 2 Ey 7.5.2 Bz B' z' 2 E' y' 7.6.2
c c
E' y' Ey K 7.7 Ey E' y' K' 7.8
E' z' Ez K 7.7.1 Ez E' z' K' 7.8.1
ux u' x'
By 2 Ez 7.9 B' y' 2 E' z' 7.10
c c
ux u' x'
Bz 2 Ey 7.9.1 B' z' 2 E' y' 7.10.1
c c
Table 8, transformations of the electric fields E , E' and magnetic fields B e B'
1 v 1 v'
E' x' Ex E .u 2 7.11 Ex E' x' E'.u ' 2 7.12
K c K' c
1 1
E'y' Ey vBz 7.11.1 Ey E' y' v' B' z' 7.12.1
K K'
1 1
E'z' Ez vBy 7.11.2 Ez E' z' v' B' y' 7.12.2
K K'
B' x' Bx 7.13 Bx B' x' 7.14
B' y' By 7.13.1 By B' y' 7.14.1
B' z' Bz 7.13.2 Bz B' z' 7.14.2
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Relation between the electric field and magnetic field
If an electric-magnetic field has to the observer O’ the naught magnetic component B' zero and the
electric component E' . To the observer O this field is represented with both components, being the
magnetic field described by the conjunct 7.5 and hás as components
vEz vEy
Bx zero , By 2
, Bz 2 , 7.15
c c
1
that are equivalent to B 2 v E . 7.16
c
Formula of Biot-Savart
The observer O’ associates to a resting electric charge, uniformly distributed alongside its axis x’ the
following electric-magnetic properties:
dq
-Linear density of resting electric charge ρo
dx'
-Naught electric currentI' zero
-Naught magnetic field B' zero u' zero
ρo
-Radial electrical field of module E' E' y' 2 E' z' 2 at any point of radius R y' 2 z' 2 with
2 πε o R
the component E' x' zero .
To the observer O it relates to an electric charge uniformly distributed alongside its axis with velocity ux v
to which it associates the following electric-magnetic properties:
ρo
-Linear density of the electric charge ρ (from 6.7 with u = v)
v2
1 2
c
ρo v
-Electric current I ρv
v2
1
c2
E'
-Radial electrical field of module E (according to the conjuncts 7.3 and 7.5 with
v2
1 2
c
B' zero u' zero and ux v )
vEz vEy
-Magnetic field of components Bx zero , 2
By
, Bz 2 and module
c c
vE v E' v 1 ρo I 1
B o where o , being in the vectorial form
c2 c2 v2 c2 v 2 2 πε R
o 2R oc 2
1 1 2
c2 c
I
B o u 7.17
2R
where u is a unitary vector perpendicular to the electrical field E and tangent to the circumference that
passes by the point of radius R y z because from the conjunct 7.4 and 7.6 E .B zero .
2 2
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§8 Transformations of the differential operators
Table 9, differential operators
v v'
2 8.1 2 8.2
x' x c t x x' c t'
8.1.1 8.2.1
y' y y y'
8.1.2 8.2.2
z' z z z'
89.4
v 1 v 2 vx v' 1 v' 2 v' x'
1 2 2 8.3 1 2 2
t' K x K c c t t t K' x' K' c c t' t'
From the system formed by 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4 and with 1.15 and 1.20 we only find the solutions
x/t x' /t'
2 o and 2 o. 8.5
x c t x' c t'
From where we conclude that only the functions ψ (2.19) and ψ' (2.20) that supply the conditions
ψ x/t ψ ψ' x' /t' ψ'
2 o and 2 o, 8.6
x c t x' c t'
can represent the propagation with velocity c in the Undulating Relativity indicating that the field propagates
with definite velocity and without distortion being applied to 1.13 and 1.18. Because of symmetry we can also
write to the other axis
ψ y /t ψ ψ' y' /t' ψ' ψ z /t ψ ψ' z' /t' ψ'
2 o, 2 o and 2 o, 2 o. 8.7
y c t y' c t' z c t z' c t'
From the transformations of space and time of the Undulatory Relativity we get to Jacob’s theorem
vux v' u' x'
1 1
x' , y' , z' ,t' c and J' x, y, z,t
2
c2 ,
J 8.8
x, y, z,t K x' , y' , z' ,t' K'
variables with ux and u’x’ as a consequence of the principle of contancy of the light velocity but are equal ais
J J' and will be equal to one J J' 1 when ux u' x' c .
Invariance of the wave equation
The wave equation to the observer O’ is
2 2 2 1 2
zero
x' 2 y' 2 z' 2 c 2 t' 2
where applying to the formulas of tables 9 and 1.13 we get
2
1 v v2 v u x
2
v 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 1 2 2 zero
x c t y z c K x K c c t
from where we find
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2 2 2 1 2 2v 2 2v 3 2 4 v 2 ux 2 v 2 2 v 4 2 2v 3 ux 2
K K K 6
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2 c 2 xt c 4 xt c 4 xt c 4 t 2 c 6 t 2 c t 2
v 2 2 2v 2 2v 3 2 2v 2 ux 2 2v 2 2 2vux 2 2v 3 ux 2 v 2 ux 2 2 v 4 2
4 6 6 zero
c 2 x 2 c 2 xt c 4 xt c 4 xt c 4 t 2 c t 2 c t 2 c t 2 c 6 t 2
that simplifying supplies
2 2 2 1 2 2v 2 ux 2 v 2 2 v 2 2 2vux 2 v 2 ux 2 2
K K K 4 6 zero
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2 c 4 xt c 2 x 2 c 4 t 2 c t 2 c t 2
where reordering the terms we find
2 2 2 v 2 2vux 1 2 v 2 2 2ux 2 ux 2 2
K K K 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 zero 8.9
x 2 y 2 z 2 c2 c c t c x c xt c t 2
but from 8.5 and 1.13 we have
2
x/t ux 2ux
2
ux
2 2 2
2 o 2 2 2 4 zero
x c t x c t x c xt c t 2
2 2 2 1 2
that applied in 8.9 supplies the wave equation to the observer O zero . 8.10
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2
To return to the referential of the observer O’ we will apply 8.10 to the formulas of tables 9 and 1.18, getting
2
1 v' v' 2 v' u' x'
2
v' 2 2 1
2 1 2 zero
x' c t' y' 2 z' 2 c 2 K' x' K ' c c 2 t'
from where we find
2 2 2 1 2 2v' 2 2v' 3 2 4 v' 2 u' x' 2 v' 2 2 v' 4 2
K' K ' K '
x' 2 y' 2 z' 2 c 2 t' 2 c 2 x' t' c 4 x' t' c4 x' t' c 4 t' 2 c 6 t' 2
2v' 3 u' x' 2 v' 2 2 2v' 2 2v' 3 2 2v' 2 u' x' 2 2v' 2 2 2v' u' x' 2
c6 t' 2 c 2 x' 2 c 2 x' t' c 4 x' t' c4 x' t' c 4 t' 2 c 4 t' 2
v' 3 u' x' 2 v' 2 u' x' 2 2 v' 4 2
zero
c 6 t' 2 c6 t' 2 c 6 t' 2
that simplifying supplies
2 2 2 1 2 2v' 2 u' x' 2 v' 2 2 v' 2 2 2v' u' x' 2 v' 2 u' x' 2 2
K' 2 K ' K' 2 2 zero
x' y' 2 z' c t' 2 c4 x' t' c 2 x' 2 c 4 t' 2 c 4 t' 2 c6 t' 2
where reordering the terms we find
2 2 2 v' 2 2v' u' x' 1 2 v' 2 2 2u' x' 2 u' x' 2 2
K' K ' K ' 1 zero
x' 2 y' 2 z' 2 c2 c 2 c 2 t' 2 c 2 x' 2 c 2 x' t' c 4 t' 2
but from 8.5 and 1.18 we have
2
x' /t' u' x' 2 2u' x' 2 u' x' 2 2
2 o 2 zero
x' c t' x' c t' x' 2 c 2 x' t' c 4 t' 2
that replaced in the reordered equation supplies the wave equation to the observer O’.
Invariance of the Continuity equation
The continuity equation in the differential form to the observer O’ is
ρ' ρ' Jx' Jy' Jz'
.J' zero zero 8.11
t' t' x' y' z'
where replacing the formulas of tables 6, 9, and 1.13 we get
v 1 v 2 vux v Jy Jz
K x 1 2 2 ρ K
2 Jx ρv zero
K c c t x c t y z
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making the operations we find
v ρ ρ v 2 ρ vux ρ Jx v Jx v ρ v 2 ρ Jy Jz
2 zero
x t c2 t c t x c2 t x c2 t y z
that simplifying supplies
ρ vux ρ Jx v Jx Jy Jz
zero
t c2 t x c2 t y z
where applying Jx ρux with ux constant we get
ρ vux ρ Jx v ux Jy Jz ρ Jx Jy Jz
2 2 zero zero 8.12
t c t x c t y z t x y z
that is the continuity equation in the differential form to the observer O.
To get again the continuity equation in the differential form to the observer O’ we will replace the formulas of
tables 6, 9, and 1.18 in 8.12 getting
v' 1 v' 2 v' u' x' v' J' y' J' z'
1 2
ρ' K' 2 J' x' ρ' v' zero
K ' x' c t' x' c t' y' z'
2
K' c
making the operations we find
v' ρ' ρ' v' 2 ρ' v' u' x' ρ' J' x' v' J' x' v' ρ' v' 2 ρ' J' y' J' z'
2 2 zero
x' t' c 2 t' c 2 t' x' c t' x' c t' y' z'
that simplifying supplies
ρ' v' u' x' ρ' J' x' v' J' x' J' y' J' z'
2 zero
t' c 2 t' x' c t' y' z'
where applying J' x' ρ' u' x' with u’x’ constant we get
ρ' v' u' x' ρ' J' x' v' ' u' x' J' y' J' z' ρ' J' x' J' y' J' z'
2 zero zero
t' c 2
t' x' c t' y' z' t' x' y' z'
that is the continuity equation in the differential form to the observer O’.
Invariance of Maxwell’s equations
That in the differential form are written this way
With electrical charge
To the observer O To the observer O’
Ex Ey Ez E' x' E' y' E' z' '
8.13 8.14
x y z o x' y' z' o
Bx By Bz B' x' B' y' B' z'
0 8.15 0 8.16
x y z x' y' z'
Ey Ex Bz E' y' E' x' B' z'
8.17 8.18
x y t x' y' t'
Ez Ey Bx E' z' E' y' B' x'
8.19 8.20
y z t y' z' t'
Ex Ez By E' x' E' z' B' y'
8.21 8.22
z x t z' x' t'
By Bx Ez B' y' B' x' E' z'
o Jz o o 8.23 o J ' z' o o 8.24
x y t x' y' t'
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Bz By Ex B' z' B' y' E' x'
o Jx o o 8.25 o J ' x' o o 8.26
y z t y' z' t'
Bx Bz Ey B' x' B' z' E' y'
o Jy o o 8.27 o J' y' o o 8.28
z x t z' x' t'
Without electrical charge ' zero and J J ' zero
To the observer O To the observer O’
Ex Ey Ez E' x' E' y' E' z'
0 8.29 0 8.30
x y z x' y' z'
Bx By Bz B' x' B' y' B' z'
0 8.31 0 8.32
x y z x' y' z'
Ey Ex Bz E' y' E' x' B' z'
8.33 8.34
x y t x' y' t'
Ez Ey Bx E' z' E' y' B' x'
8.35 8.36
y z t y' z' t'
Ex Ez By E' x' E' z' B' y'
8.37 8.38
z x t z' x' t'
By Bx Ez B' y' B' x' E' z'
oo 8.39 o o 8.40
x y t x' y' t'
Bz By Ex B' z' B' y' E' x'
oo 8.41 o o 8.42
y z t y' z' t'
Bx Bz Ey B' x' B' z' E' y'
o o 8.43 oo 8.44
z x t z' x' t'
1
oo 2 8.45
c
We demonstrate the invariance of the Law of Gauss in the differential form that for the observer O’ is
E' x' E' y' E' z' '
8.14
x' y' z' o
where replacing the formulas from the tables 6, 7, 9, and 1.18, and considering u’x’ constant, we get
v Ex vux Ey v 2 vux vBz
1 1
x c 2 t K c 2 y K c 2 c 2 K
Ez v 2 vux vBy ρ Κ
1
z K c 2 c 2 K εo
v 2 Ex
making the products, summing and subtracting the term 2 , we find
c x
Ex v Ex vux Ex v 2 ux Ex Ey v 2 Ey vux Ey v Bz
2 4 2
x c2 t c x c t y c 2 y c y y
Ez v 2 Ez vux Ez v By v 2 Ex v 2 Ex ρK
2 2
z c 2 z c z z c x c 2 x o
that reordering results
v 2 Ex ux Ex Bz By 1 Ex Ex Ey Ez v 2 vux ρK
v 1
c 2 x c 2 t y z c 2 t x y z c 2 c 2 o
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where the first parentheses is 8.5 and because of this equal to zero , the second blank is equal to
vux
v o Jx v o ux gotten from 8.25 and 8.45 resulting in
oc2
Ex Ey Ez v 2 vux ρ v 2 vux ρ vux ρ vux
1 1
x y z c 2 c 2 o c 2 c 2 o c 2 o c 2
Ex Ey Ez
from where we get 8.13
x y z o
that is the Law of Gauss in the differential form to the observer O.
To make the inverse we will replace in 8.13 the formulas of the tables 6, 7, 9, and 1.13, and considering ux
constant, we get
v' E' x' v' u' x' E' y' v' 2 v' u' x' v' B' z'
x' c 2 t' K' 1 c 2 y' K' 1 c 2 c 2 K'
E' z' v' 2 v' u' x' v' B' y' ρ' Κ'
1 2 2
z' K' c c K' εo
v' 2 E' x'
making the products, adding and subtracting the term , we get
c 2 x'
E' x' v' E' x' v' u' x' E' x' v' 2 u' x' E' x' E' y' v' 2 E' y' v' u' x' E' y'
2 2
x' c t' c2 x' c4 t' y' c y' c2 y'
v' B' z' E' z' v' 2 E' z' v' u' x' E' z' v' B' y' v' 2 E' x' v' 2 E' x' ρ' K'
2 2 2
y' z' c z' c2 z' z' c x' c x' o
that reordering results in
v' 2 E' x' u' x' E' x' B' z' B' y' 1 E' x'
2 2 v' 2
c x' c t' y' z' c t'
E' x' E' y' E' z' ' v' 2 v' u' x' ρ' K'
1 2
x' y' z' c c 2 o
where the first blank is 8.5 and because of this equals to zero, the second blank is equal to
v' ' u' x'
v' o J ' x' v' o ' u' x' gotten from 8.26 and 8.45 resulting in
oc 2
E' x' E' y' E' z' v' 2 v' u' x' ρ' v' 2 v' u' x' ρ v' u' x' ρ' v' u' x'
1 2 1
x' y' z' c c 2 o c2 c 2 o c 2 o c 2
E' ' x' E' y' E' z' '
from where we get that is the Law of Gauss in the differential form to the O’
x' y' z' o
observer.
Proceeding this way we can prove the invariance of form for all the other equations of Maxwell.
§9 Explaining the Sagnac Effect with the Undulating Relativity
We must transform the straight movement of the two observers O and O’ used in the deduction of the
Undulating Relativity in a plain circular movement with a constant radius. Let’s imagine that the observer O
sees the observer O’ turning around with a tangential speed v in a clockwise way (C) equals to the positive
course of the axis x of UR and that the observer O’ sees the observer O turning around with a tangecial
speed v’ in a unclockwise way (U) equals to the negative course of the axis x of the UR.
In the moment t = t’ = zero, the observer O emits two rays of light from the common origin to both
observers, one in a unclockwise way of arc ctU and another in a clockwise way of arc ctC, therefore ctU = ctC
and tU = tC, because c is the speed of the constant light, and tU and tC the time.
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In the moment t = t’ = zero the observer O’ also emits two rays of light from the common origin to both
observers, one in a unclockwise way (useless) of arc ct’U and another one in a clockwise way of arc ct’C, thus
ct’U = ct’C and t’U = t’C because c is the speed of the constant light, and t’U and t’C the time.
Rewriting the equations 1.15 and 1.20 of the Undulating Relativity (UR):
v t' v 2 2vux
= 1 2 . 1.15
v' t c c2
v' t v' 2 2v' u ' x'
= 1 2 . 1.20
v t' c c2
Making ux = u’x’ = c ( ray of light projected alongside the positive axis x ) and splitting the equations we
have:
v v'
t' t 1 9.1 t t' 1 9.2
c c
v v'
v' 9.3 v 9.4
v v'
1 1
c c
When the origin of the observer O’ detects the unclockwise ray of the observer O, will be at the distance
vtC v' t'U of the observer O and simultaneously will detect its clockwise ray of light at the same point of
the observer O, in a symmetric position to the diameter that goes through the observer O because
ctU ctC tU t C and ct'U ct' C t'U t' C , following the four equations above we have:
2R
ctU vtC 2R tC 9.5
cv
2R
ct' C 2v' t'U 2R t' C 9.6
c 2v'
When the origin of the observer O’ detects the clockwise ray of the observer O, simultaneously will detect its
own clockwise ray and will be at the distance vt 2 C v' t' 2 U of the observer O, then following the equations
1,2,3 and 4 above we have:
2R
ct 2C 2R vt 2 C t 2C 9.7
cv
2R
ct' 2 C 2R t' 2 C 9.8
c
The time difference to the observer O is:
2 R 2 R 4 Rv
t t 2 C t C 9.9
cv cv c2 v2
The time difference to the observer O’ is:
2 R 2 R 4 Rv'
t' t' 2 C t' C 9.10
c c 2v' c 2v' c
Replacing the equations 5 to 10 in 1 to 4 we prove that they confirm the transformations of the Undulating
Relativity.
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§10 Explaining the experience of Ives-Stilwell with the Undulating Relativity
We should rewrite the equations (2.21) to the wave length in the Undulating Relativity:
'
' and , 2.21
v 2 2vux v' 2 2v' u' x'
1 2 2 1 2
c c c c2
Making ux = u’x’ = c ( Ray of light projected alongside the positive axis x ), we have the equations:
'
' and , 10.1
v v'
1 1
c c
If the observer O, who sees the observer O’ going away with the velocity v in the positive way of the axis x,
emits waves, provenient of a resting source in its origin with velocity c and wave length F in the positive
way of the axis x, then according to the equation 10.1 the observer O’ will measure the waves with velocity c
and the wave length ' D according to the formulas:
F ' D
' D and F , 10.2
1 v 1 v'
c c
If the observer O’, who sees the obsesrver O going away with velocity v’ in the negative way of the axis x,
emits waves, provenient of a resting source in its origin with velocity c and the wave length ' F in the
positive way of the axis x, then according to the equation 10.1 the observer O will measure waves with
velocity c and wave lenght A according to the formulas:
A ' F
' F and A , 10.3
1 v 1 v'
c c
The resting sources in the origin of the observers O and O’ are identical thus F ' F .
We calculate the average wave length of the measured waves A ,' D using the equations 10.2 and
10.3, the left side in each equation:
' D A 1 F ' F v 2
' F 1 v D A 1 1 c
2 2 1 v c 2 v
2 1
c c
We calculate the diffrence between the average wave length and the emited wave length by the sources
F :
F v 2
F 1 1 c F
v
2 1
c
2 1 v
F v 2
1 1 F c
2 1 c
v 2 1 v
c c
F v 2
1 1 2 1 v
2 1 v c c
c
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F 1 1 2 v v 2 2 2 v
c
2 1 v c c2
c
F v2
1 10.4
1 v 2 c 2
c
Reference
http://www.wbabin.net/physics/faraj7.htm
§10 Ives-Stilwell (continuation)
The Doppler’s effect transversal to the Undulating Relativity was obtained in the §2 as follows:
If the observer O’, that sees the observer O, moves with the speed –v’ in a negative way to the axis x’, emits
waves with the frequency y' and the speed c then the observer O according to 2.22 and u' x' v' will
measure waves of frequency y and speed c in a perpendicular plane to the movement of O’ given by
2
y y' 1 v' 2 2.25
c
2 2
For u' x' v' we will have ux zero and 1 v' 2 1 v 2 1 with this we can write the relation between
c c
the transversal frequency y y t and the source frequency y' y' F like this
y' F
yt 2
10.5
1 2 v
c
With c y t t y' F ' F we have the relation between the length of the transversal wave t and the length of
the source wave ' F
2
t ' F 1 v 2 10.6
c
The variation of the length of the transversal wave in the relation to the length of the source wave is:
' 2
t t ' F ' F 1 v 2 ' F ' F 1 v 2 1 ' F 1 v 2 1 F v 2
2 2 2
10.7
c c 2c 2 c
that is the same value gotten in the Theory of Special Relativity.
Applying 10.7 in 10.4 we have
t
10.8
1 v
c
With the equations 10.2 and 10.3 we can get the relations 10.9, 10.10, and 10.11 described as follows
2
A ' D 1 v 10.9
c
And from this we have the formula of speed
v 1 A 10.10
c ' D
F ' F A ' D 10.11
Applying 10.10 and 10.11 in 10.6 we have
2
A
t A ' D 1 1 10.12
' D
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From 10.8 and 10.12 we conclude that A F t ' D . 10.13
So that we the values of A and ' D obtained from the Ives-Stiwell experience we can evaluate t , F ,
v and conclude whether there is or not the space deformation predicted in the Theory of Special Relativity.
c
§11 Transformation of the power of a luminous ray between two referencials in the Special Theory of
Relativity
The relationship within the power developed by the forces between two referencials is written in the Special
Theory of the Relativity in the following way:
F .u vFx
F'.u' 11.1
vux
1 2
c
The definition of the component of the force along the axis x is:
dpx d mux dm dux
Fx ux m 11.2
dt dt dt dt
For a luminous ray, the principle of light speed constancy guarantees that the component ux of the light
speed is also constant along its axis, thus
x dx dux dm
ux constant, demonstrating that in two zero and Fx ux 11.3
t dt dt dt
dm 1 dE
The formula of energy is E mc from where we have
2
11.4
dt c 2 dt
dE ux
From the definition of energy we have F .u that applying in 4 and 3 we have Fx F .u 2 11.5
dt c
Applying 5 in 1 we heve:
vux
F .u F .u c 2
F'.u'
vux
1 2
c
dE' dE
From where we find that F'.u' F .u or 11.6
dt' dt
A result equal to 5.3 of the Undulating Relativity that can be experimentally proven, considering the ‘Sun’ as
the source.
§12 Linearity
The Theory of Undulating Relativity has as its fundamental axiom the necessity that inertial referentials be
named exclusively as those ones in which a ray of light emitted in any direction from its origin spreads in a
straight line, what is mathematically described by the formulae (1.13, 1.18, 8.6 e 8.7) of the Undulating
Relativity:
x dx y dy z dz
ux, uy, uz 1.13
t dt t dt t dt
x' dx' y' dy' z' dz'
u' x' , u' y' , u' z' 1.18
t' dt' t' dt' t' dt'
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Woldemar Voigt wrote in 1.887 the linear transformation between the referentials os the observers O e O’ in
the following way:
x Ax' Bt' 12.1
t Ex' Ft' 12.2
With the respective inverted equations:
F B
x' x t 12.3
AF BE AF BE
E A
t' x t 12.4
AF BE AF BE
Where A, B, E and F are constants and because of the symmetry we don’t consider the terms with y, z and
y’, z’.
We know that x and x’ are projections of the two rays of lights ct and ct’ that spread with Constant speed c
(due to the constancy principle of the Ray of light), emited in any direction from the origin of the respective
inertials referential at the moment in which the origins are coincident and at the moment where:
t = t’ = zero 12.5
because of this in the equation 12.2 at the moment where t’ = zero we must have E = zero so that we also
have t = zero, we can’t assume that when t’ = zero, x’ also be equal to zero, because if the spreading
happens in the plane y’z’ we will have x’ = zero plus t' zero .
We should rewrite the corrected equations (E = zero):
x Ax' Bt' 12.6
t Ft' 12.7
With the respective corrected inverted equations:
x Bt
x' 12.8
A AF
t
t' 12.9
F
If the spreading happens in the plane y’ z’ we have x’ = zero and dividing 12.6 by 12.7 we have:
x B
v 12.10
t F
where v is the module of the speed in which the observer O sees the referential of the observer O’ moving
alongside the x axis in the positive way because the sign of the equation is positive.
If the spreading happens in the plane y z we have x = zero and dividing 12.8 by 12.9 we have:
x' B B
v' or v' 12.11
t' A A
where v’ is the module of the speed in which the observer O’ sees the referential of the observer O moving
alongside the x’ axis in the negative way because the signal of the equation is negative.
The equation 1.6 describes the constancy principle of the speed of light that must be assumed by the
equations 12.6 to 12.9:
x 2 c 2 t 2 x' 2 c 2 t' 2 1.6
Applying 12.6 and 12.7 in 1.6 we have:
Ax' Bt' 2 c 2 F 2 t' 2 x' 2 c 2 t' 2
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From where we have:
2 B 2 2 ABx'
A x' c t'
2 2 2 2
F 2 2 x' c t'
c c t'
2 2 2
2 B 2 2 ABx'
F 2 2 1 in the straight brackets we have
2
where making A = 1 in the brackets in arc and
c c t'
the equality between both sides of the equal signal of the equation.
2 B 2 2 ABx' B 2 2 Bx'
Appllying A = 1 in F 1 we have F 2
1 2 12.12
c2 c 2 t' c2 c t'
B B
Appllying A = 1 in 12.11 we have B v' 12.11
A 1
That applied in 12.12 suplies:
v' 2 2v' x'
F 1 2 F x' ,t' 12.12
c2 c t'
as F(x’, t’) is equal to the function F depending of the variables x’ and t’.
Applying 12.8 and 12.9 in 1.6 we have:
2 2
x Bt 2 t
x c t
2
c
2 2
A AF F2
From where we have:
x2 1 B2 2 Bx
x 2 c 2 t 2 2 c 2 t 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A F Ac F A c Ft
1 B2 2 Bx
where making A = 1 in the bracket in arc and 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 in the straight bracket we
2
F Ac F A c Ft
have the equality between both sides of the equal signal of the equation.
1 B2 2 Bx
Applying A = 1 and 12.10 in 2 2 2 2
2 2 1 we have:
F Ac F A c Ft
1
F F x ,t 12.13
v 2 2vx
1 2 2
c c t
as F(x, t) is equal to the function F depending on the variables x and t.
We must make the following naming according to 2.5 and 2.6:
v' 2 2v' x'
K ' 1 2 2 F K' 12.14
c c t'
v 2 2vx 1
K 1 2 2 F 12.15
c c t K
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As the equation to F(x’, t’) from 12.12 and F(x, t) from 12.13 must be equal, we have:
v' 2 2v' x' 1
F 1 2 2 12.16
c c t' v 2 2vx
1 2 2
c c t
Thus:
v 2 2vx v' 2 2v' x'
1 1 2 1 or K K' 1 12.17
c 2 c 2t c2 c t'
Exactly equal to 1.10.
Rewriting the equations 12.6, 12.7, 12.8 and 12.9 according to the function of v, v’ and F we have:
x x' v' t' 12.6
t Ft' 12.7
With the respective inverted corrected equations:
x' x vt 12.8
t
t' 12.9
F
We have the equations 12.6, 12.7, 12.8 and 12.9 finals replacing F by the corresponding formulae:
x x' v' t' 12.6
v' 2 2v' x'
t t' 1 2 12.7
c2 c t'
With the respective inverted final equations:
x' x vt 12.8
v 2 2vx
t' t 1 12.9
c 2 c 2t
That are exactly the equations of the table I
B v'
As v and v' B then the relations between v and v’ are v or v' v.F 12.18
F F
We will transform F (12.12) function of the elements v’, x’, and t’ for F (12.13) function of the elements v, x
and t, replacing in 12.12 the equations 12.8, 12.9 and 12.18:
v' 2 2v' x' vF 2vF x vt
F 1 2 2 1 2
2
c c t' c t
c2
F
v 2 F 2 2vxF 2 2v 2 F 2 2vxF 2 v 2 F 2
F 1 1 2
c2 c 2t c2 c 2t c
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2vxF 2 v 2 F 2 v 2 F 2 2vxF 2 1
F 2 1 F 2
2 1 F
c 2t c2 c2 c t v 2 2vx
1
c 2 c 2t
That is exactly the equation 12.13.
We will transform F (12.13) function of the elements v, x, and t for F (12.12) function of the elements v’, x’
and t’, replacing in 12.13 the equations 12.6, 12.7 and 12.18:
1 1 1
F
v 2 2vx v' 2v' x' v' t'
2
1 v' 2 2v' x' 2v' 2
1 1 1
c 2 c 2t c2 F c 2 FFt' c 2 F 2 c 2 t' F 2 c 2 F 2
1 v' 2 2v' x' v' 2 2v' x'
F F 2 1 2 2 2
1 F 1 2 2
v' 2 2v' x' c F 2 c t' F c c t'
1 2 2
2
c F' c t' F' 2
That is exactly the equation 12.12.
We have to calculate the total diferential of F(x’, t’) (12.12):
F F
dF dx' dt'
x' t'
as:
F 1 v' F 1 v' x'
and 12.19
x' 2
K' c t' t' 2
K' c t' t'
we have:
1 v' 1 v' x'
dF 2
dx' 2
dt'
K' c t' K' c t' t'
where applying 1.18 we find:
1 v' 1 v' dx'
dF 2
dx' 2
dt' o 12.20
K' c t' K' c t' dt'
From where we conclude that F function of x’ and t’ is a constant.
We have to calculate the total diferential of F(x, t) (12.13):
F F
dF dx dt
x t
as:
F 1 v F 1 v x
3 2 and 3 2 12.21
x c t t c t t
K2 K2
we have:
1 v 1 v x
dF 23
dx 3 2 dt 12.22
c t c t t
K 2
K2
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where applying 1.13 we find:
1 v 1 v dx
dF 3
2
dx 3 2 dt o
c t c t dt
K 2
K 2
From where we conclude that F function of x and t is a constant.
The equations 1.13 and 1.18 represent to the observers O and O’ the principle of constancy of the light
speed valid from infinitely small to the infinitely big and mean that in the Undulating Relativity the space and
time are measure simultaneously. They shouldn’t be interpreted with a dependency between space and
time.
The time has its own interpretation that can be understood if we analyze to a determined observer the
emission of two rays of light from the instant t=zero. If we add the times we get, for each ray of light, we will
get a result without any use for the physics.
If in the instant t = t’ = zero, the observer O’ emits two rays of light, one alongside the axis x and the other
alongside the axis y, after the interval of time t’, the rays hit for the observer O’, simultaneously, the points Ax
and Ay to the distance ct’ from the origin, although for the observer O, the points won’t be hit simultaneously.
For both rays of lights be simultaneous to both observers, they must hit the points that have the same radius
in relation to the axis x and that provide the same time for both observers (t1 = t2 and t’1 = t’2), which means
that only one ray of light is necessary to check the time between the referentials.
According to § 1, both referentials of the observers O and O’ are inertial, thus the light spreads in a straight
line according to what is demanded by the fundamental axiom of the Undulating Relativity § 12, because of
this, the difference in velocities v and v’ is due to only a difference in time between the referentials.
v x x' 1.2 v' x x' 1.4
t t'
We can also relate na inertial referential for which the light spread in a straight line according to what is
demanded by the fundamental axiom of the Undulating Relativity, with an accelerated moving referential for
which the light spread in a curve line, considering that in this case the difference v and v’ isn’t due to only the
difference of time between the referentials.
According to § 1, if the observer O at the instant t = t’ = zero, emits a ray of light from the origin of its
referential, after an interval of time t1, the ray of light hits the point A1 with coordinates (x1, y1, z1, t1) to the
distance ct1 of the origin of the observer O, then we have:
2 2vx
t' 1 t 1 1 v 2 2 1
c c t1
After hitting the point A1 the ray of light still spread in the same direction and in the same way, after an
interval of time t2, the ray of light hits the point A2 with coordinates (x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2, t1 + t2) to the
distance ct2 to the point A1, then we have:
x dx ux x1 x 2 ux 1 v 2 2vx1 1 v 2 2vx 2 1 v 2 2vux
t dt t1 t 2 c 2 c 2 t1 c 2 c 2t2 c2 c2
and with this we get:
2 2vx 2
t' 2 t 2 1 v 2 2 2 t 2 1 v 2 2vux
c c t2 c c2
2 2vx 2 2 2 2v x x
t' 1 t' 2 t 1 1 v 2 2 1 t 2 1 v 2 2vux t 1 t 2 1 v 2 2vux t 1 t 2 1 v 2 2 1 2
c c t1 c c 2
c c 2
c c t 1 t 2
The geometry of space and time in the Undulating Relativity is summarized in the figure below that can be
expanded to An points and several observers.
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In the figure the angles have a relation ' and are equal to the following segments:
O1 to O O' is equal to O O' to O’1 O1 O'1 vt1 v' t'1
O2 to O1 is equal to O’1 to O’2 O2 O' 2 vt 1 t 2 v' t' 1 t' 2 vt 2 v' t' 2 O2 O1 O' 1 O' 2
And are parallel to the following segments:
O2 to A2 is parallel to O1 to A1
O’2 to A2 is parallel to O’1 to A1
X X ' is parallel to X 1 X ' 1
The cosine of the angles of inclination and ' to the rays for the observers O and O’ according to 2.3 and
2.4 are:
ux v
ux v u' x' c c cos v / c
u' x' cos '
2
c 2
v 2 2v cos
1 v 2 2vux 1 v 2vux 1
c c2 c2 c2 c2 c
cos v / c
cos' 12.23
K
sen
And with this we have: sen' 12.24
K
u' x' v'
u' x' v' cos ' v' / c
ux ux c c cos
2
c 2 2
1 v' 2 2v' u2' x' 1 v' 2 2v' u2' x' 1 v' 2 2v' cos '
c c c c c c
cos ' v' / c
cos 12.25
K'
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sen'
And with this we have sen 12.26
K'
The cosine of the angle with intersection of rays equal to:
1 vux
2
1 v' u'2 x' 1 v cos 1 v' cos '
cos c c c c 12.27
K K' K K'
sen v' sen'
And with this we have: sen v 12.28
c K c K'
The invariance of the cos shows the harmony of all adopted hypotheses for space and time in the
Undulating Relativity.
The cos is equal to the Jacobians of the transformations for the space and time of the picture I, where the
radicals
2 2
K 1 v 2 2vx and K' 1 v' 2 2v2' x' are considered variables and are derived.
c c 2t c c t'
1 00 v
0 10 0 1 vx 1 vux
x' , y' ,z' ,' t'
cos J x' j
i 2
0 01 0 c t c2 8.8
x x , y ,z ,t K K
v / c2 0 0 1 1 v 2 vx
2
2
K K c c t
1 00 v'
0 10 0 1 v'2x' 1 v' u'2 x'
x , y ,z ,t
cos J ' x l
k
0 01 0 c t' c 8.8
x' x' , y' ,z' ,t' v' / c 2 K' K'
0 0 1 1 v' 2 v'2x'
2
K' K' c c t'
§13 Richard C. Tolman
The §4 Transformations of the Momenta of Undulating Relativity was developed based on the experience
conducted by Lewis and Tolman, according to the reference [3]. Where the collision of two spheres
preserving the principle of conservation of energy and the principle of conservation of momenta, shows that
the mass is a function of the velocity according to:
mo
m
1
u 2
c2
where mo is the mass of the sphere when in resting position and u u u u the module of its speed.
Analyzing the collision between two identical spheres when in relative resting position, that for the observer
O’ are named S’1 and S’2 are moving along the axis x’ in the contrary way with the following velocities before
the collision:
Table 1
Esphere S’1 Esphere S’2
u' x'1 v' u' x 2 ' v'
u' y' 1 zero u' y' 2 zero
u' z' 1 zero u' z' 2 zero
For the observer O the same spheres are named S1 and S2 and have the velocities
ux1 , ux2 , uyi uzi zero before the collision calculated according to the table 2 as follows:
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The velocity ux1 of the sphere S1 is equals to:
u' x'1 v' v' v' 2v'
ux1 .
v' 2 2 v' u' x' v' 2
2 v' v' 3 v' 2
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
c c2 c c c
The transformation from v’ to v according to 1.20 from Table 2 is:
v v' v' v' .
2v' u' x' 1 2 2
1 v' 2 2v'2v' 3 v '
2
1 v' 2 1 2
c c2 c c c
That applied in ux1 supplies:
ux1 2 v' 2v
3v' 2
1 2
c
ux2 of the sphere S2 is equal to:
The velocity
u' x' 2 v' v' v'
ux2 zero
v' 2 2 v' u' x' v' 2 2v' v'
1 2 2
1 2
c c2 c c2
Table 2
Sphere S1 Sphere S2
ux1 2v' 2v
1 3v2' ux2 zero
c
uy1 zero uy2 zero
uz1 zero uz 2 zero
For the observers O and O’ the two spheres have the same mass when in relative resting position. And for
the observer O’ the two spheres collide with velocities of equal module and opposite direction because of
this the momenta p'1 p' 2 null themselves during the collision, forming for a brief time t' only one
body of mass
m0 m' 1 m' 2 .
According to the principle of conservation of momenta for the observer O we will have to impose that the
momenta before the collision are equal to the momenta after the collision, thus:
m1ux1 m2 ux2 m1 m2 w
Where for the observer O, w is the arbitrary velocity that supposedly for a brief time t will also see the
masses united m m1 m2 moving. As the masses mi have different velocities and the masses vary
according to their own velocities, this equation cannot be simplified algebraically, having this variation of
masses:
To the left side of the equal sign in the equation we have:
u ux1 2v
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mo mo mo mo
m1
1
u 2
ux1 2
1
2 v 2 2
1 4 v2
1 c
c2 c2 c2
u ux2 zero
mo mo mo
m2 m0
1 2
u
2
ux2
2
1
zero
2
1 2
c c c2
To the right side of the equal sign in the equation we have:
uw
mo mo mo
m1
1
u 2 1
w 2 1 w2
2
c2 c2 c
mo mo mo
m2
1
u 2 1
w 2 1 w2
2
c2 c2 c
Applying in the equation of conservation of momenta we have:
m1ux1 m2 ux2 m1 m2 w m1 w m2 w
m0 m0 m0
2
2v m0 .0 2
w 2
w
1 4 v2 1 w2 1 w2
c c c
From where we have:
2 m0 v 2 m0 w v w
2
2
2
2
1 4 v2 1 w2 1 4 v2 1 w2
c c c c
w v
2
1 3v2
c
As w v for the observer O the masses united m m1 m2 wouldn’t move momentarily alongside to the
observer O’ which is conceivable if we consider that the instants t t' are different where supposedly the
masses would be in a resting position from the point of view of each observer and that the mass acting with
velocity 2v is bigger than the mass in resting position.
If we operate with these variables in line we would have:
m1ux1 m2 ux2 m1 m2 w m1 w m2 w
m0 2v' m .0 m0 w m0 w 2 m0 w
0
1 3v2'
2 2 2 2
1 w2 1 w2 1 w2
c c c c
1 12 2v'
c 1 3v'
c2
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2m0 v' 2m0 w
1 w2
1 3v' 1 1 4v' 2 c2
c 2 c 2 1 3v'
c2
2 m0 v' 2 m0 w
2
2
1 3v2' 4 v2' 1 w2
c c c
2 m0 v' 2 m0 w
2
2
1 v' 2 1 w2
c c
From where we conclude that w v' which must be equal to the previous value of w, that is:
w v' v
2
1 3v2
c
A relation between v and v’ that is obtained from Table 2 when ux1 2v that corresponds for the observer O
to the velocity acting over the sphere in resting position.
§14 Velocities composition
Reference – Millennium Relativity
URL: http://www.mrelativity.net/MBriefs/VComp_Sci_Estab_Way.htm
Let’s write the transformations of Hendrik A. Lorentz for space and time in the Special Theory of Relativity:
x' x vt2 x x' vt'2
14.1a 14.3a
1 v 2 1 v2
c c
y' y 14.1b y y' 14.3b
z' z 14.1c z z' 14.3c
t vx2 t' vx2'
t' c t c
2
14.2 2
14.4
1 v2 1 v 2
c c
From them we obtain the equations of velocity transformation:
u' x' ux v ux u' x' v
1 vux 14.5a
1 vu'2x' 14.6a
c2 c
2 2
uy 1 v 2 u' y' 1 v 2
u' y' c 14.5b uy c 14.6b
vux
1 2 1 2 '
vu' x
c c
2 2
uz 1 v 2 u' z' 1 v 2
u' z' c 14.5c uz c 14.6c
vux
1 2 1 2 '
vu' x
c c
Let’s consider that in relation to the observer O’ an object moves with velocity:
u' x' 1,5.10 5 km / s 0 ,50c .
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And that the velocity of the observer O’ in relation to the observer O is:
v 1,5.10 5 km / s 0 ,50c .
The velocity ux of the object in relation to the observer O must be calculated by the formula 14.6a:
1,5.10 5 1,5.10 5
ux u' x' v 2 ,4.10 5 km / s 0 ,80c .
1 2vu ' x' 5
1,5.10 .1,5.10 5
1
c 3,0.10 5 2
Where we use c 3,0.10 5 km / s 1,00c .
Considering that the object has moved during one second in relation to the observer O t 1,00 s we can
then with 14.2 calculate the time passed to the observer O’:
1,5.10 5 .2 ,4.10 5
vx vux 1,00 1
t 2 t1 2
t' c c 3 ,0.10 5
2
0 ,60 t' 0 ,693 s .
v
1 2
2
v
1 2
2
1
1,5.10 5
2
0 ,75
c c
3,0.10 5 2
To the observer O the observer O’ is away the distance d given by the formula:
d vt 1,5.10 5 .1,00 1,5.10 5 km .
To the observer O’ the observer O is away the distance d’ given by the formula:
0 ,60
d' vt' 1,5.10 5. 1,03923.10 5 km .
0 ,75
To the distance of the object d O , d' O in relation to the observers O and O’ is given by the formulae:
d O uxt 2 ,4.10 5 .1,00 2 ,4.10 5 km .
0 ,60
d' O u' x' t' 1,5.10 5 . 1,03923.10 5 km .
0 ,75
To the observer O the distance between the object and the observer O’ is given by the formula:
d d O d 2 ,4.10 5 1,5.10 5 0 ,90.10 5 km .
To the observer O the velocity of the object in relation to the observer O’ is given by:
5
d 0 ,90.10 km 0 ,90.10 5 km / s (=0,30c)
t 1,00 s
2
Relating the times t and t’ using the formula t' t 1 v 2 is only possible and exclusively when ux v and
c
u' x' zero what isn’t the case above, to make it possible to understand this we write the equations 14.2 and
14.4 in the formula below:
t 1 v cos t' 1 v cos '
t' c 2 14.2 t c 2 14.4
1 v 2 1 v2
c c
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Where cos x and cos ' x' .
ct ct'
The equations above can be written as:
t' f t , e t f ' t' ,' 14.7
In each referential of the observers O and O’ the light propagation creates a sphere with radius ct and ct'
that intercept each other forming a circumference that propagates with velocity c. The radius ct and ct'
and the positive way of the axis x and x' form the angles and ' constant between the referentials. If for
the same pair of referentials te angles were variable the time would be alleatory and would become useless
for the Physics. In the equation t' f t , we have t’ identical function of t and , if we have in it
constant and t’ varies according to t we get the common relation between the times t and t’ between two
referentials, however if we have t constant and t’ varies according to we will have for each value of
one value of t’ and t between two different referentials, and this analysis is also valid for t f ' t' ,' .
Dividing 14.5a by c we have:
ux v cos v
u' x' c c cos ' c . 14.8
c 1 vux v
1 cos
c2 c
Where cos x ux and cos '
x' u' x' .
ct c ct' c
Isolating the velocity we have:
v cos cos ' or v
ux u' x'
14.9
c 1 cos cos ' uxu' x'
1
c2
From where we conclude that we must have angles and ' constant so that we have the same velocity
between the referentials.
This demand of constant angles between the referentials must solve the controversies of Herbert Dingle.
§15 Invariance
The transformations to the space and time of table I, group 1.2 plus 1.7, in the matrix form is written like this:
x' 1 0 0 v x
y' 0 1 0 0 y
z' 0 0 1 0 z 15.1
t' 0 0 0 K t
That written in the form below represents the same coordinate transformations:
x' 1 0 0 v / c x
y' 0 1 0 0 y
z' 0 0 1 0 z 15.2
ct' 0 0 0 K ct
We call as:
x' x' 1 1 0 0 v / c x x1
y' x' 2 0 1 0 0 y 2
x' x' 3 , ij 0 0 1 0 , x x x 3
i j
15.3
z' x' z x
ct' cx' 4 0 0 0 K ct cx 4
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That are the functions x'i x'i x j x'i x1 , x 2 , x 3 ,cx 4 x'i x, y, z ,ct 15.4
That in the symbolic form is written:
4
x ' . x or in the indexed form x' i ij x j x' i ij x j 15.5
j 1
Where we use Einstein’s sum convention.
The transformations to the space and time of table I, group 1.4 plus 1.8, in the matrix form is written:
x 1 0 0 v' x'
y 0 1 0 0 y'
z 0 0 1 0 z' 15.6
t 0 0 0 K' t'
That written in the form below represents the same coordinate transformations:
x 1 0 0 v' / c x'
y 0 1 0 0 y'
z 0 0 1 0 z' 15.7
ct 0 0 0 K' ct'
That we call as:
x x1 1 0 0 v' / c x' x' 1
y 2
0 1 0 0 y' 2
x x k x 3 , ' ' kl 0 0 1 0 , x' x' l x' 3 15.8
z x z' x'
ct cx 4 0 0 0 K ' ct' cx' 4
That are the functions x k x k x'l x k x'1 , x'2 , x'3 ,cx'4 x k x', y ', z ',ct ' 15.9
That in the symbolic form is written:
4
x '. x ' or in the indexed form x k ' kl x' l x k ' kl x' l 15.10
l 1
v 2 2vx1 v' 2 2v' x' 1
Being K 1 (1.7), K' 1 (1.8) and K . K ' 1 (1.10).
c2 c2 x4 c 2 c 2 x' 4
The transformation matrices ij and ' ' kl have the properties:
4
1 0 0 v / c 1 0 0 v' / c 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
.' ij' kl ij' jl 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 00 10 10 00 I li 15.11
j 1 0 0 0 K 0 0 0 K ' 0 0 0 1
4
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
' ji'lk ji'ik 0 0 1
t t
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 I k
j
15.12
i 1 v / c 0 0 K v' / c 0 0 K' 0 0 0 1
Where ji is the transposed matrix of ij and 't ' lk is the transpose matrix of ' ' kl and
t
is the Kronecker’s delta.
4
1 0 0 v' / c 1 0 0 v / c 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
'. ' kl ij ' kl lj 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 00 10 10 00 I kj 15.13
l 1 0 0 0 K' 0 0 0 K 0 0 0 1
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4
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
' 'lk ji 'lk ki 0 0 1
t t
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 I i
l
15.14
k 1 v' / c 0 0 K' v / c 0 0 K 0 0 0 1
Where 't ' lk is the transposed matrix of ' ' kl and t ji is the transposed matrix of ij
and is the Kronecker’s delta.
Observation: the matrices ij and ' kl are inverse of one another but are not orthogonal, that is: ji ' kl
and ij 'lk .
x'i of the total differential dx' i x' dx j of the coordinate components that
i
The partial derivatives
x j x j
correlate according to x'i x'i x j , where in the transformation matrix ij the radical K is
considered constant and equal to:
Table 10, partial derivatives of the coordinate components:
x'i x'1 x' 1 x' 1 0 x' 1 0 x'1 v
1 x 4 c
x j x j x 1 x 2 x 3
x' i x' 2 x' 2 0 x' 2 1 x' 2 x' 2 0
0
x j x j x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
x' i x' 3 x' 3 0 x' 3 0 x' 3 1 x' 3 0
x j x j x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
x' i x' 4 x'4 0 x' 4 0 x' 4 0 x'4 K
x j x j x1 x 2 x 3 x 4
The total differential of the coordinates in the matrix form is equal to:
dx' 1 1 0 0 v / c dx 1
dx' 2 0 1 0 0 dx 2
dx' 3 0 0 1 0 dx 3 15.15
cdx' 4 0 0 0 K cdx 4
That we call as:
dx' 1 1 0 0 v / c dx 1
i
dx' 2 i x' 0 1 0 0 2
dx' dx'
i
3 , A Aj 0 0 1 0 , dx dx dx 3
j
15.16
dx' x j dx
cdx' 4 cdx 4
0 0 0 K
4
dx 'i x'j dx j
i
Then we have dx ' Adx dx 'i A dx
j 1
i
j
j
x
15.17
The partial derivatives
x k of the total differential dx k x k dx'l of the coordinate components that
x'l x'l
correlate according to x k x k x'l , where in the transformation matrix ' ' kl the radical K ' is
considered constant and equal to:
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Table 11 partial derivatives of the coordinate components:
x k x1 v'
x l x 1 1 x 1 0 x 3
1 1
0 x' 4 c
x' l x' x' 1 x' 2 x'
x k x l
2
x 2 0 x 2 1 x 3
2
0 x 2 0
x' l x' x' 1 x' 2 x' x' 4
x k x l
3
x 3 0 x 3 0 x 3
3
1 x 4 0
3
x' l x' x' 1 x' 2 x' x'
x k x 4 0 x 4
x l x 4 0 x 3
4 4
x'1 0 x'4 K '
x' l x' x' 2 x'
The total differential of the coordinates in the matrix form is equal to:
dx 1 1 0 0 v' / c dx' 1
dx 2 0 1 0 0 dx' 2
dx 3 0 0 1 0 dx' 3 15.18
cdx 4 0 0 0 K' cdx' 4
That we call as:
dx 1 1 0 0 v' / c dx' 1
k
2 x 0 1 0 0 2
dx dx k dx 3 , A' A'lk 0 0 1 0 , dx' dx' l dx' 3 15.19
dx l
x' dx'
cdx 4 cdx' 4
0 0 0 K '
4
dx'l dx k x l dx'l
k
Then we have: dx A'dx ' dx k A'
l 1
k
l
x '
15.20
The Jacobians of the transformations 15.15 and 15.18 are:
1 0 0 v / c
J j
x' i x' , x' , x' , x'
1 2 3 4
010 0
001 0 K 15.21
x
x1 , x 2 , x 3 ,x 4 000 K
1 0 0 v' / c
x k
J' l
x1 ,x 2 , x 3 , x 4
010 0
K' 15.22
x' x' 1 , x' 2 , x' 3 , x' 4 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 K'
v 2 2vux1 v' 2 2v' u' x' 1
Where K 1 2 (2.5), K' 1 (2.6) and K . K ' 1 (1.23).
c2 c c2 c2
The matrices of the transformation A and A' also have the properties 15.11, 15.12, 15.13 and 15.14 of the
matrices and ' .
From the function x k ' 'x k x'l where the coordinates correlate in the form x k x k x'l we
x k
have described as:
x'l x k x'l
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x k x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
x'1 x k x'1 x 1 x'1 x 2 x'1 x 3 x'1 x 4 x'1
x k x1 x 2 x 3 x 4
x' 2 x k x' 2 x1 x' 2 x 2 x' 2 x 3 x' 2 x 4 x' 2
' x k x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
x'3 x k x'3 x 1 x' 3 x 2 x'3 x 3 x' 3 x 4 x'3
x k x1 x 2 x 3 ' x 4
x' 4 x k x' 4 x1 x' 4 x 2 x' 4 x 3 x' 4 x 4 x' 4
That in the matrix form and without presenting the function becomes:
x 1 x 1 1 1
1 1 0 x 0 x v'
x' x' 2 x' 3 x' 4
x 2 x 2 2 2
0 1 x 0 x 0
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4
3
x' l x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 0 x 3 0 x
3
1 x
3
0
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4
4
x v' x 4 4 4 2 1
0 x 0 x 1 1 v' v' u' x'
x' 1 c 2 K' x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 K' c 2 c 2
Where replacing the items below:
x 4 v' v
x' 1 c 2 K' c 2
x1 v' v
x' 4 K
x 4 1 v' 2 v' u' x' 1 x' 4 v 2 vux1
1 2 2 4 1 1 2 2
x' 4 K' c c x K c c
Observation: this last relation shows that the time varies in an equal form between the referentials.
We get:
x 1 x 1 1 1
1 1 0 x 0 x v
x' x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 K
x 2 x 2 2 2
0 1 x 0 x 0
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4
3
x' l x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 0 x 3 0 x
3
1 x
3
0
1
x'4 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4
x v x 4 4 4 2 1
0 x 0 x 1 1 v vux
x' 1 c 2 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 K c 2 c 2
That is the group 8.1 plus 8.3 of the table 9, differential operators, in the matrix form.
From the function ' 'x'i x'i x j where the coordinates correlate in the form x'i x'i x j we
' ' x'i
have described as:
x j x'i x j
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' ' x'i ' x'1 ' x' 2 ' x'3 ' x' 4
x 1 x'i x 1 x'1 x 1 x' 2 x 1 x' 3 x 1 x' 4 x1
' ' x' i ' x'1 ' x' 2 ' x' 3 ' x' 4
x 2 x'i x 2 x'1 x 2 x' 2 x 2 x'3 x 2 x' 4 x 2
' ' x'i ' x'1 ' x' 2 ' x'3 ' x' 4
x 3 x'i x 3 x'1 x 3 x' 2 x 3 x'3 x 3 x' 4 x 3
' ' x' i ' x'1 ' x' 2 ' x' 3 ' x' 4
x 4 x'i x 4 x'1 x 4 x' 2 x 4 x'3 x 4 x' 4 x 4
That in the matrix form and without presenting the function becomes:
x' 1 x' 1 0 x' 1 0 x' 1 v
1 1
x x 2 x 3 x 4
x' 2 x' 2 1 x' 2 0 x' 2 0
0
' x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
3
x j x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 x' 0 x' 3 0 x' 3 1 x' 3 0
x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
4
x' v x' 4 0 x' 4 0 x' 1 1 v vux
4 2 1
x 1 c 2 K
x 2 x 3 x 4 K c 2 c 2
Where replacing the items below:
x' 1 v v'
x 4 K'
x' 4 v v'
x1 c 2 K c 2
x' 4 1 v 2 vux1 x 4 2 1
1 2 2 4 1 1 v' 2 v' u'2x'
x 4 K c c x' K' c c
Observation: this last relation shows that the time varies in an equal form between the referentials.
We get:
x' 1 x' 1 0 x' 1 0 x' 1 v'
1 1
x x 2 x 3 x 4
K'
x' 2 x' 2 1 x' 2 0 2
x' 0
0
' x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4
3
x j x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 x' 4 x' 0 x' 3 0 x' 3 1 3
x' 0
1
x 4 x 2 x 3 x 4
x' v' x' 4 0 x' 4 0 x' 1 1 v' v' u' x'
4 2 1
x 1 c 2
x 2 x 3 x 4 K' c 2 c 2
That is the group 8.2 plus 8.4 from the table 9, differential operators in the matrix form.
Applying 8.5 in 8.3 and in 8.4 we simplify these equations in the following way:
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Table 9B, differential operators with the equations 8.3 and 8.4 simplified:
v v'
x' 1 x1 c 2 x 4 8.1 x1 x' 1 c 2 x' 4 8.2
x' 2 x 2 8.1.1 x 2 x' 2 8.2.1
x' 3 x 3 8.1.2 x 3 x' 3 8.2.2
K K'
cx' 4 cx 4 8.3B cx 4 cx' 4 8.4B
ux 1 zero 8.5
u' x' 1 zero 8.5
x 1 c 2 x 4 x' 1 c 2 x' 4
The table 9B, in the matrix form becomes:
1 00 0
0 1 0 0
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 x 1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 0 0 1 0 15.23
v / c 0 0 K
1 00 0
0 1 0 0
x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 0 0 1 0 15.24
v' / c 0 0 K '
The squared matrices of the transformations above are transposed of the matrices A and A’.
Invariance of the Total Differential
In the observer O referential the total differential of a function x k is equal to:
dx1
d x k k dx k 1 dx1 2 dx 2 3 dx 3 4 dx 4 1 2 3
x x x x x
dx 2
4 dx 3
15.25
x x x cx 4
cdx
Where the coordinates correlate with the ones from the observer O’ according to x k x k x'l , replacing the
transformations 15.24 and 15.18 and without presenting the function we have:
1 00 0 1 0 0 v' / c dx' 1
k 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 dx' 2
d k dx 1 2 3 0 0 0 1 0 dx' 3 15.26
x x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1
v' / c 0 0 K' 0 0 0 K' cdx' 4
The multiplication of the middle matrices supplies:
0 1 0 0 v' / c 0 1 0
1 0 0 v' / c
1 00 0
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 15.27
v' / c 0 0 2v' dx' 1
K' 0 0 0 K' v' / c 0 0 1 2 4
c dx'
Result that can be divided in two matrices:
1 0 0 v' / c 0 0 0 v' / c
0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.28
2v' dx' 0 0 1 0
1
2v' dx' 1
v' / c 0 0 1 2 4 0 0 0 1 v' / c 0 0 2 4
c dx' c dx'
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That applied to the total differential supplies:
0 0 0 v' / c
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 dx' 2
1
k 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 dx'
d k dx 1 2 3 15.29
1 dx'
x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1 0
3
x 2 v' dx'
0 0 0 1 v' / c 0 0 2 4 cdx' 4
c dx'
Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 0 0 v' / c 1
0 0 0 0 dx'
0 0 0 0 dx' 2 v' 4 2v' dx'
1
x' x' x' cx' 3 dx' 1
v' dx' dx' 4
1 2 3 4 1 dx' c x'
2 4
x' 1
c dx' x'
2 4 4
2v' dx' 4
v' / c 0 0 2 4 cdx'
c dx'
Where applying 8.5 we have:
c x'
c dx' x'
v'2 4 dx' 1 v' 12 dx' 4 4 dx' 4 2v2' dx' 4 4 dx' 4 zero
1
c dx' x'
1
Then we have:
0 0 0 v' / c 1
0 0 0 0 dx'
0 0 0 0 dx' 2
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 3 zero 15.30
2v' dx' 1 dx' 4
v' / c 0 0 2 4 cdx'
c dx'
With this result we have in 15.29 the invariance of the total differential:
1 0 0 0 dx'
1
k 0 1 0 0 dx' 2 '
d k dx 1 2 3 3 dx' l d' 15.31
x x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1 0 dx' 4 x' l
0 0 0 1 cdx'
In the observer O’ referential the total differential of a function x'i is equal to:
dx' 1
' ' ' ' ' 4 ' ' ' ' dx'
2
d' x' i dx' 1 dx' 2 dx' 3 dx' 4 dx' 1
i i 1 2 3
4 dx' 3
15.32
x' x' x' x' x' x' x' x' cx'
2 3
4
cdx'
Where the coordinates correlate with the ones from the observer O referential according to x'i x'i x j ,
replacing the transformations 15.23 and 15.15 and without presenting the function we have:
1 00 0 1 0 0 v / c dx1
' 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 dx 2
d' i dx' 1 2 3
i
0 0 0 1 0 dx 3 15.33
x' x x x cx 4 0 0 1
v / c 0 0 K 0 0 0 K cdx 4
The multiplication of the middle matrices supplies:
1 0 0 v / c
1 00 0 1 0 0 v / c 0 1 0 0
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 15.34
1
v / c 0 0 2 vdx
K 0 0 0 K v / c 0 0 1 2 4
c dx
Result that can be divided in two matrices:
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1 0 0 v / c 0 0 0 v / c
0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.35
2vdx1 0 0 1 0 2vdx1
v / c 0 0 1 2 4 0 0 0 1 v / c 0 0 2 4
c dx c dx
That applied to the total differential supplies:
0 0 0 v / c dx1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
' 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
d' i dx' i 1 2 3 0 dx 3 15.36
x' x x x cx 4 0 0 1 0 2vdx 1 dx
0 0 0 1 v / c 0 0 2 4 cdx 4
c dx
Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 0 0 v / c 1
0 00 0 dx2
0 0 0 0 dx 3 v2 4 dx1 v 1 dx 4 2v2 dx4 4 dx 4
1
x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4
2vdx1 dx 4 c x x c dx x
v / c 0 0 2 4 cdx
c dx
Where applying 8.5 we have:
c 2 x 4
c 2 dx 4 x 4
v dx1 v 1 dx 1 dx 4 2v dx1 dx 4 zero
c 2 dx 4 x 4
Then we have:
0 0 0 v / c 1
0 00 0 dx2
0 0 0 0 dx 3 zero 15.37
x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4
2vdx1 dx 4
v / c 0 0 cdx
c 2 dx 4
With this result we have in 15.36 the invariance of the total differential:
1 0 0 0 dx
1
' 0 1 0 0 dx 2
d' i dx' 1 2 3
i
4 0 0 1 0 dx 3
j dx j d 15.38
x' x x x cx x
0 0 0 1 cdx 4
Invariance of the Wave Equation
The wave equation to the observer O is equal to:
1
x1
1 0 0 0
1 1
2 2 2 2 2
0 1 0 0 x 2
2 2 0 15.39
c x 4 2 x1 2 x 2 2 x 3 2 c 2 x 4 2 x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 3
x
4
cx
Where applying 15.24 and the transposed from 15.24 we have:
x' 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v'
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0c x' 2
2
2 2 0 0 1 0 15.40
c x 4 2 x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 v'
0 0 K '
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 3
c 0 0 0 K' x'
cx' 4
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The multiplication of the three middle matrices supplies:
v'
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v' 1 00
0 0 1 0 0
c
0 10 c 0 10 0
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 01 0 15.41
v' 0 0 1 0
c 00 K' 0 0 0 1 v' 2v' u' x' 1
0 0 0 K' 0 0 1
c c2
Result that can be divided in two matrices:
1 v' v'
00 1 0 0 0 0 00
c c
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 00 0
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 00 0 15.42
v' 2v' u' x' 1
0 0 0 1 v' 2v' u' x' 1
0 0 1 00
c c 2
c c2
That applied in the wave equation supplies:
v' x' 1
1 0 0 0 0 00
c
1
2
0 1 0 0 0 00 0 x' 2
2 1 2 3 15.43
c2 x4 2 x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 v'
00 0
1
2v' u' x' x' 3
00
c c2
cx' 4
Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 v' x' 1
00
c
0 x' 2
v'2 1 4 v'2 1 4 2v2' u' x2'
1 2
00 0
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 0
v'
00 0
2v' u' x' 1 x' 3
c x' x' c x' x' c c x' 4 2
00
c c2
cx' 4
Executing the operations we have:
2v2' 1 4 2v2' u' x2' 2
1
c x' x' c c x' 4 2
Where applying 8.5 we have:
c
1
2v2' u' x2' 4 4 2v2' u' x2'
c x' x' c c x' 4 2
1 2 zero
Then we have:
0 v' x' 1
00
c
0 00 0 x' 2
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 0 00 0 zero 15.44
v' 1
2v' u' x' x' 3
00
c c2
cx' 4
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With this result we have in 15.43 the invariance of the wave equation:
x' 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 '
2 2
0 1 0 0 x' 2
2 1 2 3 2' 2 15.45
c x4 2
2 4 0 0 1 0
x' x' x' cx'
0 0 0 1 3
c x' 4 2
x'
cx' 4
The wave equation to the observer O’ is equal to:
x' 1
1 0 0 0
1 ' ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 1 '
2 2
0 1 0 0 x' 2
2' 2 1 2 3 0 15.46
2
c x' 4 2
x' 1
2
x' 2
2
x' 3
2
c x' 4 2 x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 3
x'
cx' 4
Where applying 15.23 and the transposed from 15.23 we have:
1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v x
1 '
2
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 c 2
2' 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 x 15.47
c x' 4 2 x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 v
00
0 0 1
K 0 0 0 1
0 3
c 0 0 0 K x
4
cx
The multiplication of the three middle matrices supplies:
v 1 0 0
v
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
c
0 1 0 c 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
001 0 15.48
v 0 0 1 0 v 1
c 0 0 K 0 0 0 1 2 vux
0 0 0 K 0 0 1 2
c c
Result that can be divided in two matrices:
1 0 0 v v
c 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 c
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 15.49
v 2vux 1
0 0 0 1 v 2vux1
0 0 1 2 00
c c c c2
That applied in the wave equation supplies:
0 0 0 v x1
1 0 0 0
c
1 '
2
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 x
2
2' 1 2 3 15.50
c 2 x' 4 2 x x x cx 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 v 2vux
0 0 2 x
3
c c
cx 4
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Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 0 0 v x1
c
0 0 0 0 x 2 v v 2v ux1 2
x x x cx 0 0 0 0 c x x c 2 x1 x 4 c 2 c 2
1 2 3 4
v 2vux1 x 3
2 1 4
x4
2
00 2
c c
4
x
Executing the operations we have:
2v 2v ux1 2
c 2 x 1 x 4 c 2 c 2 x 4 2
Where applying 8.5 we have:
2v ux1 2v ux1 2 zero
c 2 c 2 x 4 x 4 c 2 c 2 x 4 2
Then we have:
0 0 0 v x1
c
0 0 0 0 x 2
x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 0 0 0 0 zero 15.51
v 2vux1
0 0 2 x
3
c c
4
x
Then in 15.50 we have the invariance of the wave equation:
x1
1 0 0 0
1 ' 1
2 2
0 1 0 0 x 2
2' 1 2 3 2
15.52
c 2 x' 4 2 x x x cx 4 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 3
c2 x4 2
x
cx 4
Invariance of the equations 8.5 of linear propagation
Replacing 2.4, 8.2, 8.4B in 8.5 we have:
ux 1 v' 1 u' x' 1 v' K ' zero
x 1 c 2 x 4 x' 1 c 2 x' 4 c 2 K' x' 4
Executing the operations we have:
ux1 v' u' x' 1 v' zero
x 1 c 2 x 4 x' 1 c 2 x' 4 c 2 x' 4 c 2 x' 4
That simplified supplies the invariance of the equation 8.5:
ux1 u' x' 1 zero
x 1 c 2 x 4 x' 1 c 2 x' 4
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Replacing 2.3, 8.1, 8.3B in 8.5 we have:
u' x' 1 v 1 ux 1 v K zero
x' 1 c 2 x' 4 x 1 c 2 x 4 c 2 K x 4
Executing the operations we have:
u' x' 1 v ux1 v zero
x' 1 c 2 x' 4 x 1 c 2 x 4 c 2 x 4 c 2 x 4
That simplified supplies the invariance of the equation 8.5:
u' x' 1 ux1 zero
x' 1 c 2 x' 4 x1 c 2 x 4
The table 4 in a matrix from becomes:
px' 1 1 0 0 v / c px1
px' 2 0 1 0 0 px 2
3 0 0 1 0 3 15.53
px'
px
E' / c 0 0 0 K E / c
px1 1 0 0 v' / c px' 1
px 2 0 1 0 0 px' 2
3 0 0 1 0 3 15.54
px px'
0 0 0 K' E' / c
E / c
The table 6 in a matrix form becomes:
J ' x' 1 1 0 0 v / c Jx1
J ' x' 2 0 1 0 0 Jx 2
J ' x' 3 0 0 1 0 Jx 3 15.55
c ' 0 0 0 K c
Jx1 1 0 0 v' / c J ' x' 1
Jx 2 0 1 0 0 J ' x' 2
Jx 3 0 0 1 0 J ' x' 3 15.56
c 0 0 0 K' c'
Invariance of the Continuity Equation
The continuity equation to the observer O is equal to:
Jx1
ρ Jx1 Jx 2 Jx 3 ρ Jx 2
.J 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 3 zero 15.57
x x x x x x x x cx 4 Jx
c
Where replacing 15.24 and 15.56 we have:
1 00 0 1 0 0 v' / c J ' x' 1
ρ 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 J ' x' 2
.J 4 1 2 3 0 0 0 1 0 J ' x' 3 zero 15.58
x x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1
v' / c 0 0
K' 0 0 0 K' c'
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The product of the transformation matrices is given in 15.27 and 15.28 with this:
0 0 0 v' / c
0 J ' x' 2
1
1 0 0 0
ρ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
.J 4 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 J ' x' 3 15.59
x x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1 0 2v' u' x' 1 J ' x'
0 0 0 1 v' / c 0 0 c'
c 2
Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 0 0 v' / c
0 J ' x' 2
1
0 00
0 0 0 J ' x' v' Jx' v' ' 2v' u' x' '
1 1
0
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 3
2v' u' x' 1 J ' x' c x' x' 1 c 2 x' 4
2 4
v' / c 0 0 2 c'
c
Where replacing Jx' 1 ' u' x' 1 and 8.5 we have:
v' u'2x'
c x'
1 '
4
c x'
1
c
v' u' x2' 4 ' 2v' u2' x'
1 '
x' 4
zero
Then we have:
0 0 0 v' / c
0 J ' x' 2
1
0 00
0 0 0 0 J ' x'
x' 1 x' 2 x' 3 cx' 4 3 zero 15.60
2v' u' x' 1 J ' x'
v' / c 0 0 c'
c2
With this result we have in 15.59 the invariance of the continuity equation:
1 0 0 0 J ' x'
1
ρ 0 1 0 0 J ' x' 2 ρ'
.J 4 1 2 3 3 .J ' 15.61
x x' x' x' cx' 4 0 0 1 0 J ' x' x' 4
0 0 0 1 c'
The continuity equation to the observer O’ is equal to:
J ' x' 1
ρ' J ' x' 1 J ' x' 2 J ' x' 3 ρ' J ' x' 2
.J' 4 4 1 3 zero 15.62
x' x' 1
x' 2
x' 3
x' x' x' x' cx' 4 J ' x'
2 3
c'
Where replacing 15.23 and 15.55 we have:
1 00 0 1 0 0 v / c Jx1
ρ' 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Jx 2
.J' 4 1 2 3 0 0 0 1 0 Jx 3 zero 15.63
x' x x x cx 4 0 0 1
v / c 0 0
K 0 0 0 K c
The product of the transformation matrices is given in 15.34 and 15.35 then we have:
0 0 0 v / c 1
1 0 0 0 Jx
ρ' 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Jx 2
.J' 4 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 3 15.64
x' x x x cx 4 0 0 1 0
2vux1 Jx
0 0 0 1 v / c 0 0 2 c
c
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Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 0 0 v / c 1
0 0 0 0 Jx
0 0 0 0 Jx 2 v Jx1 v 2vux1
x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 3 2 4 x1 c 2 x 4
2vux1 Jx c x
v / c 0 0 2 c
c
Where replacing Jx1 ux1 and 8.5 we have:
c 2 x 4 c 2 x 4
c 2 x 4
vux1 v ux1 2vux1 zero
Then we have:
0 0 0 v / c 1
0 00 0 Jx2
0 0 0 0 Jx 3 zero
x1 x 2 x 3 cx 4 15.65
2vux1 Jx
v / c 0 0 2 c
c
With this result we have in 15.64 the invariance of the continuity equation:
1 0 0 0 Jx
1
ρ' 0 1 0 0 Jx 2 ρ
.J' 4 1 2 3 3 .J 15.66
x' x x x cx 4 0 0 1 0 Jx x 4
0 0 0 1 c
Invariance of the line differential element:
That to the observer O is written this way:
1 0 0 0 dx 1
ds 2 dx1 2 dx 2 2 dx 3 2 cdx 4 2 dx1 dx 2 dx 3 cdx 4 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
dx 2
dx 3 15.67
0 0 0 1 cdx 4
Where replacing 15.18 and the transposed from 15.18 we have:
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v'
dx' 1
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 c dx' 2
ds 2 dx' 1 dx' 2 dx' 3 cdx' 4 0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 15.68
v' 0 0 1 0 dx' 4
00 K' 0 0 0 1
c 0 0 0 K' cdx'
The multiplication of the three central matrices supplies:
v' 1
v'
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 00
0 0 1 0 0
c
0 10 c 0 10 0
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 01 0 15.69
v' 0 0 1 0
00 K' 0 0 0 1 v' 2v' dx' 1
c 0 0 0 K' 0 0 1 2 4
c c dx'
Result that can be divided in two matrices:
1 00
v' v'
c 1 0 0 0 0 00
c
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 00 0
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 00 0 15.70
v' 2v' dx' 1
0 0 0 1 v' 2v' dx' 1
0 0 1 2 4 00 2 4
c c dx' c c dx'
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That applied in the line differential element supplies:
v'
1 0 0 0 0 00
c dx' 1
dx' 2
ds 2 dx' 1 dx' 2 dx' 3 cdx' 4 00 10 10 00 00 00
00
0
0 dx' 3 15.71
0 0 0 1 v' 2v' dx' 1 cdx' 4
00 2 4
c c dx'
Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 00
v'
c dx' 1
4 0
dx' 2 v' dx' 1 cdx' 4 4 v'
1
00 0 1 2v' dx'
1 2 3
dx' dx' dx' cdx' 0 00 0 dx'
3 cdx' dx' cdx' 4 zero
c c
2
c dx' 4
v' 2v' dx' 1 cdx' 4
00 2
c c dx' 4
Then we have:
0 00
v'
c dx' 1
1 2 3 4 0
dx' dx' dx' cdx' 0 00
00
0
0
dx' 2
dx' 3 zero 15.72
v' 1
2v' ' dx' cdx' 4
00 2
c c dx' 4
With this result we have in 15.71 the invariance of the line differential element:
1 0 0 0 dx'
1
2
0 1 00
ds dx' 1 dx' 2 dx' 3 cdx' 4 0 0 1 0 dxdx' 3
' 2 dx' 1 2 dx' 2 2 dx' 3 2 cdx' 4 ds'
2 2
15.73
0 0 0 1 cdx' 4
To the observer O’ the line differential element is written this way:
1 0 0 0 dx' 1
ds' 2 dx' dx' dx' cdx' dx'
1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 1
dx' 2 dx' 3 cdx' 4 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
dx' 2
dx' 3 15.74
0 0 0 1 cdx' 4
Where replacing 15.15 and the transposed from 15.15 we have:
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v
dx1
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 c dx 2
2
ds' dx dx dx cdx 0 0 1
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 15.75
v 0 0 1 0 dx 4
c 0 0 K 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 K cdx
The multiplication of the three central matrices supplies:
v
1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 v 1 00
0 0 1 0 0
c
0 10 c 0 10 0
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0
0 01 0 15.76
v 0 0 1 0
c 00 K 0 0 0 1 v 2vdx1
0 0 0 K 0 0 1 2 4
c c dx
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Result that can be divided in two matrices:
1 00 v v
c 1 0 0 0 0 00
c
0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 00 0
0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 00 0
15.77
v 2vdx 1
0 0 0 1 v 2vdx1
0 0 1 2 4 00 2 4
c c dx c c dx
That applied in the line differential element supplies:
v
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 c dx 1
ds' 2 dx1dx 2 dx 3 cdx 4 00 10 10 00 00 00 00 00 dx
2
15.78
0 0 0 1 v 1
dx 3
4
00 2vdx
cdx
c c dx
2 4
Executing the operations of the second term we have:
0 v
00
c dx
1
4
4 0 dx 2 vdx cdx cdx 4 v dx 1 2v dx cdx 4 zero
1 1
1 2 3 00 0
dx dx dx cdx 0 0 0 0 dx 3
c c c dx 4
2
v 2v dx 1 cdx 4
00 2 4
c c dx
Then we have:
0 0 0 v
c dx
1
2
0 00 0
dx 1dx 2 dx 3 cdx 4 0 0 0 0 dx 3 zero 15.79
dx
v 2v dx 1 4
0 0 2 4 cdx
c c dx
With this result we have in 15.78 the invariance of the line differential element:
1 0 0 0 dx
1
ds
2
ds' dx 1 dx 2 dx 3 cdx 4 0 1 0 0 dx 3 dx 1 dx 2 dx 3 cdx 4
2 2 2 2 2 2
15.80
0 0 1 0 dx
0 0 0 1 cdx 4
In §7 as a consequence of 5.3 we had the invariance of E .u E'.u' where now applying 7.3.1, 7.3.2, 7.4.1,
7.4.2 and the velocity transformation formulae from table 2 we have new relations between Ex and E' x'
distinct from 7.3 and 7.4 and with them we rewrite the table 7 in the form below:
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Table 7B
Ex K E 'x ' K '
E 'x' Ex
1 v 7.3B 1 v' 7.4B
ux u 'x '
E' y' Ey K 7.3.1 Ey E' y' K' 7.4.1
E' z' Ez K 7.3.2 Ez E' z' K' 7.4.2
B' x' Bx 7.5 Bx B' x' 7.6
v v'
B' y' By 2 Ez 7.5.1
By B' y' 2 E' z' 7.6.1
c c
v v'
B' z' Bz 2 Ey 7.5.2
Bz B' z' 2 E' y' 7.6.2
c c
ux u' x'
By 2 Ez 7.9
B' y' 2 E' z' 7.10
c c
ux u' x'
Bz 2 Ey 7.9.1
B' z' 2 E' y' 7.10.1
c c
1 v 1 v' 1
ux u 'x '
With the tables 7B and 9B we can have the invariance of all Maxwell’s equations.
Invariance of the Gauss’ Law for the electrical field:
E' x' E' y' E' z' '
8.14
x' y' z' 0
Where applying the tables 6, 7B and 9B we have:
v Ex K Ey K Ez K K
x c 2 t 1v / ux y z 0
Where simplifying and replacing 8.5 we have:
v 1 Ex Ey Ez
x ux x 1v / ux y z 0
That reordered supplies:
1 v Ex Ey Ez .
x ux 1v / ux y z 0
That simplified supplies the invariance of the Gauss’ Law for the electrical field.
Invariance of the Gauss’ Law for the magnetic field:
B' x' B' y' B' z'
zero 8.16
x' y' z'
Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
v Bx By v Ez Bz v Ey 0
x c 2 t y c 2 z c2
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That reordered supplies:
Bx By Bz v Ez Ey Bx
0
x y z c 2 y z t
Where the term in parenthesis is the Faraday-Henry’s Law (8.19) that is equal to zero from where we have
the invariance of the Gauss’ Law for the magnetic field.
Invariance of the Faraday-Henry’s Law:
E' y' E' x' B' z'
8.18
x' y' t'
Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
v Ey K Ex K K Bz v Ey
x c 2 t y 1v / ux t c2
That simplified and multiplied by 1v / ux we have:
Ey v Ex Bz v
1 1
x ux y t ux
Where executing the products and replacing 7.9.1 we have:
Ey Ex Bz v Ey ux Ey
x y t ux x c 2 t
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Faraday-Henry’s Law.
Invariance of the Faraday-Henry’s Law:
E' z' E' y' B' x'
8.20
y' z' t'
Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
Ez Ey Bx
K K K
y z t
That simplified supplies the invariance of the Faraday-Henry’s Law.
Invariance of the Faraday-Henry’s Law:
E' x' E' z' B' y'
8.22
z' x' t'
Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
Ex K v
2 Ez K K By 2 Ez
v
z 1v / ux x c t t c
That simplified and multiplied by 1v / ux we have:
Ex Ez v v Ez v By v v Ez v
1 1 1 1
z x ux c 2 t ux t ux c 2 t ux
That simplifying and making the operations we have:
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Ex Ez By v Ez By
z x t ux x t
Where applying 7.9 we have:
Ex Ez By v Ez ux Ez
.
z x t ux x c 2 t
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Faraday-Henry’s Law.
Invariance of the Ampere-Maxwell’s Law:
B' y' B' x' E' z'
o J ' z' o o 8.24
x' y' t'
Where applying the tables 6, 7B and 9B we have:
v By v Ez Bx Jz K Ez K
x c 2 t c 2 y t
0 0 0
That simplifying and making the operations we have:
By Bx Ez 1 v 2 Ez 1 2vux Ez v Ez v By 1 v 2 Ez
0 Jz 0 0
x y t c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
Where simplifying and applying 7.9 we have:
By Bx Ez 1 2vux Ez v Ez v ux Ez
0 Jz 0 0
x y t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
That reorganized supplies
By Bx Ez v ux Ez Ez
0 Jz 0 0
x y t c 2 c 2 t x
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Ampere-Maxwell’s Law:
Invariance of the Ampere-Maxwell’s Law:
B' z' B' y' E' x'
o J ' x' o o 8.26
y' z' t'
Where applying the tables 6, 7B and 9B we have:
v v Ex K
Bz 2 Ey By 2 Ez 0 Jx v 0 0 K
y c z c t 1v / ux
Making the operations we have:
Bz By v Ey Ez v 2 2vux Ex
0 c 2 0 0 1 2 2
1
0 Jx 2
y z c y z c c t 1v / ux
v
Replacing in the first parenthesis the Gauss’ Law and multiplying by 1 we have:
ux
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Bz By Ex v Bz By v Ex v 2 1 Ex 1 v 2 Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 Jx 0 0 0 Jx 2
y z t ux y z c x c 2 ux x c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
Where replacing Jx ux , 7.9.1, 7.9 and 8.5 we have:
Bz By Ex v ux Ey ux Ez v Ex v 2 1 Ex 1 v 2 Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 Jx 0 0 2 2 0 ux 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y z t ux c y c z c x c c t c c t c c t
That simplified supplies:
Bz By Ex v Ey Ez v Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 Jx 0 0 2 0 c 2 2
y z t c y z c x c 2 c 2 t
Replacing in the first parenthesis the Gauss’ Law we have:
Bz By Ex v Ex v Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 Jx 0 0
y z t c 2 x c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
That reorganized makes:
Bz By Ex 2v Ex ux Ex
0 Jx 0 0
y z t c 2 x c 2 t
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Ampere-Maxwell’s Law:
Invariance of the Ampere-Maxwell’s Law:
B' x' B' z' E' y'
o J ' y' o o 8.28
z' x' t'
Where applying the tables 6, 7B and 9B we have:
Bx v v
Bz 2 Ey 0 Jy 0 0 K Ey K
z x c 2 t c t
Making the operations we have:
Bx Bz Ey 1 v 2 Ey 1 2vux Ey v Ey v Bz 1 v 2 Ey
0 Jy 0 0
z x t c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
Where simplifying and applying 7.9.1 we have:
Bx Bz Ey 1 2vux Ey v Ey v ux Ey
0 Jy 0 0
z x t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
That reorganized makes:
Bx Bz Ey v ux Ey Ey
0 Jy 0 0
z x t c 2 c 2 t x
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Ampere-Maxwell’s Law:
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Invariance of the Gauss’ Law for the electrical field without electrical charge:
E' x' E' y' E' z'
zero 8.30
x' y' z'
Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
v Ex K Ey K Ez K zero
x c 2 t 1v / ux y z
Where simplifying and replacing 8.5 we have:
v 1 Ex Ey Ez zero
x ux x 1v / ux y z
That reorganized makes:
1 v Ex Ey Ez zero .
x ux 1v / ux y z
That simplified supplies the Gauss’ Law for the electrical field without electrical charge.
Invariance of the Ampere-Maxwell’s Law without electrical charge:
B' y' B' x' E' z'
o o 8.40
x' y' t'
Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
v By v Ez Bx K Ez K
x c 2 t c 2 y t
0 0
Making the operations we have:
By Bx Ez 1 v 2 Ez 1 2vux Ez v Ez v By 1 v 2 Ez
0 0
x y t c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
Where simplifying and applying 7.9 we have:
By Bx Ez 1 2vux Ez v Ez v ux Ez
0 0
x y t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
That reorganized makes:
By Bx Ez v ux Ez Ez
0 0
x y t c 2 c 2 t x
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Ampere-Maxwell’s Law without electrical charge:
Invariance of the Ampere-Maxwell’s Law without electrical charge:
B' z' B' y' E' x'
o o 8.42
y' z' t'
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Where applying the tables 7B and 9B we have:
v v Ex K
Bz 2 Ey By 2 Ez 0 0 K
y c z c t 1v / ux
Making the operations we have:
Bz By v Ey Ez v 2 2vux Ex 1
2 0 0 1 2 2
y z c y z c c t 1v / ux
Replacing in the first parenthesis the Gauss’ Law without electrical charge and multiplying by 1 v / ux we
have:
Bz By Ex v Bz By v Ex v 2 1 Ex 1 v 2 Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 0
y z t ux y z c 2 x c 2 ux x c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
Where replacing 7.9, 7.9.1 and 8.5 we have:
Bz By Ex v ux Ey ux Ez v Ex v 2 1 Ex 1 v 2 Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 0
y z t ux c 2 y c 2 z c 2 x c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
That simplified supplies:
Bz By Ex v Ey Ez v Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 0
y z t c 2 y z c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
Replacing in the first parenthesis the Gauss’ Law without electrical charge we have:
Bz By Ex v Ex v Ex 1 2vux Ex
0 0
y z t c 2 x c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
That reorganized makes:
Bz By Ex 2v Ex ux Ex
0 Jx 0 0
y z t c 2 x c 2 t
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Ampere-Maxwell’s Law without electrical charge:
Invariance of the Ampere-Maxwell’s Law without electrical charge:
B' x' B' z' E' y'
o o 8.44
z' x' t'
Where applying the tables 6, 7B and 9B we have:
Bx v v
2 Bz 2 Ey 0 0 K Ey K
z x c t c t
Making the operations we have:
Bx Bz Ey 1 v 2 Ey 1 2vux Ey v Ey v Bz 1 v 2 Ey
0 0
z x t c 2 c 2 t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 t c 2 c 2 t
Where simplifying and applying 7.9.1 we have:
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Bx Bz Ey 1 2vux Ey v Ey v ux Ey
0 0
z x t c 2 c 2 t c 2 x c 2 c 2 t
That reorganized makes:
Bx Bz Ey v ux Ey Ey
0 0
z x t c 2 c 2 t x
As the term in parenthesis is the equation 8.5 that is equal to zero then we have the invariance of the
Ampere-Maxwell’s Law without electrical charge:
§15 Invariance (continuation)
A function f f kr wt 2.19
Where the phase is equal to kr wt 15.81
In order to represent an undulating movement that goes on in one arbitrary direction must comply with the
wave equation and because of this we have:
k
x 2 y 2 z 2 f k 2 2 2 f
2
2 f
2
3r 2 x y z k zero
2
15.82
r2 r r 2 2
That doesn’t meet with the wave equation because the two last elements get nule but the first one doesn’t.
In order to overcome this problem we reformulate the phase of the function in the following way.
A unitary vector such as
n cos i cos j cos k 15.83
x x y y z z
where cos , cos , cos 15.84
r ct r ct r ct
has the module equal to n n n .n cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1 . 15.85
Making the product
n .R cosi cosj cos k . xi yj zk cosx cosy cos z
x2 y2 z2 r 2
r
r
r
15.86
we have r n .R cos x cos y cos z that applied to the phase supplies a new phase
kr wt kn .R wt k cos x k cos y k cos z wt 15.87
with the same meaning of the previous phase .
w
Replacing r n .R cos x cos y cos z e k in the phase multiplied by –1 we also get another
c
phase in the form
r cos x cos y cos z
1kr wt wt kr w t w t 15.88
c c
with the same meaning of the previous phase 1 .
Thus we can write a new function as:
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cosx cosy cos z
f f w t 15.89
c
That replaced in the wave equation with the director cosine considered constant supplies:
2 f w 2 2 f w 2 2 f w 2 2 f w 2
cos 2
cos 2
cos 2
zero 15.90
2 c 2 2 c 2 2 c 2 2 c 2
that simplified meets the wave equation.
The positive result of the phase in the wave equation is an exclusive consequence of the director cosines
being constant in the partial derivatives showing that the wave equation demands the propagation to have
one steady direction in the space (plane wave).
For the observer O a source located in the origin of its referential produces in a random point located at the
distance r ct x 2 y 2 z 2 of the origin, an electrical field E described by:
E Exi Eyj Ezk 15.91
Where the components are described as:
Ex E xo . f
Ey E yo . f 15.92
Ez E zo . f
That applied in E supplies:
E E xo f i E yo f j E zo f k E xo i E yo j E zo f Eo f . 15.93
with module equal to E E xo 2 E yo 2 E zo 2 . f E Eo . f 15.94
Being E o E xo i E yo j E zo k 15.95
The maximum amplitude vector Constant with the components Exo, Eyo, Ezo 15.96
And module Eo E xo 2 E yo 2 E zo 2 15.97
Being f a function with the phase equal to15.87 or 15.88.
Deriving the component Ex in relation to x and t we have:
Ex f f kr wt f kx f kx
E xo E xo E xo E xo 15.98
x x x r ct
Ex f f kr wt f
E xo E xo E xo w 15.99
t t t
that applied in 8.5 supplies
Ex x / t Ex f x / t f f x / t
2 zero E xo 2 E xo zero E xo zero
x c t x c t x c 2 t
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f x / t x / t
E xo 2 zero zero 15.100
x c t x c 2 t
demonstrating that it is the phase that must comply with 8.5.
x / t kr wt x / t kr wt kx x / t x w
2 zero 2 zero 2 w zero k zero
x c t x c t ct c ct c
w
as k then Ex complies with 8.5.
c
As the phase is the same for the components Ey and Ez then they also comply with 8.5.
As the phases for the observers O and O’ are equal kr wt k' r' w' t' then the components of the
observer O’ also comply with 8.5.
kr wt x / t kr wt k' r' w' t' x' / t' k' r' w' t'
2 2 zero 15.101
x c t x' c t'
The components relatively to the observer O of the electrical field are transformed for the referential of the
observer O’ according to the tables 7, 7B and 8.
Applying in 8.5 a wave function written in the form:
e i kxwt e i coskx wt i sin kx wt cos i sin 15.102
where i 1 .
Deriving we have:
k sen ki cos end w sen wi cos 15.103
x t
or kei and wei 15.104
x t
That applied in 8.5 supplies:
x / t x/t
2 zero k sen ki cos 2 w sen wi cos zero
x c t c
that is equal to:
xw xwi
k 2 sin ki 2 cos zero
c t c t
or
x / t
x
2
c t
x/t
zero ke i 2 we i zero
c
where we must have the coefficients equal to zero so that we get na identity, then:
xw xw
k 2
zero k 2
c t c t
xwi xw
ki 2 zero k 2
c t c t
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ke xc/ t we zero k cxwt
i
2
i
2
Where applying w ck we have:
xw xck x
k 2
2 c
c t c t t
Then to meet with the equation 8.5 we must have a wave propagation along the axis x with the speed c.
x
If we apply w uk and v we have:
t
xw vuk c2
k u .
c 2t c2 v
A result also gotten from the Louis de Broglie’s wave equation.
§16 Time and Frequency
Considering the Doppler effect as a law of physics.
We can define a clock as any device that produces a frequency of identical events in a series possible to be
enlisted and added in such a way that a random event n of a device will be identical to any event in the
series of events produced by a replica of this device when the events are compared in a relative resting
position.
The cyclical movement of a clock in a resting position according to the observer O referential sets the time in
this referential and the cyclical movement of the arms of a clock in a resting position according to the
observer O’ sets the time in this referential. The formulas of time transformation 1.7 and 1.8 relate the times
between the referentials in relative movement thus, relate movements in relative movement.
The relative movement between the inertial referentials produces the Doppler effect that proves that the
frequency varies with velocity and as the frequency can be interpreted as being the frequency of the cyclical
movement of the arms of a clock then the time varies in the same proportion that varies the frequency with
the relative movement that is, it is enough to replace the time t and t’ in the formulas 1.7 and 1.8 by the
frequencies y and y’ to get the formulas of frequency transformation, then:
t' t K y' y K 1.7 becomes 2.22
t t' K' y y' K' 1.8 becomes 2.22
The Galileo’s transformation of velocities u' u v between two inertial referentials presents intrinsically
three defects that can be described this way:
a) The Galileo’s transformation of velocity to the axis x is u' x' ux v . In that one if we have ux c then
u' x' c v and if we have u' x' c then ux c v . As both results are not simultaneously possible or else
we have ux c or u' x' c then the transformation doesn’t allow that a ray of light be simultaneously
observed by the observers O and O’ what shows the privilege of an observer in relation to the other because
each observer can only see the ray of light running in its own referential (intrinsic defect to the classic
analysis of the Sagnac’s effect).
b) It cannot also comply to Newton’s first law of inertia because a ray of light emitted parallel to the axis x
from the origin of the respective inertial referentials at the moment that the origins are coincident and at the
moment in which t = t’ = zero will have by the Galileo’s transformation the velocity c of light altered by v to
the referentials, on the contrary of the inertial law that wouldn’t allow the existence of a variation in velocity
because there is no external action acting on the ray of light and because of this both observers should see
the ray of light with velocity c.
c) As it considers the time as a constant between the referentials it doesn’t produce the temporal variation
between the referentials in movement as it is required by the Doppler effect.
The principle of constancy of light velocity is nothing but a requirement of the Newton’s first law, the inertia
law.
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Newton’s first law, the inertia law, is introduced in Galileo’s transformation when the principle of constancy of
light velocity is applied in Galileo’s transformation providing the equation of tables 1 and 2 of the Undulating
Relativity that doesn’t have the three defects described.
The time and velocity equations of tables 1 and 2 can be written as:
v2 2v
t' t 1 2
cos 1.7
c c
v
v' 1.15
v2
2v
1 2 cos
c c
v' 2 2v'
t t' 1 2
cos ' 1.8
c c
v'
v 1.20
v' 2 2v'
1 cos'
c2 c
The distance d between the referentials is equal to the product of velocity by time this way:
d vt v' t' 1.9
It doesn’t depend on the propagation angle of the ray of light, being exclusively a function of velocity and
time, that is, the propagation angle of the ray of light, only alters between the inertial referential the
proportion between time and velocity, keeping the distance constant in each moment, to any propagation
angle.
The equations above in a function form are written as:
d ev , t e' v' , t' 1.9
t' f v ,t , 1.7
v' g v , 1.15
t f ' v' ,t' ,' 1.8
v g' v' ,' 1.20
Then we have that the distance is a function of two variables, the time a function of three variables and the
velocity a function of two variables.
From the definition of moment 4.1 and energy 4.6 we have:
E
p 2u 16.1
c
The elevated to the power of two supplies:
u2 c2 p2 16.2
c2 E 2
Elevating to the power of two the energy formula we have:
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2
2
mc 2
E 2 0 2 E 2 E 2 u 2 m02 c 4
u c
1 2
c
Where applying 16.2 we have:
2 2
E 2 E 2 u 2 m02 c 4 E 2 E 2 c 2 p 2 m02 c 4 E c p 2 m02 c 2 4.8
c E
From where we conclude that if the mass in resting position of a particle is null mo zero the particle
energy is equal to E c p . 16.3
That applied in 16.2 supplies:
u 2 c2 p2 u 2 c2 p2 u c 16.4
c2 E 2 c 2 cp 2
From where we conclude that the movement of a particle with a null mass in resting position mo zero will
always be at the velocity of light u c .
Applying in E c p the relations E yh and c y we have:
h
yh yp p h and in the same way p' 16.5
'
Equation that relates the moment of a particle with a null mass in resting position with its own way length.
Elevating to the power of two the formula of moment transformation (4.9) we have:
2
p' p E2 v p' 2 p 2 E4 v 2 2 E2 vpx
c c c
Where applying E c p and px p cos p ux we find:
c
p' 2 p 2
cp 2 v 2 2 cp vp ux p' p 1
v 2 2vux
2 p' p K 16.6
c4 c2 c c2 c
Where applying 16.5 results in:
h h '
p' p K K ' or inverted 2.21
' K K'
Where applying c y and c y ' ' we have:
y' y K or inverted y y' K' 2.22
In § 2 we have the equations 2.21 and 2.22 applying the principle of relativity to the wave phase.
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17 Transformation of H. Lorentz
For two observers in a relative movement, the equation that represents the principle of constancy of light
speed for a random point A is:
x'2 y'2 z'2 c 2t'2 x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2t 2 17.01
In this equation canceling the symmetric terms we have:
Nesta cancelando os termos simétricos obtemos:
x'2 c 2t'2 x 2 c 2t 2 17.02
That we can write as:
x'ct'x'ct' x ct x ct 17.03
If in this equation we define the proportion factors and as:
x'ct' x ct A
17.04
x'ct' x ct B
where we must have . 1 to comply 17.03.
The equations 17.04 where first gotten by Albert Einstein.
When a ray of light moves in the plane y’z’ to the observer O’ we have x’ = zero and x = vt and such
conditions applied to the equation 17.02 supplies:
2
0 c 2t'2 vt2 c 2t 2 t't 1 v 2 17.05
c
This result will also be supplied by the equations A and B of the group 17.04 under the same conditions:
v2
0 ct 1 2 vt ct A
c
17.06
v 2 vt ct
0 ct 1 B
c 2
From those we have:
1 v 1 v
c and
c 17.07
1 v 1 v
c c
Where we have proven that . 1 .
From the group 17.04 we have the Transformations of H. Lorentz:
x'
x ct 17.08
2 2
ct'
x ct 17.09
2 2
x
x' ct' 17.10
2 2
ct
x' ct' 17.11
2 2
Indexes equations , and :
2 2 2
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1 v 1 v 1 v 1 v
c c c c 2 1 17.12
1 v 1 v v v v 2 2 v2
c c 1 1 1 1
c c c2 c2
1 v 1 v 1 v 1 v 2v v
c c c c c c 17.13
1 v 1 v v v v 2 2 v2
c c 1 1 1 1
c c c 2
c2
1 v 1 v 1 v 1 v 2v
v
c c c c c c 17.14
1 v 1 v v 1 v v 2 2 v2
c c 1 1 1
c c c2 c2
Sagnac effect
When both observers’ origins are equal the time is zeroed (t = t’ = zero) in both referentials and two rays of
light are emitted from the common origin, one in the positive direction (clockwise index c) of the axis x and x’
with a wave front Ac and another in the negative direction (counter-clockwise index u) of the axis x and x’
with a wave front Au.
The propagation conditions above applied to the Lorentz equations supply the tables A and B below:
Table A
Equation Clockwise ray (c) Equation Counter-clockwise ray (u) Sum of rays
Result Result
Condition xc ctc Condition xu ctu
17.08 x'c ctc 17.08 x'u ctu
x'c xc x'u xu x'c x'u xc xu
17.09 ct'c ctc 17.09 ct'u ctu ct'c ct'u ctc ctu
x'c ct'c x'u ct'u
Table B
Equation Clockwise ray (c) Equation Counter-clockwise ray (u) Sum of rays
Result Result
Condition x'c ct'c Condition x'u ct'u
17.10 xc ct'c 17.10 xu ct'u
xc x'c xu x'u xc xu x'c x'u
17.11 ctc ct'c 17.11 ctu ct'u ctc ctu ct'c ct'u
xc ctc xu ctu
We observe that the tables A and B are inverse one to another.
When we form the group of the sum equations of the two rays from tables A and B:
D' ct'c ct'u ctc ctu A
17.15
D ctc ctu ct'c ct'u B
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Where to the observer O’ D' Au Ac is the distance between the front waves Au and Ac and where to the
observer O D Au Ac is the distance between the front waves Au and Ac.
In the equations 17.15 above, due to the isotropy of space and time and the front waves Au Ac of the
two rays of light being the same for both observers, the sum of rays of light e times must be invariable
between the observers, which we can express by:
D' D ct'c ct'u ctc ctu t' t 17.16
This result that generates an equation of isotropy of space and time can be called as the conservation of
space and time principle.
The three hypothesis of propagation defined as follows will be applied in 17.15 and tested to prove the
conservation of space and time principle given by 17.16:
Hypothesis A:
If the space and time are isotropic and there is no movement with no privilege of one observer considered
over the other in an empty space then the propagation geometry of rays of light can be given by:
ctc ct'u and ctu ct'c 17.17
This hypothesis applied to the equation A or B of the group 17.15 complies to the space and time
conservation principle given by 17.16.
The hypothesis 17.17 applied to the tables A and B results in:
ct'c ct'u A
Quadro A
ct'u ct'c B
17.18
ctc ctu C
Quadro B
ctu ctc D
Hypothesis B:
If the space and time are isotropic but the observer O is in an absolute resting position in an empty space
then the geometry of propagation of the rays of light is given by:
ctc ctu ct 17.19
That applied to the table A and B results in:
ct'c ct A
Quadro A
ct'u ct B
17.20
ct ct'c C
Quadro B
ct ct'u D
ct'c 2ct'u A
17.21
ct'u 2ct'c B
Summing A and B in 17.20 we have:
ct'c ct'u 2ct
D' D D'
D
t'
t 17.22
2 2 v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
This result doesn’t comply with the conservation of space and time principle given by 17.16 and as D' D it
results in a situation of four rays of light, two to each observer, and each ray of light with its respective
independent front wave from the others.
Hypothesis C:
If the space and time are isotropic but the observer O’ is in an absolute resting position in an empty space
then the propagation geometry of the rays of light is given:
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ct'c ct'u ct' 17.23
That applied to the tables A and B results in:
ct' ctc A
Quadro A
ct' ctu B
17.24
ctc ct' C
Quadro B
ctu ct' D
ctc 2ctu A
17.25
ctu 2ctc B
Summing C and D in 17.24 we have:
ctc ctu 2ct'
D D' D
D'
t
t' 17.26
2 2 v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
This result doesn’t comply with the conservation of space and time principle exactly the same way as
hypothesis B given by 17.16 and as D' D D' D it results in a situation of four rays of light, two to each
observer and each ray of light with its respective independent front wave from the others.
Conclusion
The hypothesis A, B and C are completely compatible with the demand of isotropy of space and time as we
can conclude with the geometry of propagations.
The result of hypothesis A is contrary to the result of hypothesis B and C despite of the relative movement of
the observers not changing the front wave Au relatively to the front wave Ac because the front waves have
independent movement one from the other and from the observers.
The hypothesis A applied in the transformations of H. Lorentz complies with the conservation of space and
time principle given by 17.16 showing the compatibility with the transformations of H. Lorentz with the
hypothesis A. The application of hypothesis B and C in the transformations of H. Lorentz supplies the space
and time deformations given by 17.22 and 17.26 because the transformations of H. Lorentz are not
compatible with the hypothesis B and C.
For us to obtain the Sagnac effect we must consider that the observer O’ is in an absolute resting position,
hypothesis C above and that the path of the rays of light be of 2R :
ct'c ct'u ct' 2R 17.27
For the observer O the Sagnac effect is given by the time difference between the clockwise ray of light and
the counter-clock ray of light t tc tu that can be obtained using 17.24 (C-D), 17.27 and 17.14:
2v
t tc tu t' 2R c 4Rv 17.28
c 2 2 2
1 v 2 c c v
c
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§9 The Sagnac Effect (continuation)
The moment the origins are the same the time is zeroed (t = t’ = zero) at both sides of the referential and the
rays of light are emitted from the common origin, one in the positive way (clockwise index c) of the axis x and
x’ with a wave front Ac and the other one in the negative way (counter clockwise index u) of the axis x and x’
with wave front Au.
The projected ray of light in the positive way (clockwise index c) of the axis x and x’ is equationed by
xc ctc and x'c ct'c that applied to the Table I supplies:
v v'c
ct'c ctc 1 c ct'c ctc K c (1.7) ctc ct'c 1 ctc ct'c K'c (1.8) 9.11
c c
vc vc v'c v'c
v'c v'c (1.15) vc vc (1.20) 9.12
vc Kc v'c K'c
1 1
c c
From those we deduct that the distance between the observers is given by:
d c v ctc v'c t'c 9.13
Where we have:
v c v'c
1 1 K c K'c 1 9.14
c c
The ray of light project in the negative way (counter clockwise index u) of the axis x and x’ is equationed by
xu ctu and x'u ct'u : that applied to the Table I gives:
v v'
ct'u ctu 1 u ct'u ctu K u (1.7) ctu ct'u 1 u ctu ct'u K'u (1.8) 9.15
c c
vu vu v'u v'u
v'u v'u (1.15) vu vu (1.20) 9.16
vu Ku v'u K'u
1 1
c c
From those we deduct that the distance between the observers is given by:
du v utu v'u t'u 9.17
Where we have:
v u v'u
1 1 K K' 1 9.18
c c u u
We must observe that at first there is no relationship between the equations 9.11 to 9.14 with the equations
9.15 to 9.18.
With the propagation conditions described we form the following Tables A and B:
Table A
Clockwise ray of Counter clockwise ray of
Equation Equation Sum of the rays of light
light (c) light (u)
Result Result
Condition xc ctc Condition xu ctu
1.2 x'c ctcK c 1.2 x'u ctuK u
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x'c xc K c x'u xuK u x'c x'u xc K c xuK u
1.7 ct'c ctc K c 1.7 ct'u ctuK u ct'c ct'u ctc K c ctuK u
x'c ct'c x'u ct'u
Table B
Clockwise ray of Counter clockwise ray of
Equation Equation Sum of the rays of light
light (c) light (u)
Result Result
Condition x'c ct'c Condition x'u ct'u
1.4 xc ct'c K'c 1.4 xu ct'u K'u
xc x'c K'c xu x'u K'u xc xu x'c K'c x'u K'u
1.8 ctc ct'c K'c 1.8 ctu ct'u K'u ctc ctu ct'c K'c ct'u K'u
xc ctc xu ctu
We observe that for the rays of light with the same direction the Tables A and B are inverse from each other.
Forming the equations group of the sum of the rays of light of the Tables A and B:
D' ct'c ct'u ctcK c ctuK u A
9.19
D ctc ctu ct'c K'c ct'u K'u B
Where for the observer O’D' Au Ac is the distance between the wave fronts Au and Ac and where for
the observer O D Au Ac is the distance between the wave fronts Au and Ac.
In the equations above 9.19 due to the isotropy of the space and time and the wave fronts Au Ac of the
rays of light being the same for both observers, the sumo of the rays of light and of times must be invariable
between the observers, which is expressed by:
D' D ct'c ct'u ctc ctu t' t 9.20
This result that equations the isotropy of space and time can be called as the space and time conservation
principle.
The three hypothesis of propagations defined next will be applied in 9.19 and tested to prove the compliance
of the conservation of space and time principle given by 9.20. With these hypotheses we create a bond
between the equations 9.11 to 9.14 with the equations 9.15 to 9.18.
Hypothesis A:
If the space and time are isotropic and there is movement with any privilege of any observer over each other
in the empty space then the propagation geometry of the rays of light is equationed by:
ctc ct'u tc t'u vc v'u K c K'u A
9.21
ctu ct'c tu t'c vu v'c K u K'c B
With those we deduct that the distance between the observers is given by:
dc du v ctc v'c t'c v utu v'u t'u 9.22
Results that applied in the equations A or B of the group 9.19 complies with the conservation of space and
time principle given by 9.20, showing that the Doppler effect in the clockwise and counter clockwise rays of
light are compensated in the referentials.
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Hypothesis B:
If the space and time are isotropic but the observer O is in an absolute resting position in the empty space
then the propagation geometry of the rays of light is equationed by:
ctc ctu ct A
v c vu v B 9.23
v t v t vt C
c c u u
With those we deduct that the distance between the observers is given by:
dc du vt v'c t'c v'u t'u 9.24
Results that applied in the equations A or B of the group 9.19 complies with the conservation of space and
time principle given by 9.20, showing that the Doppler effect in the clockwise and counter clockwise rays of
light are compensated in the referentials.
Hypothesis C:
If the space and time are isotropic but the observer O is in an absolute resting position in the empty space
then the propagation geometry of the rays of light is equationed by:
ct'c ct'u ct' A
v'c v'u v' B 9.25
v' t' v' t' v't' C
c c u u
With those we deduct that the distance between the observers is given by:
dc du v't' v ctc vutu 9.26
Results that applied in the equations A or B of the group 9.19 complies with the conservation of space and
time principle given by 9.20, showing that the Doppler effect in the clockwise and counter clockwise rays of
light are compensated in the referentials.
In order to obtain the Sagnac effect we consider that the observer O’ is in an absolute resting position,
hypothesis C above and that the rays of light course must be of 2R :
ct'c ct'u ct' 2R 9.27
Applying the hypothesis C in 9.11 and 9.15 we have:
tc t'c K'c tc t' 1 v' 9.28
c
tu t'u K'u tu t' 1 v' 9.29
c
For the observer O the Sagnac effect is given by the time difference between course of the clockwise ray of
light and the counter clock ray of t tc tu that can be obtained making (9.28 – 9.29) and applying 9.27
making:
t tc tu t' 1 v' t' 1 v' 2v't' 4Rv ' 9.30
c c c c 2
2v ctc 2vutu
The equation t 2v't' is exactly the result obtained from the geometry analysis of the
c c c
propagation of the clockwise and counter clockwise rays of light in a circumference showing the coherence
of the hypothesis adopted by the Undulating Relativity.
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In 9.30 applying 9.12 and 9.16 we have the final result due to vc and vu :
4Rvc 4Rvu
t tc tu 2v't' 4Rv
2
' 9.31
c c c 2 cvc c 2 cvu
The classic formula of the Sagnac effect is given as:
t tc tu 42Rv2 9.32
c v
From the propagation geometry we have:
t 2vt 9.33
c
The classic times would be given by:
t 2R 9.34
c
tc 2R 9.35
c v
tu 2R 9.36
c v
Applying 9.34, 9.35 and 9.36 in 9.33 we have:
t 2v 2R 4Rv
2
9.37
c c c
tc 2v 2R 42Rv 9.38
c c v c cv
tu 2v 2R 42Rv 9.39
c c v c cv
The results 9.37, 9.38 and 9.39 are completely different from 9.32.
§18 The Michelson & Morley experience
The traditional analysis that supplies the solution for the null result of this experience considers a device in a
resting position at the referential of the observer O’ that emits two rays of light, one horizontal in the x’
direction (clockwise index c) and another vertical in the direction y’. The horizontal ray of light (clockwise
index c) runs until a mirror placed in x’ = L at this point the ray of light reflects (counter clockwise index u)
and returns to the origin of the referential where x’ = zero. The vertical ray of light runs until a mirror placed in
y’ = L reflects and returns to the origin of the referential where y’ = zero.
In the traditional analysis according to the speed of light constancy principle for the observer O’ the rays of
light track is given by:
ct'c ct'u L 18.01
For the observer O’ the sum of times of the track of both rays of light along the x’ axis is:
L L 2L
t'x' t'c t'u 18.02
c c c
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In the traditional analysis for the observer O’ the sum of times of the track of both rays of light along the y’
axis is:
L L 2L
t'y' t' t' 18.03
c c c
2L
As we have t'x' t'y' there is no interference fringe and it is applied the null result of the
c
Michelson & Morley experience.
In this traditional analysis the identical track of the clockwise and counter clockwise rays of light in the
equation 18.01 that originates the null result of the Michelson & Morley experience contradicts the Sagnac
effect that is exactly the time difference existing between the track of the clockwise and counter clockwise
rays of light.
Based on the Undulating Relativity we make a deeper analysis of the Michelson & Morley experience
obtaining a result that complies completely with the Sagnac effect.
Observing that the equation 18.01 corresponds to the hypothesis C of the paragraph §9.
Applying 18.01 in 9.19 we have:
D' ct'c ct'u ctc K c ctuK u D' L L ctc K c ctuK u A
18.04
D ctc ctu ct'c K'c ct'u K'u D ctc ctu LK'c LK'u LK'c K'u B
From 18.04 A we have:
v vu
D' 2L ctc 1 c ctu 1 D' 2L ctc v ctc ctu v utu 18.05
c c
Where applying 9.26 we have:
D' 2L ctc ctu tx tc tu 2L 18.06
c
In 18.04 B we have:
v' v'u
D ctc ctu L 1 c 1 c 18.07
c
Where applying 9.25 B we have:
D ctc ctu 2L tx tc tu 2L 18.08
c
The equations 18.06 and 18.08 demonstrate that the Doppler effect in the clockwise and counter clockwise
rays of light compensate itself in the referential of the observer O resulting in:
2L
t'y' t'x' tx 18.09
c
Because of this, according to the Undulating Relativity in the Michelson & Morley experience we can predict
that the clockwise ray of light has a different track from the counter clockwise ray of light according to the
formula 18.08 obtaining also the null result for the experience and matching then with the Sagnac effect. This
supposition cannot be made based on the Einstein’s Special Relativity because according to 17.26 we have:
t'x' tx 18.10
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§19 Regression of the perihelion of Mercury of 7,13”
Let us imagine the Sun located in the focus of an ellipse that coincides with the origin of a system of
coordinates (x,y,z) with no movement in relation to denominated fixed stars and that the planet Mercury is in
a movement governed by the force of gravitational attraction with the Sun describing an elliptic orbit in the
plan (x,y) according to the laws of Kepler and the formula of the Newton's gravitational attraction law:
F r̂
GM omo 6 ,67.10 11 1,98.1030 3,28.10 23 k
r̂ 2 r̂
19.01
2 2
r r r
The sub index "o" indicating mass in relative rest to the observer.
To describe the movement we will use the known formulas:
r rr̂ 19.02
dr d rr̂ dr d
u r̂ r ˆ 19.03
dt dt dt dt
2 2
dr d
u 2 u .u r 19.04
dt dt
du d 2r d 2 rr̂ d 2r d dr d d 2 ˆ
2
a 2 r r̂ 2 r 2 19.05
dt dt dt 2 dt 2 dt dt dt dt
The formula of the relativity force is given by:
d mou mo mo u du mo u 2 du u
F a u 1 a u 19.06
dt u2 u2
3 2 2 3/ 2 c2 dt c2
2 2 c dt u
1 2 1 2 u 1 2
c c 1 2
c c
In this the first term corresponds to the variation of the mass with the speed and the second as we will see
later in 19.22 corresponds to the variation of the energy with the time.
With this and the previous formulas we obtain:
2 2 2
2
1 u d r r d r̂ 2 dr d r d ˆ
c dt
2 2
dt dt dt dt 2
mo
F 3/ 2 19.07
u dr d 2 r d d dr d d 2 1 dr
2 2
d
1 r r 2 r 2 2 r̂ r ˆ
c2 2
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt c dt
dt
2 2 2 2 2
2
1 u d r r d dr d r r d r d 2 dr d r d 1 dr r̂
c 2 dt 2 dt dt dt 2 dt dt dt dt dt 2 c 2 dt
mo
F 19.08
2
1u / c
2 3/ 2
u 2 dr d d 2 dr d 2r d d dr d d 2 r d
2
ˆ
1 2 2 r 2 2 r r 2 r 2 2
c dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt c dt
76/203
In this we have the transverse and radial component given by:
u d r d dr d r d d dr d d 1 dr
2 2 2 2 2 2
mo
Fr̂ 1 2 2 r 2 r r 2 r 2 2 r̂ 19.09
1 u 2
/c
2 3/ 2
c dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt c dt
u dr d d dr d r d d dr d d r d ˆ
2 2 2 2 2
mo
Fˆ 1 2 r r r 2 r 19.10
1 u 2 / c2
3 / 2
2
c dt dt dt dt dt
2
2
dt dt dt dt dt c dt
2
2
As the gravitational force is central we should have to null the traverse component Fˆ zero so we have:
u dr d d dr d r d d dr d d r d ˆ
2 2 2 2 2
mo
Fˆ 1 2 r r r 2 r zero 19.11
1 u 2 / c2
3/ 2
2
c dt dt dt 2 dt dt 2 dt dt dt dt
dt 2 c 2 dt
From where we have:
dr d 2 d 2 1 dr d r d
2 2
dr d d 2 r dr d
2 r 2 2r r 2 2 2 r
dt dt dt c 2 dt dt dt dt dt c dt dt dt
19.12
d 2r d 2 1 dr 2 d 1 dr 2
2 r 1 2 r2 1 2
dt
dt dt c dt c dt
From the radial component Fr̂ we have:
d dr d d 2
r 2 r
mo d 2r d 2 u 2 dr dt dt dt dt 2 1 dr
Fr̂ 3/ 2
r 1 2 r̂ 19.13
1 u 2 / c2 dt
2
dt c dt d 2r d 2 c 2 dt
2 r
dt
dt
That applying 19.12 we have:
d r dr d
2
r 2
mo d r d
2
u 2
dr dt c dt dt 1 dr
Fr̂ r 1 2 2 2 r̂ 19.14
3 / 2
1 u 2 / c 2 dt
2
dt c dt 1 dr c dt
1 2
c dt
That simplifying results in:
d 2 r d 2
2 r
mo dt dt
Fr̂ r̂ 19.15
u 2 1 dr 2
1 2 1 2
c c dt
This equaled to Newton's gravitational force results in the relativistic gravitational force:
d 2r d 2
2 r
mo dt dt GM omo k
Fr̂ r̂ r̂ 2 r̂ 19.16
u 1 dr 2
2
r2 r
1 2 1 2
c c dt
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As the gravitational force is central it should assist the theory of conservation of the energy (E) that is written
as:
E Ek E p = constant. 19.17
Where the kinetic energy (Ek) is given by:
Ek mc 2 mo c 2 mo c 2 1 2 1 19.18
u
1 2
c
And the potential energy (Ep) gravitational by:
GM omo k
Ep 19.19
r r
Resulting in:
E mo c 2 1 2 1 k Constant . 19.20
1 u r
2
c
As the total energy (E) it is constant we should have:
dE dEk dE p
zero . 19.21
dt dt dt
Then we have:
dEk mou du
3 19.22
dt dt
u 2 2
1 2
c
dE p k dr
19.23
dt r 2 dt
Resulting in:
dE dEk dE p mou du k dr mou du k dr
zero 3 zero 3 19.24
dt dt dt dt r 2 dt dt r 2 dt
u 2 2
u 2 2
1 2 1 2
c c
This applied in the relativistic force 19.06 and equaled to the gravitational force 19.01 results in:
mo 1 k dr k
F a 2 2 u 2 r̂ 19.25
u 2 c r dt r
1 2
c
In this substituting the previous variables we get:
78/203
mo d 2r d dr d d 2 ˆ 1 k dr dr
2
d k
F 2 2
r r̂ 2 r 2 2 2 r̂ r ˆ 2 r̂ 19.26
u dt dt dt dt dt c r dt dt dt r
1 2
c
From this we obtain the radial component Fr̂ equals to:
mo d 2r d 1 k dr k
2 2
Fr̂ 2 r 2 2 2 19.27
u 2 dt dt c r dt r
1 2
c
That easily becomes the relativistic gravitational force 19.16.
From 19.26 we obtain the traverse component F̂ equals to:
mo dr d d 2 1 k dr d
Fˆ 2 r 2 2 zero 19.28
u 2 dt dt dt c r dt dt
1 2
c
From this last one we have:
dr d 2 d 2
2r r 2 2
dt dt dt 1 k dr 1 u 19.29
d mo c2r 2 dt c2
r2
dt
As the gravitational force is central it should also assist the theory of conservation of the angular moment
that is written as:
L r p constant. 19.30
mou
L r pr
u 2
rr̂
mo dr
2
u dt
d
r̂ r ˆ
dt
mo 2 d
u 2
r
dt
r̂ ˆ
mo 2 d
r
u 2 dt
k̂ 19.31
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c c
mo 2 d
L r k Lk̂ = constant. 19.32
u 2 dt
1 2
c
dL d Lk̂ d Lk̂ Ld k̂ d Lk̂
zero
d L
zero 19.33
dt dt dt dt dt dt
Resulting in L that is constant.
dk̂
In 19.33 we had zero because the movement is in the plane (x,y).
dt
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Deriving L we find:
dL d mo 2 d 1 mou du 2 d mo dr d 2 d 2
r r 2r
2
r 2 zero 19.34
dt dt u 2 dt c
2 3
2 2 dt dt u dt dt dt
1 2
u
1 2
c 1 c 2 c
From that we have:
dr d 2 d 2
2r r 2
dt dt dt u du 1
19.35
d u 2 dt c2
r2 1 2
dt c
Equaling 19.12 originating from the theory of the central force with 19.29 originating from the theory of
conservation of the energy and 19.35 originating from the theory of conservation of the angular moment we
have:
dr d 2 d 2 1 dr d r d
2 2
2r r 2 2 2 r
dt dt dt c dt dt dt k dr u2 u du 1
1 19.36
d 1 dr
2 2 2
moc r dt c u 2 dt c2
2
r2 1 2 1 2
dt c
c dt
From the last two equality we obtain 19.24 and from the two of the middle we obtain 19.16.
For solution of the differential equations we will use the same method used in the Newton's theory.
1
Let us assume w 19.37
r
w 1
The differential total of this is dw dr dw 2 dr 19.38
r r
dw 1 dr dw 1 dr
From where we have 2 e 19.39
d r d dt r 2 dt
d L u2
From the module of the angular moment we have 1 19.40
dt mor 2 c2
dr L dr u2
From where we have 1 19.41
dt mor 2 d c2
dr L dw u2
Where applying 19.39 we have 1 2 19.42
dt mo d c
d 2r d dt d L dw u 2
That derived supplies 1 2 19.43
dt 2 dt d dt mo d c
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Where applying 19.40 and deriving we have:
d 2r L u 2 d L dw u 2 L2 u 2 d 2 w u 2 dw d u 2
1 1 1 1 1 19.44
dt 2 mor 2 c2 d mo d c2 mo2r 2 c2 d 2 c2 d d c2
In this with 19.36 the radical derived is obtained this way:
d u2 1 u du k dr u 2 k dw u 2
1 2 1 1 19.45
dt c 1u 2 / c2 c2 dt moc2r 2 dt c2 moc2 dt c2
d u 2 1 u du k dr u 2 k dw u 2
1 2 1 1 19.46
d c 1u 2 / c2 c2 d moc2r 2 d c2 moc2 d c2
That applied in 19.44 supplies:
u 2 d 2 w k dw u 2
2
d 2r L2 u2
1 2 2 1 2 1 19.47
dt 2 mo2r 2 c d c moc2 d c2
Simplified results:
3
2
d r Lk u
2 2 2 2
dw L2 u 2 d 2 w
1 2 2 1 2 2 19.48
dt 2 mo3c2r 2 c2 d mo r c d
Let us find the second derived of the angle deriving 19.40:
d 2 d L u 2 2L dr u 2 L d u 2
1 1 1 19.49
dt 2 dt mor 2 c2 mor 3 dt c2 mor 2 dt c2
In this applying 19.42 and 19.45 and simplifying we have:
3
d 2 2L2 dw u 2 L2k dw u 2 2
1 1 19.50
dt 2 mo2r 3 d c2 mo3c2r 4 d c2
Applying in 19.04 the equations 19.40 and 19.42 and simplifying we have:
L2 u 2 dw 1
2
u 2 1 2 2
2
19.51
mo c d r
The equation of the relativistic gravitational force 19.16 remodeled is:
u 2 1 dr k
2 2
d 2r d
r 1 1 19.52
dt 2 dt c2 c 2 dt mor 2
In this applying the formulas above we have:
3
u 2 1 L dw u 2 k
2 2 2
Lk u
2 2 2
dw L2 u 2 d 2 w L u 2
1 2 2 1 2 2 r 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mo3c2r 2 c2 d mo r c d m r2
o c c c mo d c mor 2
81/203
u 2 1 L dw u 2 k
2 2
L2k u 2 dw L2 u 2 d 2 w L2
1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2
mo3c2r 2 c2 d mo2r 2 c d mo r c c mo d c mor 2
2 2
L2k u 2 dw L2 u 2 d 2 w L2 u 2 k L2k 1 u 2 dw
1 1 1 1
mo3c2r 2 c2 d mo2r 2 c2 d 2 mo2r 3 c2 mor 2 mo3r 2 c2 c2 d
L2 u 2 d 2 w L2 u2 k
1 1
mo2r 2 c 2 d 2 mo2r 3 c 2 mo r 2
d 2w 1 mok
d 2 r u2
L 1 2
2
d 2w 1 mok
d r
2 2
mo r 2 d 1 u
2
u 2 dt c2
1 2
c
u2
2 mok 1
d w 1 c2
d 2 r
2
d
mo2r 4
dt
2
u2
2 k 1
d 2w 1 c 2
2
d r m r 4 d
2
o
dt
u2
2 k 1 2 2
d 2 w 2 d 2w 1 c
2 2
d r d r m 2 r 8 d
2 4
o
dt
k2 2
d w 2 2 2
2d w 1 k 2 u
2 c2
d r d 2 r 2 4 4
2 8 d 2 8 d
mo r mo r
dt dt
k 2 dr d
2 2
2 r
d 2w 2 d 2w 1 k2 c2 dt dt
2 4
d r d r m2r 8 d
2 2 4
d
o mo2r 8
dt dt
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2 2
k 2 dr k 2 d
2 2
r
d w 2 d w 1
2 2
k 2
c 2
dt c dt
2 2 4 4
d r d r m 2 r 8 d m 2 r 8 d m 2 r 8 d
2 4
o o o
dt dt dt
2
k 2 dr
c2 d
2
d 2w 2 d 2w 1 k2 k2
2
d r d r m2r 8 d m2r 8 d m2c2r 6 d
2 2 4 2 2
o o o
dt dt dt
2
k 2 2 dw
r
c2 d
2
d 2w 2 d 2w 1 k2 k2
2
d r d r m2r 8 d m2r 8 d m2c2r 6 d
2 2 4 2 2
o o o
dt dt dt
2
k 2 dw
c2 d
2
d 2w 2 d 2w 1 k2 k2
2
d r d r m2r 8 d m2r 4 d m2c2r 6 d
2 2 4 2 2
o o o
dt dt dt
In this we will consider constant the Newton's angular moment in the form:
d
Lr2 19.53
dt
That it is really the known theoretical angular moment.
2 2
d 2 w 2 d 2w 1 k 2 k 2 dw k2
2
2 2 2
d r d r mo L mo c L d mo c r L
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2
2 2
d 2w d 2w k2 k 2 dw k2
2 2 2 2w w2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 w2
d d mo L mo c L d mo c L
2 2
d 2w d 2w dw
2 2 2 w w2 B A Aw2
d d d
2 2
d 2w d 2w dw
2 2 2 w A A1w2 B zero 19.54
d d d
Where we have:
k2
A 19.55
mo2c2 L2
k2
B 19.56
mo2 L4
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The equation 19.54 has as solution:
w
1
D
1 cos 1 A o w 1 cosQ
1
D
19.57
Where we consider o zero .
It is denominated in 19.57 Q2 1 A . 19.58
The equation 19.58 is function only of A demonstrating the intrinsic union between the variation of the mass
with the variation of the energy in the time, because both as already described, participate in the relativistic
force 19.06 in this relies the essential difference between the mass and the electric charge that is invariable
and indivisible in the electromagnetic theory.
From 19.57 we obtain the ray of a conical:
1 D D
r r
w 1 cos 1 A
19.59
1 cosQ
Where is the eccentricity and D the directory distance of the focus.
dw Q senQ
Deriving 19.57 we have 19.60
d D
d 2 w Q 2 cosQ
That derived results in 19.61
d 2 D
Applying in 19.54 the variables we have:
2 2
2 2
d w 2 d w w A dw A 1w 2 B zero .
d 2 d
2 d
Q cos Q Q cos Q 1 cos Q Q sen Q 1 cos Q
4 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 A 2
A 1 B zero 19.62
D D D D D
Q cos Q Q cos Q Q cos Q Q cos Q 1 cos Q
4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A 1
Q
2
2 2
2 2
A 2
A 2 B zero
D D D D D D
Q cos Q Q cos Q Q cos Q Q cos Q A 1 2 A 1cosQ A 1cos 2 Q B zero
4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Q
2
2 2
2 2
A 2
A 2
2 2 2 2
D D D D D D D D
Q 4 2Q 2 AQ 2 A 1 cos Q 2Q 2 A 2 cosQ AQ A 1 B zero
2 2 2
D D D D
19.63
D2 D
2 2 2
D
In this applying in the first parenthesis Q2 1 A we have:
Q 4 2 2
2
2Q AQ A 1 1 A 21 A A1 A A 1 1 2 A A 2 2 A A A A 1 zero
2 2
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In 19.63 applying in the second parenthesis Q2 1 A we have:
2Q 2 2 A 2 21 A 2 A 2
zero
D D D D D D
The rest of the equation 19.63 is therefore:
AQ 2 A 1
B zero 19.64
D2 2 D2
The data of the elliptic orbit of the planet Mercury is [1]:
Eccentricity of the orbit 0,206 .
10
Larger semi-axis = a = 5,79.10 m.
Smaller semi-axis b a 1 2 5 ,79.10 10 10 ,206 2 56.658.160.305 ,80 m .
D a1 2 5 ,79.10 10 10 ,206 2 55.442.955.600,00 m .
D
a 1 2 5 ,79.10 10 ,206 269.140.561.165 ,00 m .
10 2
0 ,206
The orbital period of the Earth (PT) and Mercury (PM) around the Sun in seconds are:
PT 3,16.107 s.
PM 7,60.10 6 s.
The number of turns that Mercury (mo) makes around the Sun (Mo) in one century is, therefore:
3,16.10 7
N 100 415,79 . 19.65
7,60.10 6
Theoretical angular moment of Mercury:
2
d
L2 r 2 GM o a 1 2 6 ,67.10 111,98.10 30 5 ,79.10 10 1 0 ,206 2 7 ,32212937427.10 30 19.66
dt
A
GM 0 mo 2 GM 0 2
6 ,67.10 1,98.10
11 2 30 2
2 ,65.10 8 . 19.67
mo2 c 2 L2 2 2
c L 3,0.10 7 ,32.10
8 2 30
B
GM 0 mo 2 GM 0 2
6 ,67.10 1,98.10
11 2 30 2
3,25.10 22 19.68
mo2 L4 L4 7 ,32.10 30 2
Q 1 A 1 2 ,63.10 8 1,000.000.013.23 19.69
Applying the numeric data with several decimal numbers to the rest of the equation 19.63 we have:
AQ 2
A 1 B 2 ,65.10 8 1,000.000.013.232 2 ,65.10 8 1 3,25.10 22 8 ,976.10 30 19.70
D 2
2D2 269.140.561.165,00 2 55.442.955.600 ,00 2
Result that we can consider null.
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We will obtain the relativistic angular moment of the rest of the equation 19.63 in this applying the variables
we have:
AQ 2 A1
GM 0 GM 0
2 2
1 GM 0 GM 0
2
B 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2
2
zero 19.71
D2 2 D2 c LD c L D c L L4
GM
L GM 0 1 2 02
2
4 2 GM 0 2 2 2 2
L c 1 2 2 c D GM 0 zero
2 2 2 2
c L c L
2 L2 GM 0 2 2 L2 GM 0 2
GM 0 2 L4 c 2 L4 c 2 GM 0 2 c 2 2 D 2 GM 2 zero
2 2 2 2 0
c L c L
2 L2 GM 0 2 2
GM 0 4 L4 c 2 L2 GM 2 c 2 2 D 2 GM 2 zero
2 0 0
c
GM 0 4
c 2 L4 1 2 GM 0 2 L2 2 c 2 2 D 2 GM 0 2 zero 19.72
c2
2 GM 0 4 2 2 2
1 2 GM 0
2
1 GM 4c
2
0
2 2 2
c2
c D GM 0 2
L 2
2c 2
L 2
1 2 GM 0 1 2
2
GM 4 GM 4c
2
0
4 2
0
4 4 2
D 2 GM 0
2
2c 2
L2
2
1 2 GM 0 1 2 2 4 GM 0 4 2 GM 0 4c 4 2 D 2 GM 0
4 4 2
2c 2
L 2
1 2 GM 0 GM 0 2 2 GM 0 4 GM 0 4 2 GM 0 4 c 4 2 D 2 GM 0
2 4 4 4 4 2
2c 2
L 2
1 2 GM 0
2
GM 0 4 4 GM 0 4 2 2 GM 0 4 4c 4 2 D 2 GM 0 2
2c 2
L
2 1 2
GM 1 GM 4c D GM
0
2 2 2
0
4 4 2 2
0
2
7 ,32212927328.10
30
19.73
2
2c
This last equation has the exclusive property of relating the speed c to the denominated relativistic angular
moment that is smaller than the theoretical angular moment 19.66.
The variation of the relativistic angular moment in relation to the theoretical angular moment is very small
and given by:
7 ,3221292732 8.10 30 7 ,3221293742 7.10 30 1
L 30
1,38.10 8 . 19.74
7 ,3221293742 7.10 72.503.509 ,00
That demonstrates the accuracy of the principle of constancy of the speed of the light.
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In reality, the equation 19.06 provides a secular retrocession perihelion of Mercury, which is given by in
1
2 415,79 1 2 415,790,000.000.013.23 3,46.105 rad . 19.75
Q
Converting for the second we have:
5
3,46.10 .180 ,00.3.600 ,00
7 ,13" . 19.76
This retrocession, is not expected in Newtonian theory is due to relativistic variation of mass and energy and
is shrouded in total observed precession of 5599. "
87/203
§§19 Advance of Mercury’s perihelion of 42.79”
If we write the equation for the gravitational relativity energy ER covering the terms for the kinetic energy, the
potential energy Ep and the resting energy:
2 1 m oc2
ER m oc 1 Ep m oc2 Ep . 19.77
2 2
1 u u
2
1 2
c c
Being the conservative the gravitational force its energy is constant. Assuming then that in 19.77 when the
radius tends to infinite, the speed and potential energy tends to zero, resulting then:
m oc2
ER Ep m oc2 19.78
2
u
1 2
c
Writing the equation to the Newton’s gravitation energy EN having the correspondent Newton’s terms to the
19.77:
m ou 2 k
EN m oc2 m oc2 19.79
2 r
m ou 2 k 2
Where is the kinetic energy, the potential energy and m oc the resting energy or better saying
2 r
the inertial energy.
From this 19.79 we have:
m ou 2 k m u2 k 2k 2GMo m o 2GMo
m oc2 m oc2 o u2 u2 19.80
2 r 2 r m or m or r
Deriving 19.79 we have:
dEN d m ou 2 k
m oc2 zero
dt dt 2 r
m o 2u du k dr
zero
2 dt r2 dt
GM o dr
u du k dr
dt mor 2 dt r 2 dt
GM o dr
u du
dt r 2 dt
du GMo
u 2 19.81
dr r
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Making the relativity energy 19.78 equal to the Newton’s energy 19.79 we have:
m oc2 m ou 2 k
ER EN Ep m oc2 19.82
u2 2 r
1 2
c
m oc2 Ep m ou2 GMo m o m oc2
19.83
2 mo m o2 m or mo
mo 1 u
c2
In that denominating the relativity potential ( ) as:
Ep
19.84
mo
We have:
c2 u2 GM o c2
2 2 r
1 u
2
c
2 GM
u o c2 c2 19.85
2 r 2
1 u
c2
In this one replacing the approximation:
1 u2
1 2 19.86
u2 2c
1 2
c
We have:
2 GM 2
u o c2 c2 1 u
2 r 2c2
That simplified results in the Newton’s potential:
u 2 GM o u 2 GM o
c c
2 2
19.87
2 r 2 r
Replacing 19.84 and the relativity potential 19.85 in the relativity energy 19.78:
2
2
m oc u GM c2
ER m o o c2 19.88
u2 2 r u2
1 2 1 2
c c
We have the Newton’s energy 19.79:
m ou 2 GM o m o
EN m oc2
2 r
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Deriving the relativity potential 19.85 we have the relativity gravitational acceleration modulus exactly as in
the Newton’s theory:
d
a
dr
2
d d u GMo c 2
a c
2
dr dr 2 r u 2
1 2
c
d u GMo
2
2 d c2
a c
dr 2 r dr 2
u
1 2
c
Where we have:
d u2 GMo d EN
c2 zero . Because the term to be derived is the Newton’s energy divided
dr 2 r dr m
o
2
E u GM
by mo that is N o c2 that is constant, resulting then in:
mo 2 r
d c2
a
dr u2
1 2
c
u du
a 3
2 2 dr
u
1 2
c
In this one applying 19.81 we have:
1 GMo
a 3
19.89
r2
u
2 2
1 2
c
The vector acceleration is given by 19.05:
d 2r d
2
d d 2 ˆ
a r rˆ 2 dr r
dt2 dt dt dt dt2
90/203
The relativity gravitational acceleration modulus 19.89 is equal to the component of the vector radius ( r̂ )
thus we have:
d 2r d 2 1 GMo
a 2 r 3 19.90
dt dt r2
u2 2
1 2
c
Being null the transversal acceleration we have:
dr d d 2 ˆ
2
dt dt r zero 19.91
dt2
dr d d 2
2 r 2 zero
dt dt dt
d
That is equal to the derivative of the constant angular momentum L r2 19.92
dt
dL d 2 d dr d 2 d
2
r 2r r zero 19.93
dt dt dt dt dt dt2
Rewriting some equations already described we have:
1
w
r
w 1
dw dr dw 2 dr
r r
dw 1 dr dr dw dw 1 dr
2 or r2 and
d r d d d dt r2 dt
dr d dt dr L dr L 2 dw dr dw
2 2r L
dt dt d dt r d r d dt d
d 2r d dr d dt d dw L d dw L2 d 2w
L 2 L 2 19.94
dt2 dt dt dt d dt d r d d r d 2
From 19.90 we have:
3u2 d 2r d GMo
2
1 2 2 r
2c dt dt r2
In this one we 19.94 the speed of 19.80 and the angular momentum we have:
3 2GMo L2 d 2w L
2
GMo
2c2 r r2 d 2
1 r 2 2
r r
3GMo 1 d w 1 GM o
2
1 2 2 2
c r d r L
91/203
2
3GM o 1 d w 3Gm o 1 1 GM o
1 2 2 1 2
c r d c r r L2
d 2w 3GM o d 2w 1 1 3GM o 1 GM o
2 2 2 2 zero
d 2 c d 2 r r c r L
d 2w d 2w 1 1 1
A A 2 B zero
d 2
d r r
2
r
d 2w d 2w
A w w Aw2 B zero
d 2 d 2
d 2w d 2w
A w Aw2 w B zero 19.95
d 2
d 2
Where we have:
3GM o GM o
A B 19.96
c2 L2
The solution to the differential equation 19.95 is:
w 1 1 cosQ o w 1 1 cosQ . 19.97
D D
Where we consider o zero
Then the radius is given by:
1 D D
r r 19.98
w 1 cosQ 1 cosQ
Where is the eccentricity and D the focus distance to the directory.
dw QsenQ d 2w Q2 cosQ
Deriving 19.97 we have and 19.99
d D d 2 D
Applying the derivatives in 19.95 we have:
d 2w d 2w
A w Aw2 w B zero
d 2
d 2
Q2 cosQ AQ2 cosQ 1
1 cosQ 2A 2 1 cosQ2 1 1 cosQ B zero
D D D D D
Q 2 cosQ AQ 2 cosQ
D
D 2 D
1 cosQ 2A 2 1 2 cosQ 2 cos2 Q 1 1 cosQ B zero
D D
Q2 cosQ AQ2 cosQ AQ2 cosQ
cosQ
D D 2 D 2
A A A 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 cosQ 2 2 2 cos2 Q cosQ B zero
D D D D D
92/203
cosQ 2 AQ2 2A AQ2 cos2 Q A cos2 Q A 1
Q 1 2 2 B zero
D D D D 2
D 2
D D
cosQ 2 AQ2 2A AQ2 cos2 Q A cos2 Q A 1 B
Q 1 2 2 zero
AD D D AD 2
AD 2
A D AD A
cosQ Q2 Q2 2 1 Q2 cos2 Q cos2 Q 1 1 B
2 2 zero
A D D A D AD A
2 2
D D D
cos2 Q 2 cosQ Q2 Q2 2 1
Q 1
1
2 2
1 B
zero 19.100
A D D A D AD A
2
D D
The coefficient of the squared co-cosine can be considered null because Q 1 and D2 is a very large
number:
cos2 Q 2
Q 1 zero 19.101
D2
Resulting from the equation 19.100:
cosQ Q2 Q2 2 1 1 1 B
2 2 zero 19.102
D A D D A D AD A
Due to the unicity of the equation 19.102 we must have the only solution that makes it null simultaneously
the parenthesis and the rest of the equation, that is, we must have a unique solution for both the following
equations:
Q 2 Q2 2 1 1 1 B
zero and zero 19.103
A D D A D AD A
2 2
These equations can be written as:
1 1 2
a b 1 1
2 19.104
A D Q A D
1 DB
a c 1 19.105
A D A
1 1
In these ones the common term a must have a single solution then we have:
A D
1 1 2 DB
b c 19.106
Q2 A D A
With 19.96 and the theoretical momentum we have:
3GM o GM o DGMo
A B L2 DGM o DB 1 19.107
c2 L2 L2
93/203
It is applied in 19.105 and 19.106 resulting in:
a c 1 1 1
19.108
A D A
1 1 2 1
b c 19.109
Q 2 A D A
From 19.108 we have the mistake made in 19.105:
1 1 1 1
zero 19.110
A D A D
1 1
1,80.1011 zero 19.111
D 55.442.955.600,00
From 19.109 we have Q:
1 1 2 1 2A 2 3GM o
2
Q2 1 Q2 1 19.112
Q A D A D D c2
It is applied in 19.104 resulting in 19.110:
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
2 zero
A D Q A D A D 2A A D A D A D
1
D
From 19.112 we have:
6GMo 66,67.1011 1,98.1030
Q 1 1 0,999.999.920.599 19.113
Dc2 55.442.955.600,003.108
2
That corresponds to the advance of Mercury’s perihelion in one century of:
1
.415,79 1.1.296.000,00.415,79 42,79”
19.114
Q
Calculated in this way:
In one trigonometric turn we have 36060601.296.000,00"seconds.
The angle in seconds ran by the planet in one trigonometric turn is given by:
1.296.000,00
Q 1.296.000,00 .
Q
If Q 1,00 we have a regression. 1.296.000,00 .
If Q 1,00 we have an advance. 1.296.000,00 .
94/203
The angular variation in seconds in one turn is given by:
1.296.000,00
1.296.000,00 1 11.296.000,00 .
Q Q
If zero we have a regression.
If zero we have an advance.
In one century we have 415,79 turns that supply a total angular variation of:
.415,79 1Q 1.1.296.000,00.415,79 42,79”
If zero we have a regression.
If zero we have an advance.
§20 Inertia
Imagine in an infinite universe totally empty, a point O' which is the beginning of the coordinates of
the observer O'. In the cases of the observer O’ being at rest or in uniform motion the law of inertia requires
that the spherical electromagnetic waves with speed c issued by a source located at point O' is always
observed by O', regardless of time, with spherical speed c and therefore the uniform motion and rest are
indistinguishable from each other remain valid in both cases the law of inertia. To the observer O’ the
equations of electromagnetic theory describe the spread just like a spherical wave. The image of an object
located in O’ will always be centered on the object itself and a beam of light emitted from O' will always
remain straight and perpendicular to the spherical waves.
Imagine another point O what will be the beginning of the coordinates of the observer which has the
same properties as described for the inertial observer O'.
Obviously two imaginary points without any form of interaction between them remain individually and
together perfectly meeting the law of inertia even though there is a uniform motion between them only
detectable due to the presence of two observers who will be considered individually in rest, setting in motion
the other referential.
The intrinsic properties of these two observers are described by the equations of relativistic
transformations.
Note: the infinite universe is one in which any point can be considered the central point of this
universe.
(§ 20 electronic translation)
§20 Inertia (clarifications)
Imagine in a totally empty infinite universe a single point O. Due to the uniqueness properties of O a
radius of light emitted from O must propagate with velocity c. If this ray propagates in a straight line, then O
is defined as the origin of an inertial frame because it is either at rest or in a uniform rectilinear motion.
However, in the hypothesis of propagation of the light ray being a curve the movement of O must be
interpreted as the origin of an accelerated frame. Therefore the propagation of a ray of light is sufficient to
demonstrate whether O is the origin of an inertial frame or accelerated frame.
Now imagine if in the universe described above for the inertial reference frame O there is another
inertial frame O' that does not have any kind of physical interaction with O. In the absence of any interaction
between O and O' the uniqueness properties are inviolable for both points and rays of light emitted from O
and O' have the same velocity c. It is impossible for the velocity of light emitted from O to be different from
the velocity of light emitted from O' because each reference exists as if the other did not exist. Being O and
O' the origin of inertial frames the propagation of light rays occurs in a straight line with velocity c and the
relations between times t and t' of each frame are given by table I.
95/203
§21 Advance of Mercury’s perihelion of 42.79” calculated with the Undulating Relativity
Assuming ux v
(2.3) u'x' ux v v v u'x' zero
2 2
v 2vux
1 2 2 v 2
1 2 2vv
c c c c
ux v u'x' zero 21.01
2 2 2
(1.17) dt' dt 1 v2 2vux v 2vv dt' dt 1 v
2 dt 1 2 2 2
c c c c c
2
(1.22) dt dt' 1 v'2 2v'u2'x' dt' 1 v'2
2
2v'0 v'2
dt dt' 1
c c c c2 c2
2 2
dt' dt 1 v2 dt dt' 1 v'2 21.02
c c
2 2
1 v2 1 v'2 1 21.03
c c
v v' v' v 21.04
2 2
1 v'2 1 v2
c c
dt dt' v v' vdt v'dt' 21.05
(1.33) v
v' v'
v v'
2 2
2v'0 2
1 v'2 2v'u2'x' 1 v'2 2 1 v'2
c c c c c
(1.34) v'
v v v' v
2
1 v2 2vux 1 v 2 2vv 1 v2
c c2 c2 c2 c2
v v'
v' v 21.06
2 2
1 v'2 1 v2
c c
r rrˆ r' r' rrˆ r r r' r 21.07
dr drrˆrdrˆ dr' dr' drrˆrdrˆ dr 21.08
rˆdr drrˆrˆrrˆdrˆ dr rˆdr' drrˆrˆrrˆdrˆ dr 21.09
drrˆ dr ˆ d ˆ 2
d
2
v dr v 2 vv dr r
r r 21.10
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dr' drrˆ dr d 2
d
2
rˆr ˆ v'2 v'v' dr r
v' 21.11
dt' dt' dt' dt' dt' dt'
96/203
2
d2rrˆ d2r d ˆ dr d
2
d 2 ˆ
a dv d r2 r r 2 r 21.12
dt dt dt2 dt2 dt dt dt dt2
2
d2rrˆ d2r d ˆ dr d
2
d2 ˆ
a' dv' d r' 2 r r 2 r 2
21.13
dt' dt'2 dt'2 dt' dt' dt'dt' dt'
v' v 21.06
2
1 v2
c
d v' d v dt d v 2
a' 1 v'2 d v 21.14
dt' dt' v dt'dt 1 v
2 2 c dt v2
1 2 1
c c2 c2
a' d v' v'
1 2
2
1 v 2
d v d 1 v 2
1 v
dt' c 1 v 2 c2 dt dt c2
2
c
1 2 1
2 2 2 2
dv ' v'2
1 v
1 2
2
d v 1 v 2v dv
a' 1 2 v 1 2
dt' c 1 v 2 c dt 2 c2 c dt
2
c
2
2
dv ' v' 1 v dv 1 dv v
a' 1 2 1 2 v
dt' c 1 v2 c dt 2 dt c2
2 1 v2
c c
2
2 2
1 1 v 1 v dv 1 v dv v
a' dv' 1 v'2 1
dt' c 1 v 2 v2 c2 c2 dt 2 dt c2
2 1 2 1 v2
c c c
v 2 dv
2
a' dv' 1 v'2 1 dv v
3 1 v
dt' c 2 2
c2 dt dt c2
v
1 2
c
moa' mo dv' mo v 2 dv
dv v
m'a' 3 1 2
v
2 2 dt'
1 v 2 2 c dt dt c2
1 v'2 1 v'2
c c 2
c
moa' mo dv'
F' m'a' 21.15
2 2 dt'
1 v'2 1 v'2
c c
97/203
mo v 2 dv
dv v
F 3 1 2
v 19.06 21.16
1 v2 2 c dt dt c2
2
c
moa' mo dv' mo v 2 dv
dv v
F' m'a' F 3 1 v 21.17
v'2
v'2 dt'
2 2
c2 dt dt c2
1 2 1 2 v
c c 1 2
c
Ek F' dr' F.dr k
2
rˆdr 21.18
r
v 2 dv
mo dv'dr' mo dv v dr k rˆ.dr
Ek F'.dr' F.dr 2 dt'
3
1
c2 dt
v
dt c2 r2 21.19
1 v'2 v 2 2
c 1 2
c
mo mo v2 dr
dr v k rˆ.dr
Ek dv'dr'
dt c2 r2
3 1 dv vdv
2 dt' 2 2 c2 dt
1 v'2 v
c 1 2
c
modv'v' mo v 2 vv k rˆ.dr
Ek
c2 r2
3 1 2 dvv vdv
1 v2 2 c
2
1 v'2
c 2
c
mov'dv' mo v2 v 2 k dr
Ek
c2 r2
3 1 2 vdv vdv
1 v2 2 c
2
1 v'2
c 2
c
mov'dv' movdv v 2 v 2 k
Ek 3 1 2 2 2 dr
1 v 2 2 c c
2 r
1 v'2
c 2
c
k k
mov'dv' movdv mov'dv' movdv
Ek 3 dr dEk 3 dr 21.20
2 r2 2 r2
1 v'2 1 v2 2 1 v'2 1 v 2 2
c 2 c 2
c c
2 moc2
Ek moc2 1 v'2 k constant 21.21
c 2 r
1 v2
c
2 moc2 k
ER moc2 1 v'2 k constant ER constant 21.22
c r 2 r
v
1 2
c
moc2 m v2 moc2
ER k moc2 o k ER k moc2 21.23
1 v2
2 r 2 r 0
1 2
2
c c
98/203
1 ER ER GM m GM
2
k 21 H A k 2 o 2o 2o 21.24
2 moc moc r moc2 moc moc c
1 v2
c
3
1 H A 1 1 1
3 H A 21.25
r 1 v2 2 r
2
1 v2
c 2
c
d d d
L r v rrˆ dr rˆr ˆ r2 rˆˆ r2 kˆ
dt dt dt dt
21.26
d
L r v r v' 2 rrˆ 1 2 dr rˆr ˆ 1 2 r2
d d
rˆˆ r2 kˆ 21.26
1 v'2 1 v'2 dt' dt' 1 v' dt' dt
c c c2
d d
L r2 k Lkˆ = constant L r2 21.27
dt dt
k dr k
mov'dv' movdv
dEk 3 2 2
rˆ.dr 21.20
2 r r
1 v'2 1 v2 2
c 2
c
dEk mo dv k dr k
Fv 3 v 2 rˆ. 2 rˆ.v
dt 2 2 dt
1 v r dt r
2
c
k
moa
F 3 rˆ 21.28
1 v 2 2 r2
2
c
mod2r d 2 dr d d2 ˆ k ˆ
F 3 2
r rˆ 2 r 2r
2 21.29
2 2
1 v dt dt dt dt dt r
2
c
mo dr d d 2 ˆ
Fˆ 3 2 r 2
zero 21.30
2 2 dt dt dt
1 v
2
c
mo d2r d 2 k
Frˆ 3 2 r rˆ 2 rˆ 21.31
2 2 dt
1 v dt r
2
c
d L dr L dw d 2r L2 d 2w d 2 2L2 dw
21.32
dt r2 dt d dt2 r2 d2 dt2 r3 d
99/203
mo L2 d2w L 2 k
Frˆ 3 2 r 2 rˆ 2 rˆ 21.33
2 2 r d r r
2
1 v
c2
1 L2 d 2w L2 GMo
3
1 v 2 2 r2 d2 r3 r2
2
c
1 d2w 1 L2 GMo
3 2 r
2 2 d r2 r2
1 v
2
c
1 d 2w 1 GMo
2 r
3 21.34
2 2 d L2
1 v
2
c
3
H A 1 d 2w 1 GMo
21.35
r d2 r L2
H 3A 1 d 2w 1 GMo
r d2 r L2
2 2 GM
H d w2 H 1 3A d w2 1 3A 12 2o
d r d r r L
2 2 GM
H d w2 Hw 3A d w2 w 3Aw 2 2o zero
d d L
ER GM m GM GMo
H A k 2 o 2o 2o B 21.36
moc2 moc moc c L2
2 2
H d w2 Hw 3A d w2 w 3Aw2 B zero 21.37
d d
dw QsenQ d2w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
Q2cosQ Q2cosQ 1
2
H H 1 1 cosQ3A 1 cosQ3A 1 1 cosQ B zero 21.39
D D D D D
Q2H
cosQ
D D D
2 cosQ
H 1 H 1 cosQ 3Q A
D D D
1 cosQ 32A2 1 2 cosQ 2cos2Q B zero
cosQ cosQ 3Q2A cosQ 3Q2A cosQ
Q2H H 1 H cosQ
D D D D D D D
32A2 32A2 2 cosQ 32A2 2cos2Q B zero
D D D
100/203
cosQ cosQ 3Q2A cosQ cos2Q
Q2H H 1 H 3Q2A
D D D D D D2
cosQ cos2Q
32A2 6A 3A B zero
D D D D2
cosQ cosQ 3Q2A cosQ 6A cosQ
Q2H H
D D D D D D
cos2Q cos2Q
3Q2A 3A H 1 32A2 B zero
D 2
D 2
D D
3Q2A 6A cosQ 3Q2A 3A cos Q H 1 3A B zero
2
2
Q H H
D D D D2 D 2D2
3Q A 3Acos
2 Q Q H H 3Q A 6A cosQ H 1 3A
2
2
2
B zero
3AD 2
D D 3AD 3AD 3A D 2 2
3A
1Q2cos 2Q Q H H Q 2
cosQ
2 2 2
H 21 2 B zero 21.40
D 3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3A
1Q cosD Q zero
2
2
Q2 1 2 21.41
Q2H H Q2 2 cosQ H 1 B zero
21.42
3A 3A D D D 3AD 2D2 3A
cosQ
zero H 21 2 B zero
D 3AD D 3A
cosQ
zero Q H H Q 2 zero
2 2
D 3A 3A D D
Q2H H Q2 2 zero H 1 B zero 21.43
3A 3A D D 3AD 2D2 3A
a b H 1 1 H 2 a c H 1 DB 21.44
3A D Q2 3A D 3A D 3A
ER moc2 DGMo DGMo
Q 1
2 H 1 DB 1
moc2 moc2 L
2
DGMo
a b H 1 1 H 2 1 zero a c 1 1 1 1 zero
3A D 1 3A D D 3A D 3A D
b c 12 H 2 DB 21.45
Q 3A D 3A
DGMo DGMo
DB 1 21.46
L
2
DGMo
101/203
b c 12 H 2 1 Q2 H 6A 21.47
Q 3A D 3A D
Q QH The regression is a function of positive energy that governs the movement.
ER moc2
H 1 Q2 1 6A Regression 21.48
moc2 moc2 D
a b 1 1 1 1 2 1 zero
21.49
3A D 1 6A 3A D D
D
3AD Q H H Q 2 zero 3A 2D2 H 21 2 B zero
2 2
21.43
3A 3A D D 3AD D 3A
ER GMo GMo
H A B
moc2 c2 L2
Q2HD HD Q23A 6A zero HD 3A DDB zero
Q23A D 3A D Q23A 6A zero HD 3A D
Q23A Q2D D Q23A 3A zero
Q2D D 3A zero Q2 1 3A
D
This regression is not governed by the positive energy
102/203
v v' 21.06
2
1 v'2
c
dv d v' dt' d v' v 2
d v'
a 1 2 21.50
dt dt v '2 dt dt'
v '2 c dt' v'2
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
2
a dv 1 v2 1 2 1 v'2 dv'v' d 1 v'2
2 2
dt c 1 v' c dt' dt' c
2
c
1 2 1
dv 2 2 2 2
2v'dv'
1 v2 1 2 1 v'2 dv'v'1 1 v'2
2 2
a 2
dt c 1 v' c dt' 2 c c dt'
2
c
dv
a v
1 2
2
1 v'
1 2
2
dv ' 1 v'dv'v '
2
dt
c 1 v' c dt' 2 dt'c
2
2 1 v'2
c c
dv
a v
1 2
2
1 1 v'
1 2
2
d v' v'2
1 2 1 v'dv' v'
dt c 1 v'2 v' 2 c dt ' c 2 dt'c 2
2 1 2 1 v'2
c c c
dv v 2
1 v'2 dv' dv'v'
a 1 2 3 1 2 v'
dt c 2 2
c dt' dt'c2
v'
1 2
c
moa mo dv mo v'2 dv' dv'v'
ma 3 1 2 v'
v 2
v 2 dt
2 2
c dt' dt'c2
1 2 1 2 v '
c c 1 2
c
moa mo dv
F ma 21.51
2 2 dt
1 v2 1 v2
c c
mo v'2 dv' dv'v'
F' 3 1 2 v' 2 21.52
v'2 2 c dt' dt'c
1 2
c
moa mo dv mo v'2 dv' dv'v'
F ma F' 3 1 2 v' 21.53
v 2
v 2 dt
2 2
c dt' dt'c2
1 2 1 2 v '
c c 1 2
c
103/203
Ek F.dr F'. dr' k
2
rˆ dr' 21.54
r
mo v'2 dv' dv' v'
dr' k2 rˆdr' 21.55
mo dv dr
Ek F.dr F'.dr' 2 dt 3 1 2
c dt'
v' 2
dt'c
v'2 2
r
1 v2
c 1 2
c
mo mo v'2 dr'
dr'v' k rˆdr'
Ek dv dr
dt'c2 r2
3 1 dv' v'dv'
v 2 dt 2 2
c2 dt'
1 2 v'
c 1 2
c
v'2
Ek
mo
dvv
mo v'v' k
3 1 2 dv'v'v'dv' 2 2 dr
v'2 2 c c r
2
1 v2
c 1 2
c
movdv mo v'2 v'2 k dr
Ek
c2 r2
3 1 2 dv'v'v'dv'
v'2 2 c
2
1 v2
c 1 2
c
movdv mov'dv' v'2 v'2 k
Ek 3 1 2 2 2 dr
2 2 c c r
2
1 v2 1 v'
c 2
c
k k
movdv mov'dv' movdv mov'dv'
Ek 3 dr dEk 3 dr 21.56
2 r2 2 r2
1 v2 1 v'2 2 1 v2 1 v'2 2
c 2 c 2
c c
2 moc2 k
Ek moc2 1 v2 constant 21.57
c v'2 r
1 2
c
2 moc2 k
ER moc2 1 v2 k constant ER constant
2 r
21.58
c r 1 2v'
c
moc2 m v'2 moc2
ER k moc2 o k ER k moc2 21.59
2 r
1 v'2
2 r 0
1 2
2
c c
1 ER k 1 21.60
2 moc2 moc2 r
1 v'2
c
ER GM m GM
H A k 2 o 2o 2o 21.61
moc2 moc moc c
104/203
3
1 H A 1 1 1
3 H A 21.62
r 1 v'2 2 r
2
1 v'2
c 2
c
L' r'v' rrˆ dr rˆr
d ˆ 2 d ˆ ˆ 2 d ˆ
r
dt'
r r k 21.63
dt' dt' dt'
L' r'xv' rr̂ v rr̂ 1
2 2
dr dˆ
dt r̂ r dt 2 dt
1 r 2 d r̂ ˆ r 2 d k̂
dt'
21.63
1 v 2 1 v 2 1 v 2
c c c
d d
L' r2 k L'kˆ L' r2 21.64
dt' dt'
k kˆ
movdv mov'dv'
dEk 3 2 dr 2 rdr' 21.56
2 r r
1 v2 1 v'2 2
c 2
c
dEk mo
F'v' v'dv' k rˆdr' k rˆv'
3 2 2
dt' 1 v'2 2 dt' r dt' r
2
c
moa'
F' 3 k2 rˆ 21.65
1 v'2 2 r
2
c
mo d 2r d 2 dr d d 2 ˆ k ˆ
F'
3 2
r rˆ 2 r 2r
2
21.66
2 2
1 v' dt ' dt' dt'dt' dt ' r
2
c
mo dr d d2 ˆ
F'ˆ 3 2 r 2
zero 21.67
2 2 dt'dt' dt'
1 v'
2
c
mo d 2r d 2 k
F'rˆ 3 2
r rˆ 2 rˆ 21.68
1 v'2 2 dt' dt' r
2
c
1 d 2r d 2 GMo
3 2
r rˆ 2 rˆ
2 2 dt'
1 v' dt' r
2
c
d L' dr L'dw d 2r L'2 d 2w d 2 2L'2 dw
21.69
dt' r2 dt' d dt'2 r2 d2 dt'2 r3 d
105/203
1 L'2 d2w L'2 GMo
3 2 r 2 2
2 2 r d
2
1 v' r r
2
c
1 L'2 d 2w L'2 GMo
3
2 2 3 r2
2 2 r d r
1 v'
2
c
1 d2w 1 L'2 GMo
2 r r2 r2
3
2 2 d
v'
1 2
c
1 d2w 1 GMo
3 2 r L'2 21.70
2 2 d
1 v'
2
c
3
2 GM
H A 1 d w2 1 2o 21.71
r d r L'
H 3A 1 d 2w 1 GMo
r d2 r L'2
2 2 GM o
H d w2 H 1 3A d w2 1 3A 12
d r d r r L'2
2 2 GM
H d w2 Hw 3A d w2 w 3Aw 2 2o zero
d d L'
ER GMo GMo
H A B 21.72
moc2 c2 L'2
2 2
H d w2 Hw 3A d w2 w 3Aw2 B zero 21.73
d d
dw QsenQ d2w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
Q2cosQ Q2cosQ 1
2
H H 1 1 cosQ3A 1 cosQ3A 1 1 cosQ B zero 21.74
D D D D D
Q2H
cosQ
D D D
2 cosQ
H 1 H 1 cosQ 3Q A
D D D
1 cosQ 32A2 1 2 cosQ 2cos2Q B zero
cosQ cosQ 3Q2A cosQ 3Q2A cosQ
Q2H H 1 H cosQ
D D D D D D D
32A2 32A2 2 cosQ 32A2 2cos2Q B zero
D D D
106/203
cosQ cosQ 3Q2A cosQ cos2Q
Q2H H 1 H 3Q2A
D D D D D D2
cosQ cos2Q
32A2 6A 3A B zero
D D D D2
cosQ cosQ 3Q2A cosQ 6A cosQ
Q2H H
D D D D D D
cos2Q cos2Q
3Q2A 3A H 1 32A2 B zero
D 2
D 2
D D
3Q2A 6A cosQ 3Q2A 3A cos Q H 1 3A B zero
2
2
Q H H
D D D D2 D 2D2
3Q A 3Acos
2 Q Q H H 3Q A 6A cosQ H 1 3A
2
2
2
B zero
3AD 2
D D 3AD 3AD 3A D 2 2
3A
1Q cosD Q 3QAH 3HA QD 2D cosDQ 3AHD 1D
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
B zero 21.75
3A
1Q cosD Q zero
2
2
Q2 1 2 21.76
Q2H H Q2 2 cosQ
H 21 2 B zero 21.77
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3A
cosQ
zero H 21 2 B zero
D 3AD D 3A
cosQ
zero Q H H Q 2 zero
2 2
D 3A 3A D D
Q2H H Q2 2 zero H 1 B zero 21.78
3A 3A D D 3AD 2D2 3A
a b H 1 12 H 2 a c H 1 DB 21.79
3A D Q 3A D 3A D 3A
ER moc2 DGM o DGM o
Q2 1 H 1 DB 1
moc2 moc2 L'2 DGM o
a b H 1 1 H 2 1 zero a c 1 1 1 1 zero
3A D 1 3A D D 3A D 3A D
b c 12 H 2 DB 21.80
Q 3A D 3A
DGM o DGM o
DB 1 21.81
L'2 DGM o
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b c 12 H 2 1 Q2 H 6A 21.82
Q 3A D 3A D
Q QH The advance is a function of negative energy that governs the movement
ER moc2
H 1 Q2 1 6A Q2 1 6A Advance 21.83
moc2 moc2 D D
a b 1 1 1 1 2 1 zero
21.84
3A D 1 6A 3A D D
D
ER GMo GMo
H A B
moc2 c2 L'2
Q2H H Q2 2 zero H 1 B zero 21.78
3A 3A D D 3AD 2D2 3A
3AD Q H H Q 2 zero 3A 2D2 H 21 2 B zero
2 2
3A 3A D D 3AD D 3A
Q2HD HD Q23A 6A zero HD 3A D DB zero 21.85
DGM o DGM o
DB 1 HD 3A D 21.86
L'2 DGM o
Q23A D 3A D Q23A 6A zero 21.87
Q23A Q2D D Q23A 3A zero
Q2D D 3A zero Q2 1 3A 21.88
D
This advance is not governed by negative energy
Q2HD HD Q23A 6A zero 21.85
Q23A D HD Q23A 6A zero 21.89
Q23A Q2D HD Q23A 6A zero
Q2D HD 6A zero Q2 H 6A 21.90
D
Q2H H Q2 2 cosQ H 1 B zero
21.77
3A 3A D D D 3AD 2D2 3A
cosQ
3A 2D2 Q H H Q 2
2 2
H 21 2 B zero
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3A
cosQ H3A 2D2 3A 2D2 B3A 2D2
D Q H3AD H3AD Q 3AD 2.3AD
2 2
2 2 zero
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3A
108/203
cosQ
DQ2HD HD Q23A 6A HD 3A DDB zero
D
DGMo DGMo ER moc2
DB 1 H 1
L'2 DGMo moc2 moc2
cosQ
DQ2HD HD Q23A 6A D 3A D zero
D
Q2HD HD Q23A 6AcosQ 3A zero 21.91
D D
Q2 1 3A
D
3A 3A cosQ 3A
1 D HD HD 1 D 3A 6A D zero
D
HD HD 3A HD 3A 3A 3A 6A cosQ 3A zero
D D D D
HD H3A HD 3A 9A2 6A cosQ 3A zero
D D D
H3A 9A2 3A cosQ 3A zero
D D D
ER moc2
H 1
moc2 moc2
3A 9A2 3A cosQ 3A zero
D D D
9A2 cosQ 3A zero cosQ 1
zero 21.92
D D D D 3A
Q2HD HD Q23A 6AcosQ 3A zero 21.91
D D
Q2 1 6A
D
6A 6A cosQ 3A
1 D HD HD 1 D 3A 6A D zero
D
HD HD 6A HD 3A 3A 6A 6A cosQ 3A zero
D D D D
HD H6A HD 3A 18A2 6A cosQ 3A zero
D D D
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H6A 18A2 3A cosQ 3A zero
D D D
ER moc2
H 1
moc2 moc2
6A 18A2 3A cosQ 3A zero
D D D
1 3A 18A2 cosQ 3A zero
3A D D D
1 6A cosQ 1 zero
D D D
cosQ 1 cosQ 1
1 6A zero Q2 zero 21.93
D D D D D
Q2HD HD Q23A 6AcosQ 3A zero 21.91
D D
ER moc2
Q2 1 H 1
moc2 moc2
D D 3A 6AcosQ 3A zero
D D
3AcosQ 3A zero cosQ 1
zero 21.94
D D D D
Q2 1 6A Q2 1 Q2 1 3A
D D
cosQ 1 cosQ 1 cosQ 1
Q2 21.95
D D D D D 3A
110/203
Energy Newtonian (EN)
mou2 k
EN
2 r
2 2 2
d dr L2
u2 dr r
dt dt dt r 2
mo dr 2 L2 k
EN
2 dt r 2 r
2EN dr 2 L2 2k 1
mo dt r 2 mo r
2
dr L2 2k 1 2EN zero
dt r 2 mo r mo
d L dr L dw d 2r L2 d 2w d 2 2L2 dw
dt r2 dt d dt2 r2 d2 dt2 r3 d
2
dw L2 2k 1 2EN
L 2 zero
d r mo r mo
2
dw 2E
12 2k2 1 N2 zero
d r moL r moL
2
dw 2E
12 2k2 1 N2 zero
d r moL r moL
2
dw 2E
w 2 2k2 w N2 zero
d moL moL
2EN
x 2k2 y
moL moL2
2
dw
w 2 xw y zero
d
w 1 1 1 cosQ dw QsenQ d 2w Q2cosQ
r D d D d 2 D
QsenQ 1 1 cosQ x 1 1 cosQ y zero
2 2
D D
D
Q2 1 cos2Q 1 1 2 cosQ 2cos2Q x 1 x 1 cosQ y zero
D2 2D2 D D
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Q2 Q2 cos2Q 1 1 2 cosQ 1 2cos2Q x x cosQ y zero
D2 D2 2D2 2D2 2D2 D D
Q2 Q2 cos2Q 1 2 cosQ cos2Q x x cosQ y zero
D2 D2 2D2 D D D2 D D
cos2Q 2 cos2Q 2 cosQ cosQ Q2 1
Q x 2 2 2 x y zero
D 2
D 2
D D D D D D
1Q2cos 2Q 2 x cosQ Q2
2 2
1 x y zero
D D D D 2D2 D
1Q cosD Q zero
2
Q 2 1 2
2
2 x cosQ 1 1 x y zero
D D D2 2D2 D
2 x zero 1 1 x y zero
D D2 2D2 D
2EN
x 2k2 y
moL moL2
2 x zero x 2 2k 1 GMomo L2 DGM
o
D D moL2 D moL2
2D 2 2D2 2D 2x 2D 2y zero
D 2 2D 2 D
2 1 Dx 2D2y zero
2EN 2EN 2DEN
Dx D 2 Dx 2 2D2y 2D2 2D2
D moL2
moDGM o k
2DEN
2 1 2 zero EN k 2 1
k 2D
1 1 1 2 EN k
a D 2a
112/203
§22 Spatial deformation
t t' t t'
2
1 v2
c
t t1 t2 L L 2L 1 t' 2L'
c v c v c 1 v2 c
c2
2L'
2
t 2L 1 c 2 L L' 1 v2 L' L
c 1 v
2
1 v2 c
c2 c
This is the spatial deformation.
The length L' at rest in the reference frame of the observer O' is greater than the length L that is moving with
velocity relative v on reference frame the observer O.
Now compute to the observer O' the distance d' vt' between O O':
d' vt' v 2L'
c
Thus we obtain the velocity v: d' v 2L' v cd' .
c 2L'
Now compute to the observer O the distance d vt between O O':
d vt vt1 t2 v 2L 1
c 1 v 2
c2
Thus we obtain the velocity v: d v 2L 1 v cd 1 v2 .
c 1 v2 2L c2
c 2
The speed v is the same to both observers so we have:
v cd' cd 1 v2
2
2L' 2L c
2
Where applying the relation L L' 1 v2 we obtain:
c
cd' cd 1 v 2 d' d 1 v 2 d d'.
2L' 2L' 1 v c2
2 c2
2
c
Where the distance d and d’ varies inversely with the distances L and L’.
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In general, we obtain (14.2, 14.4):
d1 vux
2 d'1 vu'2x'
d' c or d c
2 2
1 v2 1 v2
c c
d'1 v 02
c
u'x' zero d 2
d d'
2
1 v2 1 v2
c c
d'1 vc2 1 v
u'x' c d c2 d d' c
1 v2 1 v
c c
d'1 v 2v
c 2
u'x' v d d d' 1 v2
1 v2
2 c
c
d 1 v v2
c 2
ux v d' d' d 1 v2
1 v2
2 c
c
d1 vc2 1 v
ux c d' c2 d' d c
1 v
1 v2 c
c
d 1 v 02
c
ux zero d' 2
d' d
2
1 v2 1 v2
c c
114/203
§23 Space and Time Bend
Variables with line t',v',x',y',r' etc ...They are used in §21.
Geometry of space and time in the plan xy y x .
y f x
x ct' y ds' dr'.dr'
ds'f ct'
dx cdt' dy ds' dr'.dr'
r xî yĵct'î ds'ĵ r' x'î y'ĵ
dr dxî dyĵ cdt'î ds'ĵ dr' dx'î dy'ĵ
y
dr r.dr x dx dy
r r r
dy cdt' ds' dy'
v dr dx î ĵ î ĵcîv'ĵ v' dr' dx'î ĵ
dt' dt' dt' dt' dt' dt' dt' dt'
dx c dy ds'
v' c vcos v'vsen
dt' dt' dt'
dy ds'
dy dt' dt' 1 ds' d 2y d dy 1 d 1 ds' 1 d 2s'
tg
dx dx c c dt' dx2 dx dx c dt' c dt' c 2 dt'2
dt'
v c v' c cî v' v'ĵ
a dv dc dv' dc zero dv dv' a a'
dt' dt' dt' dt' dt' dt'
ds2 dr.dr dxî dyĵ dxî dyĵ cdt'î ds'ĵ cdt'î ds'ĵ dx2 dy 2 c 2dt'2 ds'2
ds c 2dt'2 ds'2 ds' ds2 c 2dt'2
2 2
v ds c 2 ds' c 2 v'2 c v' ds' ds c 2 v 2 c 2
dt' dt' dt' dt'
115/203
d
theoretical curve
ds
d 2y 1 d 2s'
dy dy d 2 2 2
tg arctg dx 2 c dt' 2
dx dx dx
1
dy 1 1 ds'
dx c 2 dt'
2 2
ds 1 dy 1 1 ds'
dx dx c 2 dt'
1 d 2s'
c 2 dt'2
2
d 1 1 ds' 1 d 2s'
d dx c 2 dt' c 2 dt'2
ds ds
2 3
1
1 2 ds
' 1 ds'
2 2
c dt' 1 c 2 dt'
dx
1 ds' d 2s' 1 v'dv'
ds' ds' d v' v'd c 2 dt' dt'2 c 2 dt'
3 3
dt' dt' ds ds
1 ds' 2 2 1 v'2 2
1 c 2 dt' c 2
1 v'dv' 1 dv'
d 2 d 2
v' v' c dt'3 c dt' 3
ds ds
1 v'2 2 1 v'2 2
c2 c2
movdv mov'dv'
dEk 3
k2 dr k2 r̂dr' 21.56
2
1 v 2 1 v'2 2 r r
c
c2
2
c d v '
dEk mo c 2 v'dt' k dr' k
F'.v' 3
2 r̂ r̂v'
dt' r dt' r 2
1 v' 2 2
c2
dEk 2 d
F'.v' moc v' k2 r̂v'
dt' ds r
d
2 d
F' moc k2 r̂ k 2 12 r̂
ds r ds moc r
116/203
§24 Variational Principle
m oc 2
Ek k constan t 21.21
2 r
1 v2
c
mov 2 2 m c2
Ek m o c 2 1 v 2 o k cons tan t
2 c 2 r
1 v 2 1 v2
c c
mov 2 2 2 m v
m o c 2 1 v 2 k m o c 2 p d m o c 2 1 v2 o
c r dv c
1 v 2
2 2
1 v2
c c
2
L m o c 2 1 v2 k Lagrangeana.
c r
mo v 2
L m o c 2 What is the initial energy of the particle of mass mo.
2
1 v2
c
2
pvL moc2 L pv m oc 2 m oc 2 1 v2 k
c r
Variational Principle
t2
Ação S Lx t ,x t , t dt x dx ux This is the velocity component in x axis.
t1 dt
t2
S Lx,x ,t dt zero Variation of the action along the X axis.
t1
Building the variable x'x in the range t 1 t t 2 we have seen this when zerox' x and
where zero we will have the conditions:
d zero d d
t t1 zero t 2 zero zero
dt d dt
x'x x ' x
dx' dx '
dx zero dx zero
d d d d
t2 t2
Then we have a new function I Gx ,x
,t dt Fx',x ',t dt
and where:
t1 t1
t2 t2
zero x' x x ' x F L Fx',x ',t dt Lx,x ,t dt
t1 t1
t2 t2
zero x' x x ' x F L Fx',x ',t dt Lx,x ,t dt
t1 t1
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t2
So we have I Fx',x ',t dt
that provides derived:
t1
I Fx',x ',t dx'
t2 t2
Fx',x ',t dx '
t2 t2
dt dt F dt F dt zero
d x' d x ' d x' x '
t1 t1 t1 t1
d F d F F d F d F d F
dt x ' dt x ' x ' dt x ' dt x ' dt x '
I F
t2 t2 t2 t2
dt F dt F dt d F d F dt zero
d x' x ' x' dt x ' dt x '
t1 t1 t1 t1
I F
t2 t2 t2
dt d F d F dt zero
d x' x ' dt x '
t1 t1 t1
t2 t
d F F F t 2 F t1 zero
2
x ' x ' t1 x ' x '
t1
I F
t2 t2 t2
dt d F dt F d F dt zero
d x' dt x ' x' dt x '
t 1 t 1 t 1
I F d F
t2
dt zero zero F d F zero
d x' dt x ' x' dt x '
t 1
zero x ' x x ' x F L L d L zero
x dt x
L d L This is the X axis component 2
L m oc 2 1 v2 k
x dt x c r
m c 2 1 v 2 k d m c 2 1 v 2 k
x o
c 2 r dt x o
c 2 r
2 dy 2 2
m c 2 1 v 2 zero k zero v dx dz x 2 y 2 z 2
o
x c2 x r dt dt dt
k d m c 2 1 v 2 This is the X axis component
x r dt x o
c 2
k k r 1 k1r 11 r k 1 x k x r 2 x 2 y2 z2
x r x x r2 r r3
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x
1 1
m c 2 1 v 2 m c 2 1 1 v 2 2 2 v dv m o v d 2
y 2 z 2
o o
x c2 2 c 2 c 2 dx 2 dx
1 v 2
c
m c 2 1 v 2 m o v 1 x 2 y 2 z 2 121 2 x m o v x
m o x
2 2 2 2 2
o
x c2 2 1 v2 x y z 1 v2
2
1 v2
c c c
dx 2 1
2 2 1
d m x
m v 2
d v m d x
v 2
1 v 2 v dv
o o
2 dt
1 x
1
2
o
1 x
1 2 2
dt 2 v c 2 dt c v 2
dt c 2 2 c c dt
1 2 1 c 2 1
v
c c 2
dx v 2 1 v 2
1
d m o x
m o dx 1 v x v dv
2 m o dt c 2
c x v dv
2
2
dt v 2 1 v 2 dt v 2 c dt 1 v 2 v 2 c dt
2 2
c v2
1 1 1 1
c 2 c 2 c2 c 2 c2 c2
dx v 2 1 v 2
1
d m o x
m o dt c 2
c x v dv m o 1 v 2 dx v dv x
2
3 2 dt
dt v 2 v 2
v 2
v 2 c 2 dt
c dt c 2
1 1 1 1 v 2
2
c 2 c 2 c2 c2 1 c 2
mo 1 v 2 x v dv x î
k x3 î 3 X axis
r 2 2 c2 dt c 2
1 v
c2
y mo v 2 dv y ˆ
k ĵ 3
1 2 y v j Y axis
r3 2 2 c dt c 2
1 v
c2
m o v 2
k z3 k̂ 3
1 2 z v dv z2 k̂ Z axis
c dt c
1 v 2 2
r
c2
r r
y
r r
r
k x3 î k 3 ˆj k z3 k̂ 3k xî yĵ zk̂ 3k r 2k r̂
r
mo 1 v 2 x v dv x î m o 1 v 2 y v dv y ĵ m o 1 v 2 z v dv z k̂ k r̂
3
dt c 2 3
dt c 2 3
dt c 2 r 2
2 2 c2 2 2 c2 2 2 c2
1 v 1 v 1 v
c2 c2 c2
mo v 2 dv x v 2 dv y v 2 dv z k
1 2 x v dt 2 î 1 2 y v dt 2 ĵ 1 2 z v dt 2 k̂ 2 r̂
c c c c c
3
c r
1 v 2 2
c
2
119/203
mo v 2 y
1 2 xî v dv x2 î 1 v2 yĵ v dv 2 ĵ 1 v2 zk̂ v dv x2 k̂ 2k r̂
2 2
3
c dt c c dt c c dt c r
1 v 2 2
c
2
mo
1 v 2 xî yĵzk̂ v dv x î y ĵ z k̂ k r̂
3 r 2
2 2 c2 c 2 dt
1 v
c2
a xî yĵzk̂ d x î y ĵ z k̂ dv
dt dt
v x î y ĵ z k̂
mo
F 1 v 2 dv v dv v k r̂
3 = 21.16
c 2 dt dt c 2 r 2
1 v 2 2
c2
mo
F 1 v 2 dv v dv v k r̂
3
dt c 2 r 2
= 21.19
2
c 2 dt
1 v 2
c2
§24 Variational Principle Continuation
2 m oc 2
E k moc 2 1 v '2 k cons tan te 21.21
c 2 r
1 v2
c
2 mo v 2 2 m oc 2
E k moc 2 1 v '2 moc 2 1 v2 k cons tan te
c 2 c 2 r
1 v2 1 v2
c c
2 mov2 2 m oc 2
E k k m o c 2 1 v '2 k m o c 2 1 v2 k k k k cons tan te
r c r 2 c r 2 r r r
1 v2 1 v2
c c
2 mo v 2 2
E k k m o c 2 1 v '2 k m o c 2 1 v2 k m o c 2 cons tan te
r c r c r
1 v2
2
2 2 mo v 2
T' m o c 2 1 v '2 T m o c 2 1 v2 Ep k pv
c c r 2
1 v2
c
mo v m o v' 2 2
pv v v' v ' p' . p p' 1 v '2 p' p 1 v2
2 2 c c
1 v 2 1 v '2
c c
E R E k E p T ' E p pv T E p
Ek T' Ek pv T T ' pv T T p' v ' T '
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L' T ' E p L T Ep
E R E k E p L' pv L
L' pv L L p ' v ' L' L L' pv p' v '
2 2
p' dT' d m oc2 1 v '2 mo v' mo v p dT d m oc2 1 v2
mo v
mo v'
dv ' dv' c 2 dv dv c 2
1 v '2 v
1 2
c c
dr 'dx'î dy'ˆjdz'k̂ dxî dyĵdzk̂ dr 21.08
dy'
1 dx î dy ĵ dz k̂ 1 d r v
v' dr ' dx' î ĵ dz' k̂
dt' dt' dt' dt' v 2 dt dt dt 2 dt 2
1 2 1 v2 1 v2
c c c
x ' v ' x ' dx ' 1 dx v x x
dt ' 2 dt 2 2
1 v2 1 v2 1 v2
c c c
2 2
m o x ' m o x m o x
p'x dT' d m oc2 1 v '2 px dT d m oc2 1 v2 m o x '
dx ' dx ' c 2 dx dx c 2
1 v '2 1 2 v
c c
r ' x'î y' ĵz'k̂ xî yĵzk̂ r 21.07
x ' x y ' y z ' z
x ' 1 y' z ' 1
1
x y z
L d L zero
x dt x
L d L x ' L dt' d L zero L p'v ' L' L T p m x '
x o
x dt x x x ' dt dt' x x x
x ' L dt ' d L p'v ' L' 1 d m x ' zero
o
x x ' dt dt' x x ' 2 dt '
1 v '2
c
m o dx ' p' m o dx '
p'v ' L' v ' p'v ' L' zero
x ' v ' 2 dt ' x ' x ' x ' v ' 2 dt '
1 2 1 2
c c
p' v ' zero 2
zero L' m o c 2 1 v '2 k
x ' x ' c r
L' m o dx ' zero
r 2 r '. r ' r . r x ' 2 y' 2 z ' 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
x ' 2 dt '
1 v '2
c
121/203
L' m c2 1 v'2 k k k r 1 k 1r 11 r k 1 x' k x'
o
x' x' c2 r x' r x' x' r2 r r3
L' m o dx ' k x ' m o x' zero
x ' 2 dt ' r3 2
1 v '2 1 v '2
c c
m o x'
2
k x3'
r r
y'
r r r
r
k x3' î k 3 ĵ k z3' k̂ 3k x 'î y' ĵ z 'k̂ 3k r ' 2k r̂ '
r
1 v '2
c
m o x' m o y' m oz' m oa '
î ĵ k̂ 2k r̂ '
2 2 2 2r
1 v '2 1 v '2 1 v '2 1 v '2
c c c c
moa' moa'
2k r̂ ' k2 r̂ r̂ ' r̂ 2k r̂ = 21.19
2 r r 2 r
1 v '2 1 v '2
c c
§25 Logarithmic spiral
2
Hd w Hw 3A d 2 w w 3Aw 2 B zero r e a 21.37
d2 d2
dw Qsen Q d 2 w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
w 1 1a e a dw ae a d 2 w a 2e a
r e d d2
Ha 2e a Hea 3Aa 2e ae a 3Ae a B zero
2
Ha2ea Hea 3Aa2e2a 3Ae2a Bzero
1 a 2 Hea 1 a 2 3Ae2a B zero
1a2 3Ae2a 1a2 Hea Bzero
1a2 3Aw2 1a2 HwBzero
3Aw 2 Hw B zero
1 a 2
H H 2 4.3A B
w e a 1
1 a 2 H 1 H 2 12AB
r 2.3A 6A 6A 1 a 2
2
3A H 1 H 2 12AB H H 1 H 2 12AB B 2 zero
6A 6A 1 a 6A 6A
2
1 a 1 a
2
122/203
2
H 2 H 1 2 12AB 1 2 12AB
3A 2 H H
6A 6A 6 A 1 a 2 6A 1 a 2
H 2 H H 2 12AB B zero
6A 6 A 1 a 2 1 a 2
H 2 H 1
2 H 2 12AB 1 2 H 2 12AB
1 a 36A 1 a
3A
6A 6A 6A 2 2
H 2 H H 2 12AB B zero
6A 6A 1 a 2 1 a 2
2
3A H 2 H2 H 2 12AB 1 2 H 2 12AB
36A 18A 1 a 36A 1 a
2 2
H 2 H H 2 12AB B zero
6A 6A 1 a 2 1 a 2
H 2 H H 2 12AB 1 H 2 12AB
12A 6A 1 a 2 12A 1 a 2
H 2 H H 2 12AB B zero
6A 6A 1 a 2 1 a 2
H 2 1 H 2 12AB H 2 B zero
12A 12A 1 a 2 6A 1 a 2
H 2 H 2 B H 2 B zero
12A 12A 1 a 2 6A 1 a 2
§25 Logarithmic Spiral (Continuation)
3
d 2 w 1 GM o
H A1
d2 r L' 2 21.71
r
1
3
d 2 w 1 GM o
HA
r d2 r L' 2
1
3
d2w 1 ER GM o GM o
HA H
r d2 r B moc2
A
c2
B
L' 2
1
3
d2w 1
HA
r d2 r B zero
3 2 1 B zero
H 3H A 1 3HA 12 A 13 d w
2 2 3
r r r d2 r
H 3H A 1 3HA 12 A 13 H 3H A 1 3HA 12 A 13 zero
3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
r r r r r r
123/203
3 2
2 1 d w 1
H 3AH 2 B zero
r d r
H 3
2
d
3AH 2 w d w2
w
B zero
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3
w 3AH 2d w
2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero
d d
dw QsenQ d 2 w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
Q 2 cosQ 3 1 2 Q cosQ 1
2
H3 H 1 cos Q 3AH D 1 cosQ
D D D
3AH 2 1 1 cosQ B zero
D
2
cosQ Q2 cosQ 1 Q2 cosQ 1
H 3Q2 H 3 1 H 3 1 cosQ 3AH 2 3AH 2 cosQ
D D D D D D D
D
3AH 2 21 2 1 2 cosQ 2 cos2 Q B zero
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
1 2cosQ 2 cos2 Q B zero
2
3AH
2 2
D
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
2
3AH 3AH 2 2cosQ 3AH 2 2 cos2 Q B zero
2 D2 2 D 2 2 D2
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
6AH 2 cosQ 3AH 2 cos Q B zero
2 2
3AH
2 D2 D D D2
H 3Q 2 cosQ H 3 H 3 cosQ 3AH Q cosQ 3AH Q cos Q
2 2 2 2 2
3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D D 3AH 2 D2
6AH 2 cosQ 3AH 2 cos Q B zero
2 2
3AH
3AH 2 2 D 2 3AH 2 D D 3AH 2 D2 3AH 2
HQ 2 cosQ cosQ Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H H Q2
3A D 3AD 3A D D D D2
cosQ cos Q 2
21 2 2 B 2 zero
D D D D2 3AH
124/203
cos2 Q 2 cos Q HQ cosQ
2 2
H cosQ Q cosQ
2
Q
D2 D2 3A D 3A D D D
cosQ
2 H 21 2 B 2 zero
D D 3AD D 3AH
1 Q2 cos 2Q HQ Q 2 2 cosQ
2 2
H H 21 2 B 2 zero
D 3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AH
ER moc2
Q 1 6A
2
H 1
m o c 2 m oc 2 D
2 2
cos Q ( 1)Q ( 1) Q 2 cosQ ( 1) 1
2
1 Q
2
B zero
2 3A 3A D D D 3A D 2 2 2
D D 3A( 1)
2 2 2
cos Q Q
2 1 Q 2 cosQ 1 1 B zero
1 Q
2 3A 3A D D D 3AD 2 D 2 3A
D
2 2 2
cos Q Q
2 1 Q 2 cosQ 1 1 DB zero
1 Q
2 3A 3A D D D 3AD 2 D 2 3AD
D
DGMo
DB 2
1
L'
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 1 21 2 1 zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AD
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 21 2 zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D D
Q 1 6A
2
D
2
1 1 6A cos Q 1 1 6A 1 1 1 6A 2 cosQ 1 zero
D D 2 3A D 3A D D D D 2 2
D
2
11 6A cos Q 1 1 6A 1 1 1 6A 2 cosQ 1 zero
D D 2 3A 3A D 3A D D D D D 2 2
D
2
6A cos Q 2 6A 1 cosQ 1 zero
D D 2 D D D D
2 2 2 2
D
2
cos Q 1 cosQ
6A 1 62 A2 21 2 zero
D 2
D D D D D
2
cos Q cosQ 1 1
6A 1 1 6A 1 zero
D D 2 D D D D D
125/203
2
cos Q cosQ 1
6A 1 6A zero
D
2 D D D
2
1 6A 1 6A 4.6A. 1
cosQ
D D D
D 2.6A
2
1 6A 12 21 6A 6A 24A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
2
1 6A 1 12A 6A 24A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
2
1 6A 1 36A 36A
cosQ D D 2 D 2
D 12A
2
1 6A 1 36A 36A
cosQ D D 2 D 2
D 12A
2 2
36A zero GM o
1 36A 362 A2 1 36A A
D D D 2 2
D c2
2
2 2 6,67.10 111,989.10 30
36A 36 GM o 36 2,55.10
14
2 2
D
2 2 2 2
D c 55.442.955.600 2,99792458.108
2
1 6A 1 36A
cosQ D D
D 12A
1 6A 1 36A 1 6A 1 1 36A 1 6A 1 18A
cosQ D D D 2 D D D
D 12A 12A 12A
1 6A 1 18A 1 6A 1 18A 12A
cosQ D D D D D 1
D 12A 12A 12A D
cosQ 1
zero
D D
cosQ 1
zero r(Q) M o zero Q 1 6A zero
D D D
126/203
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 21 2 zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D D
GM G zero
r M o zero Q 1 Q 1 6A 1 6 2 o 1 6 1
D D c D c 2
2
cos Q 1 cosQ
11 1 1 2 21 2 zero
D
2 3A 3A D D D D
1 cosQ 1 zero cosQ 1
zero
D D 2 2
D D D
cosQ 1
r M o zero Q 1 w 1 1 1 cosQ zero
r D D D
The presence of Q in the formula r r ( Q) D , allows it to also describe a spiral.
1 cosQ
§25 Logarithmic Spiral Continuation II
1 Q cos Q Q3A 31A QD 2D cosDQ
2 2 2
2 1 zero
2 2 2
D D
1 12A
zero r(Q) Mo zero Q D
1 A6
D
1 12A 2 1 12A 1 12A
1 D cos Q 1 D 1 1 D 2 cosQ 1 zero
1 6A D2 3A 1 6A 3A D 1 6A D D 2D2
D D D
127/203
1 6A 1 12A cos2Q 1 1 12A 1 1 6A 1 1 12A 2 1 6A cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D D2 3A D 3A D D D D D D 2D2 D
1 6A 1 12A cos2Q 1 1 12A 1 1 6A 1 1 12A 2 2 6A cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D D2 3A 3A D 3A 3A D D D D D D D D 2D2 2D2 D
6A cos2Q 1 cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D2 D D 2D2 2D2 D
2
1 1 4 6A 21 2 21 2 6A
cosQ D D D D D D
D 2 6A
D
1 1 24A 1 1 6A
cosQ D 2D2 D 2D2 2D2 D
D 12A
D
1 1 24A 1 24A 1 6A
cosQ D 2D2 D 2D2 D 2D2 D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 24A 24A 6A
cosQ D D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 212A 144A2
cosQ D D D 2D2
D 12A
D
2
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
128/203
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 12A
cosQ D D
D 12A
D
cosQ 1
D D
cosQ 1
zero
D D
1 12A
zero r(Q) Mo zero Q D cosQ 1 zero
1 6A D D
D
1 12A
GMo
Q D 1 6A Q2 1 6A
2
A
1 6A D D c2
D
D a1 2 57.909.227.000,001 0,205635932 55.460.469.568,40
GMo 6,6740831.1011.1,9891.1030
A 1.477,089.535.42
c2 2,99792458.108 2
1 12A
Q D 0,999.999.920.1 Q 1 6A 0,999.999.920.1
1 A6 D
D
-14
1,276.789.102.53
1.296.000,00
.Q 1.296.000,00 Q1 Advance Q1 Regression
Q
1 11.296.000,00 zero Advance zero Regression
Q
1 11.296.000,00 0,103.549.893.544"
1
1 12A 2
D
1 6A
D
129/203
1 11.296.000,00 0,103.549.876.997"
1
1 6A
2
D
365,256.363.004
N 100. PT 100 415,210.316.139
PM 87,969
.N 0,103.549.893.544 x 415,210.316.139 42,994.984.034.7"
.N 0,103.549.876.997 x 415,210.316.139 42,994.977.164.2"
By definition zero
1 12A
zero r(Q) Mo zeroQ D r M o zero Q 1
1 A6
D
cosQ 1 cosQ 1
zero 1 zero 1
D D cosQ D D cosQ
Se If Q1
1 1
cos cos
Energy Newtonian (EN)
1 Q cos Q x 2D cosDQ Q
2 2
21 2 x y zero
2
2 2
D D D D
cosQ 1
r Q 1 w 1 1 1 cosQ zero
r D D D
1Q2 1D 1D x 2D 1D Q2
2
1 x y zero
2 2
D D D
1Q2
2
1 x 2 Q 1 x y zero
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
D D D D D D
2 2
1 Q x 2 Q 1 x y zero
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
D D D D D D D
Q2 Q2
2 2
2 24 2 2x y zero Q2 1
D D D D
21 2 12 24 2 2x y zero
D D D D
130/203
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 D2 D2 42 D2 2x D D y zero
2 2
D D D D
1 2 4 2xD 2D2y zero
x 2
D
y
2E N 2
L DGM
a D
1 1 2 1
m o L2
1 4 2 2 D D y zero 1 2 2D2y zero
2 2 2
D
2E N 2 2 2 2E N
1 2 2 D 2 zero 1 D zero
m o L2 moDGM o
2
1 D
2E N
GM o mo
zero
D
1 2 1 2 E N
k
EN k
2a
§26 Advancement of the Periélio of Mercury of 42,99 "
Supposing ux v
(2.3) u'x' ux v v v u'x' zero
2 2
v 2vux
1 2 2 v 2
1 2 2vv
c c c c
ux v u'x' zero 21.01
(1.17) dt' dt 1
v 2 2vux dt 1 v 2 2vv dt' dt 1 v 2
c2 c2 c2 c2 c2
(1.22) dt dt' 1
v'2 2v'u'x' dt' 1 v'2 2v'0 dt dt' 1 v'2
c2 c2 c2 c2 c2
2 2
dt' dt 1 v2 dt dt' 1 v'2 21.02
c c
2 2
1 v2 1 v'2 1 21.03
c c
v v' v' v 21.04
2 2
1 v'2 1 v2
c c
dt dt' v v' vdt v'dt' 21.05
(1.33) v
v' v'
v v'
2 2
2v'0 2
1 v'2 2v'u2'x' 1 v'2 2 1 v'2
c c c c c
131/203
(1.34)
v' v v v' v
2 2 2
1 v2 2vux 1 v2 2vv 1 v2
c c2 c c2
c
v v'
v' v 21.06
2 2
1 v'2 1 v2
c c
r r rˆ r' r' r rˆ r r r' r 21.07
dr drrˆrdrˆ dr' dr' drrˆrdrˆ dr 21.08
rˆdr drrˆrˆrrˆdrˆ dr rˆdr' drrˆrˆrrˆdrˆ dr 21.09
dr drrˆ dr d
2
d
2
v vv dr r
v rˆr ˆ 2
21.10
dt dt dt dt dt dt
drrˆ dr ˆ d ˆ dr 2 d 2
v' dr' r r v' v'v' r
2
21.11
dt' dt' dt' dt' dt' dt'
dv d 2r d 2rrˆ d 2r d 2 dr d d 2 ˆ
a 2 r rˆ 2 r 21.12
dt dt dt2 dt2 dt dt dt dt2
dv' d 2r' d 2 rrˆ d 2r d 2 dr d d 2 ˆ
a' 2 r rˆ 2 r 2
21.13
dt' dt' dt'2 2
dt' dt' dt'dt' dt'
v v'
21.06
2
1 v'2
c
dv d v' dt' d v' v 2
d v'
a 1 2 21.50
dt dt v '2 dt dt'
v '2 c dt' v'2
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
2 2 2
a dv 1 v2 1 2 1 v'2 dv'v' d 1 v'2
dt c 1 v' c dt' dt' c
2
c
1 2 1
dv 2 2 2 2
2v'dv'
1 v2 1 2 1 v'2 dv'v'1 1 v'2
2 2
a 2
dt c 1 v' c dt' 2 c c dt'
2
c
dv
a v
1 2
2
1 v'
1 2
2
dv ' 1 v'dv' v'
dt c 1 v'2 c dt' 2 dt'c 2
2 1 v'2
c c
132/203
dv
1 v2 1 2 1
2 2 2
a 1 v'2 dv' 1 v'2 1 v'dv'v'
dt c 1 v' v'2 c dt' c 2 dt'c
2
2 1 2 1 v'2
c c c
2
a dv 1 v2 1 1 v'2 dv'v'dv'v'
3
dt c 2 2
c2 dt' dt'c2
v'
1 2
c
moa mo dv mo v'2 dv' dv'v'
ma 3 1 2 v'
v 2
v 2 dt
2 2
c dt' dt'c2
1 2 1 2 v'
c c 1 2
c
ma mo dv
F ma o 21.51
2 2 dt
1 v2 1 v2
c c
mo v'2 dv' dv'v'
F' 3 1 2 v'
dt'c2
21.52
2 2 c dt '
1 v'
2
c
ma mo dv mo v'2 dv' dv'v'
F ma o F' 3 1 2 v'
dt'c2
21.53
2 2
2 2 dt c dt'
v
1 2 v
1 2 1 v'
c c 2
c
Ek F.dr F'. dr' k
2
rˆ dr' 21.54
r
mo v'2 dv' dv' v'
mo dv dr
dr' k2 rˆdr' 21.55
Ek F.dr F'.dr' 2 dt 1 2
3 dt'
v'
dt' 2
v'2 2
c c r
1 v2 1 2
c
c
mo mo v'2 dr'
dr'v' k rˆdr'
Ek dv dr
dt'c2 r2
3 1 dv' v'dv'
2 dt 2 2 c2 dt'
1 v2 v'
c 1 2
c
v'2
Ek
mo
dvv
mo v'v' k
3 1 2 dv'v'v'dv' 2 2 dr
1 v'2 2 c c r
2
1 v2
c 2
c
movdv mo v'2 v'2 k dr
Ek
c2 r2
3 1 2 dv'v'v'dv'
1 v'2 2 c
2
1 v2
c 2
c
133/203
movdv mov'dv' v'2 v'2 k
Ek 3 1 2 2 2 dr
2 2 c c r
2
1 v2 1 v'
c 2
c
k k
movdv mov'dv' movdv mov'dv'
Ek 3 dr dEk 3 dr 21.56
2 r2 2 r2
1 v2 1 v'2 2 1 v2 1 v'2 2
c 2 c 2
c c
2 moc2
Ek moc2 1 v2 k constante 21.57
c 2 r
1 v'2
c
2
moc2
ER moc2 1 v2 k constante ER k constante 21.58
c r 2 r
1 v'2
c
moc2 m v'2 moc2
ER k moc2 o k ER k moc2 21.59
2 r
1 v'2
2 r 0
1 2
2
c c
1 ER k 1 21.60
2 moc2 moc2 r
1 v'2
c
ER GM m GM
H A k 2 o 2o 2o 21.61
moc2 moc moc c
3
1 H A 1 1 1
3 H A 21.62
r 1 v'2 2 r
2
1 v'2
c 2
c
L' r'v' rrˆ dr rˆr
d ˆ 2 d ˆ ˆ 2 d ˆ
r
dt'
r r k 21.63
dt' dt' dt'
d d d
L' r'v' r v 2 rrˆ 1 2 drrˆr ˆ 1 2 r2 rˆˆ r2 kˆ
21.63
1 v 2 1 v2 dt dt 1 v dt dt'
c c c2
d d
L' r2 k L'kˆ L' r2 21.64
dt' dt'
k kˆ
movdv mov'dv'
dEk 3 2 dr 2 rdr' 21.56
2 r r
1 v2 1 v'2 2
c 2
c
134/203
dEk mo
F'v' dv' 2 rˆ ' k2rˆv'
k dr
3 v'
dt' 1 v'2 2 dt' r dt' r
2
c
moa'
F' 3 k2 rˆ 21.65
1 v'2 2 r
2
c
mo d 2r d 2 dr d d 2 ˆ k ˆ
F' 3 2 r rˆ 2 r 2r
2 21.66
2 2
1 v' dt ' dt' dt'dt' dt ' r
2
c
mo dr d d 2 ˆ
F'ˆ 2 r 2 zero
3 21.67
2 2 dt'dt' dt '
1 v'
2
c
mo d 2r d 2 k
F'rˆ 3 2
r rˆ 2 rˆ 21.68
1 v'2 2 dt' dt' r
2
c
1 d 2r d 2 GMo
3 2
r rˆ 2 rˆ
2 2 dt'
1 v' dt' r
2
c
d L' dr L'dw d2r L'2 d2w d 2 2L'2 dw
21.69
dt' r2 dt' d dt'2 r2 d2 dt'2 r3 d
1 L'2 d 2w L'2 GMo
3 2 r 2 2
2 2 r d
2
1 v' r r
2
c
1 L'2 d 2w L'2 GMo
3
2 2 3 r2
2 2 r d r
1 v'
2
c
1 d2w 1 L'2 GMo
3 2 r r2 r2
2 2 d
1 v'
2
c
1 d2w 1 GMo
3 2 r 21.70
2 2 d L'2
1 v'
2
c
135/203
3
d 2w 1 GM o
H A 1 2 2 21.71
r d r L'
§25 Logarithmic Spiral continued
3
d 2 w 1 GM o
H A1
d2 r L' 2 21.71
r
1
3
d 2 w 1 GM o
HA
r d2 r L' 2
1
3
d2w 1 ER GM o GM o
HA H
r d2 r B moc2
A
c2
B
L' 2
1
3
d2w 1
HA
r d2 r B zero
3 2 1 B zero
H 3H A 1 3HA 12 A 13 d w
2 2 3
r r r d2 r
H 3H A 1 3HA 12 A 13 H 3H A 1 3HA 12 A 13 zero
3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
r r r r r r
3 2
2 1 d w 1
H 3AH 2 B zero
r d r
H 3
2
3AH 2 w d w2
w B zero
d
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3
w 3AH 2d w
2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero
d d
dw QsenQ d 2 w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
The first hypothesis to obtain a particular solution of the differential equation is to assume the infinite radius
r , thus obtaining:
d w Q cosQ Q cosQ Q
2 2 2 2
w 1 1 1 cosQ zero cosQ 1 2
r D d D D D
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3
w 3AH 2d w
2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero
d d
d2 w Q
2
ER moc2
w zero H 1
d2 D m o c 2 m oc 2
136/203
2 2
13 Q 13zero 3A12 Q zero 3A12 zero2 B zero
D D
Q2
B zero DQ2
DB zero
D D
Q2 1 zero Q2 1
This result shows that in infinity the influence of the central mass is zero M o zero .
The second hypothesis to obtain another particular solution of the differential equation is obtained by
observing that the angle Q of the equation cosQ 1 indicates the direction of the infinite radius
2
r where the influence of the central mass is zero M o zero and Q 1 therefore the direction of the
center of mass is given by the angle Q that replaced in the equation cosQ 1 results in the
new equation cosQ 1 that indicates direction opposite the direction of the infinite radius which is
the direction of the center of mass.
cosQ 1 cosQ cosQ cosQ 1 cosQ 1
d2w Q cosQ Q cosQ Q
2 2 2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 1 11 2
r D D D d2 D D D
d2 w Q moc2
2
ER
w 2 H 1
D d2 D m o c 2 m oc 2
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3 w 3AH 2 d w2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero
d d
2
13 Q 13 2 3A12 Q 2 3A12 2 B zero
2 2
D D D D D
2
Q2 2 Q2 2 3A 2 B zero
3A
D D D D D
Q2 2 Q2 2
3A 3A 24 2 B zero
D D D D D
Q2 2 6AQ2 12A
B zero
D D 2D2 2D2
2
DQ 2D D6AQ D12A
2
DGM o DGM o
2 2 2 2 DB zero DB 1
D D D D L'2 DGM o
2 6AQ2 12A
Q 2 1 zero
D D
2 6AQ2 12A
Q 1 zero
D D
137/203
2 1 12A
6AQ D
1 12A
2 2
Q Q
D D 1 A6
D
Applying the results of the second hypothesis in the differential equation:
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3 w 3AH 2 d w2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero
d d
dw QsenQ d 2 w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
Q 2 cosQ 3 1 2 Q cosQ 1
2
H3 H 1 cos Q 3AH D 1 cosQ
D D D
2
3AH 2 1 1 cosQ B zero
D
cosQ Q2 cosQ 1 Q2 cosQ 1
H 3Q2 H 3 1 H 3 1 cosQ 3AH 2 3AH 2 cosQ
D D D D D D D
D
3AH 2 21 2 1 2 cosQ 2 cos2 Q B zero
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
1 2cosQ 2 cos2 Q B zero
2
3AH
2 2
D
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
2 2 2
3AH
2 2
3AH
2 2
2cosQ 3AH
2 2
2 cos2 Q B zero
D D D
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
6AH 2 cosQ 3AH 2 cos Q B zero
2 2
3AH
2 D2 D D D2
H 3Q 2 cosQ H 3 H 3 cosQ 3AH Q cosQ 3AH Q cos Q
2 2 2 2 2
3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D D 3AH 2 D2
6AH 2 cosQ 3AH 2 cos Q B zero
2 2
3AH
3AH 2 2 D 2 3AH 2 D D 3AH 2 D2 3AH 2
HQ 2 cosQ cosQ Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H H Q2
3A D 3AD 3A D D D D2
cosQ cos Q 2
21 2 2 B 2 zero
D D D D 2
3AH
138/203
cos2 Q 2 cos Q HQ cosQ
2 2
H cosQ Q cosQ
2
Q
D2 D2 3A D 3A D D D
cosQ
2 H 21 2 B 2 zero
D D 3AD D 3AH
2
Q HQ2 Q 2 2 cosQ
1 Q2 cos H H 21 2 B 2 zero
D2 3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AH
ER moc2
H 1
m o c 2 m oc 2
2 2
cos Q ( 1)Q ( 1) Q 2 cosQ ( 1) 1
2
1 Q
2
B zero
2 3A 3A D D D 3A D 2 2 2
D D 3A( 1)
2 2 2
cos Q Q
2 1 Q 2 cosQ 1 1 B zero
1 Q
2 3A 3A D D D 3AD 2 D 2 3A
D
2 2 2
cos Q Q
2 1 Q 2 cosQ 1 1 DB zero
1 Q
2 3A 3A D D D 3AD 2 D 2 3AD
D
DGM o DGM o
DB 1
L'2 DGM o
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 1 21 2 1 zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AD
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 21 2 zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D D
1 12A
zero r(Q) Mo zero Q D
1 A6
D
1 12A 2 1 12A 1 12A
1 D cos Q 1 D
1 1 D 2 cosQ 1 zero
1 6A D2 3A 1 6A 3A D 1 6A D D 2D2
D D D
1 6A 1 12A cos2Q 1 1 12A 1 1 6A 1 1 12A 2 1 6A cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D D2 3A D 3A D D D D D D 2D2 D
1 6A 1 12A cos2Q 1 1 12A 1 1 6A 1 1 12A 2 2 6A cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D D2 3A 3A D 3A 3A D D D D D D D D 2D2 2D2 D
6A cos2Q 1 cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D2 D D 2D2 2D2 D
139/203
2
1 1 4 6A 21 2 21 2 6A
cosQ D D D D D D
D 2 6A
D
1 1 24A 1 1 6A
cosQ D 2D2 D 2D2 2D2 D
D 12A
D
1 1 24A 1 24A 1 6A
cosQ D 2D2 D 2D2 D 2D2 D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 24A 24A 6A
cosQ D D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 212A 144A2
cosQ D D D 2D2
D 12A
D
2
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 12A
cosQ D D
D 12A
D
cosQ 1
D D
140/203
Where applying the result of the second hypothesis cosQ 1 cosQ 1 :
11 1
D D
That it is an identity demonstrating that the result of the second hypothesis is correct.
1 12A
GMo
Q D 1 6A Q2 1 6A
2
A
1 6A D D c2
D
D a1 2 57.909.227.000,001 0,205635932 55.460.469.568,40
GM o 6,6740831.1011.1,9891.1030
A 1.477,089.535.42
c2 2,99792458.108 2
1 12A
Q D 0,999.999.920.1 Q 1 6A 0,999.999.920.1
1 A6 D
D
-14
1,276.789.102.53
1.296.000,00
.Q 1.296.000,00 Q1 Advance Q1 Retrocess
Q
1 11.296.000,00 zero Advance zero Retrocess
Q
1 11.296.000,00 0,103.549.893.544"
1
1 12A 2
D
1 6A
D
1
1 1 1.296.000,00 0,103.549.876.997"
2
1 6A
D
365,256.363.004
N 100. PT 100 415,210.316.139
PM 87,969
.N 0,103.549.893.544 x 415,210.316.139 42,994.984.034.7"
.N 0,103.549.876.997 x 415,210.316.139 42,994.977.164.2"
141/203
Newtonian Energy EN
mou2 k
EN
2 r
2 2 2
d
u2 dr r dr L2
2
dt dt dt r
mo dr 2 L2 k
EN
2 dt r 2 r
2EN dr 2 L2 2k 1
mo dt r 2 mo r
2
dr L2 2k 1 2EN zero
dt r 2 mo r mo
d L dr L dw d 2r L2 d2w d 2 2L2 dw
dt r2 dt d dt2 r2 d2 dt2 r3 d
2
dw L2 2k 1 2EN
L 2 zero
d r mo r mo
2
dw 2E
12 2k2 1 N2 zero
d r moL r moL
2
dw 2E
12 2k2 1 N2 zero
d r moL r moL
2
dw 2E
w 2 2k2 w N2 zero
d moL moL
2E N
x 2k2 y
moL moL2
2
dw
w 2 xw y zero
d
w 1 1 1 cosQ dw QsenQ d2w Q2cosQ
r D d D d2 D
QsenQ 1 1 cosQ x 1 1 cosQ y zero
2 2
D D
D
Q2 1 cos2Q 1 1 2 cosQ 2cos2Q x 1 x 1 cosQ y zero
D2 2D2 D D
142/203
Q2 Q2 cos2Q 1 1 2 cosQ 1 2cos2Q x x cosQ y zero
D2 D2 2D2 2D2 2D2 D D
Q2 Q2 cos2Q 1 2 cosQ cos2Q x x cosQ y zero
D2 D2 2D2 D D D2 D D
cos2Q 2 cos2Q 2 cosQ cosQ Q2 1
Q x 2 2 2 x y zero
D 2
D 2
D D D D D D
1Q2cos 2Q 2 x cosQ Q2
2 2
1 x y zero
D D D D 2D2 D
Newtonian Energy EN
1 Q cos Q x 2D cosDQ Q
2 2
21 2 x y zero
2
2 2
D D D D
cosQ 1
r Q 1 w 1 1 1 cosQ zero
r D D D
1Q2 1D 1D x 2D 1D Q2
2
1 x y zero
2 2
D D D
1Q2
2
1 x 2 Q 1 x y zero
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
D D D D D D
2 2
1 Q x 2 Q 1 x y zero
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
D D D D D D D
Q2 Q2
2 2
2 24 2 2x y zero Q2 1
D D D D
21 2 12 24 2 2x y zero
D D D D
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 D2 D2 42 D2 2x D D y zero
2 2
D D D D
1 2 4 2xD 2D2y zero
x 2
D
y
2E N 2
L DGM
a D
1 1 2 1
m o L2
1 4 2 2 D D y zero 1 2 2D2y zero
2 2 2
D
2E N 2 2 2 2E N
1 2 2 D 2 zero 1 D zero
m o L2 moDGM o
2
1 D
2E N
GM o mo
zero
D
1 2 1 2 E N
k
EN k
2a
143/203
§27 Advancement of Perihelion of Mercury of 42.99” "contour Conditions"
Let us start from the equation expressing the equilibrium of forces:
moa'
F' 3 k2 rˆ 21.65
1 v'2 2 r
2
c
On the right side we have the gravitational force 𝑟̂ defined by Newton, on the left side we have the
⃗
physical description of Force 𝐹⃗ = of the Undulating Relativity.
The physical properties of equation 21.65 require its validity when its radius varies from a radius greater than
zero to an infinite radius, so the radius varies from 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 < 𝑟 ≤ ∞, and so we have two distinct boundary
conditions. The first boundary condition is when the radius is infinite 𝑟 = ∞ and the gravitational force is zero,
which means that the particle is at rest with 𝑣′ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 and 𝑎⃗ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 and the second boundary condition is
when the radius is greater which is zero and smaller than infinity 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 < 𝑟 < ∞ which means that the particle
is in motion due to the influence of a gravitational force 21.65 with 𝑣′ ≠ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 and 𝑎⃗ ≠ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
In §26 following the calculations is substituted in 21.65, the equality, 21.62, 21.69 and
ER GM o GM o
H A B , more 𝑤 = .
moc2 c2 L' 2
After these substitutions we obtain the differential equation:
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3
w 3AH 2d w
2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero 27.1
d d
This equation has to be valid for the same boundary conditions as equation 21.65, that is, it has to be valid
from a radius r greater than zero (𝑟 > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜) to an infinite radius (𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 < 𝑟 ≤ ∞). Your solution is given by:
w 1 1 1 cosQ 27.2
r D
Which should cover the two contour conditions already described.
Applying solution 27.2 in differential equation 27.1 we have:
2 2
H3 d w2
H 3 w 3AH 2 d w2
w 3AH 2 w 2 B zero
d d
dw QsenQ d 2 w Q cosQ
2
w 1 1 1 cosQ 21.38
r D d D d2 D
Q 2 cosQ 3 1 2 Q cosQ 1
2
H3 H 1 cos Q 3AH D 1 cosQ
D D D
2
3AH 2 1 1 cosQ B zero
D
cosQ Q2 cosQ 1 Q2 cosQ 1
H 3Q2 H 3 1 H 3 1 cosQ 3AH 2 3AH 2 cosQ
D D D D D D D
D
3AH 2 21 2 1 2 cosQ 2 cos2 Q B zero
144/203
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
1 2cosQ 2 cos2 Q B zero
2
3AH
2 2
D
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
2
3AH 3AH 2 2cosQ 3AH 2 2 cos2 Q B zero
2 D2 2 D 2 2 D2
cosQ H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ cos2 Q
H 3Q 2 H3 3AH 2 Q 2
D D D D D D2
6AH 2 cosQ 3AH 2 cos Q B zero
2 2
3AH
2 D2 D D D2
H 3Q 2 cosQ H 3
H 3 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cosQ 3AH 2 Q 2 cos2 Q
3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D 3AH 2 D D 3AH 2 D2
6AH 2 cosQ 3AH 2 cos Q B zero
2 2
3AH
3AH 2 2 D 2 3AH 2 D D 3AH 2 D2 3AH 2
HQ 2 cosQ H H cosQ Q 2 cosQ 2 cos Q
2
Q
3A D 3AD 3A D D D D2
cosQ cos Q 2
21 2 2 B 2 zero
D D D D 2
3AH
cos2 Q 2 cos Q HQ cosQ
2 2
H cosQ Q cosQ
2
Q
D2 D2 3A D 3A D D D
cosQ
2 H 21 2 B 2 zero
D D 3AD D 3AH
2
Q HQ2 Q 2 2 cosQ
1 Q2 cos H H 21 2 B 2 zero
D2 3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AH
ER moc2
H 1
m o c 2 m oc 2
2 2
cos Q ( 1)Q ( 1) Q 2 cosQ ( 1) 1
2
1 Q
2
B zero
2 3A 3A D D D 3A D 2 2 2
D D 3A ( 1)
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 1 21 2 B zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3A
2 2 2
cos Q Q Q cosQ
1 2 1 21 2 DB zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AD
DGM o DGM o
DB 1
L'2 DGM o
145/203
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 1 21 2 1 zero
2
1 Q
D
2
3A 3A D D D 3AD D 3AD
2 2 2
cos Q Q
2 1 Q 2 cosQ 1 zero
1 Q 27.3
2 3A 3A D D D 2 2
D D
This equation must have solution for the same two contour conditions of 21.65.
Solution of 27.3 for the first boundary condition which is when the radius is infinite r = ∞, and the
gravitational force is zero which means that the particle is at rest and we have
𝑣′ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 and 𝑎⃗ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
Applying Q2 1 in 27.3 we get:
(∅ ) (∅ )
(1 − 1 ) + − − + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
(∅)
+ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝜀= (∅)
27.4
Equation 27.4 is exactly equal to the result of equation 27.2 when the radius is infinite 𝑟 = ∞, w = zero and Q
= 1, as shown in 27.5:
(∅)
𝑤= = [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] = [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅1)] = + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 27.5
Therefore in 27.4 we have an exact result that describes how in infinity the eccentricity ε is related to the
angle ∅ of the infinite radius of the particle, being 𝜀 ≥ 1 which means that the motion from infinity will be or
parabolic with 𝜀 = 1 or hyperbolic with 𝜀 > 1. Note that by definition 𝜀 > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
Solution of 27.3 for the second boundary condition which is when the radius is greater than zero and less
than infinity 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 < 𝑟 < ∞ which means that the particle is in motion due to the influence of a gravitational
force with 𝑣′ ≠ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 and 𝑎⃗ ≠ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
Applying 𝑄 = in 27.3 we have:
2 2 2
cos Q Q 1 Q cosQ
2 21 2 zero
2
1 Q 27.3
D
2
3A 3A D D D D
1 12A 2 1 12A 1 12A
1 D cos Q 1 D 1 1 D 2 cosQ 1 zero
1 6A D2 3A 1 6A 3A D 1 6A D D 2D2
D D D
1 6A 1 12A cos2Q 1 1 12A 1 1 6A 1 1 12A 2 1 6A cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D D2 3A D 3A D D D D D D 2D2 D
1 6A 1 12A cos2Q 1 1 12A 1 1 6A 1 1 12A 2 2 6A cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D D2 3A 3A D 3A 3A D D D D D D D D 2D2 2D2 D
6A cos2Q 1 cosQ 1 1 6A zero
D D2 D D 2D2 2D2 D
146/203
2
1 1 4 6A 21 2 21 2 6A
cosQ D D D D D D
D 2 6A
D
1 1 24A 1 1 6A
cosQ D 2D2 D 2D2 2D2 D
D 12A
D
1 1 24A 1 24A 1 6A
cosQ D 2D2 D 2D2 D 2D2 D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 24A 24A 6A
cosQ D D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 212A 144A2
cosQ D D D 2D2
D 12A
D
2
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 1 1 12A
cosQ D D D D
D 12A
D
1 12A
cosQ D D
D 12A
D
cosQ 1
D D
147/203
(∅ )
− + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝜀= (∅ )
27.6
In the theory of conic for hyperbole we have 𝜀 = , equating to 27.6 we have 𝜀 = = (∅ )
This results
𝑎 = 𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)) which is the correct formula, of the greater half axis of hyperbola.
Therefore in 27.6 we have an exact result that describes how in the course of 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 < 𝑟 < ∞ the eccentricity ε
is related to the angle ∅ of the particle, being 𝜀 ≥ 1 which means that the motion will be or parabolic with
𝜀 = 1 or hyperbolic with 𝜀 > 1. Note that by definition 𝜀 > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
§28 Simplified Periellium Advance
Perihelion Retrogression 𝐐>𝟏
Imagine that the sun and Mercury are two particles, with the Sun being at the origin of a coordinate system
and Mercury lying at a point A on the xy plane. The vector radius r⃗ = rr connecting the origin to point A will
describe Mercury's motion in the xy plane.
In the description of the movement of the planet Mercury to the observer O' corresponds to the variables with
line for the observer O as without line being used a single radius r⃗ = rr and a single coordinate system for
both observers.
Time t' is a function of time t that is t′ = t′(t) and time t is a function of time t' that is t = t (t ').
dt = dt′ 1 + dt′ = dt 1 − 21.02
1− 1+ =1 21.03
v′ = v= 21.04
dt > 𝑑t′ v′ > v vdt = v′𝑑t′ 21.05
r⃗ = rr 𝑑r⃗ = drr + rdr 𝑟̂ . 𝑑r⃗ = drr. r + rr. dr = 𝑑𝑟 28.01
The radius can be considered a function of time t′ = t′(t) ie r⃗ = 𝑟⃗(t′) = 𝑟⃗[t′(t)] or it can be considered a
function of time t = t(t′) ie r⃗ = 𝑟⃗(t) = 𝑟⃗[t(t′)].
r⃗ = r⃗(t′) = r⃗[t′(t)] r⃗ = r⃗(t) = r⃗[t(t′)] 28.02
⃗ ∅ ⃗ ∅
v⃗′ = = r+r ∅ v⃗ = = r+r ∅
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
v⃗ = = = = v⃗ = = = =
⃗ ⃗
v⃗′ = v⃗ = 28.03
⃗ ⃗ ( ) ∅ ∅ ∅
𝑎⃗ = = = = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ 28.04
⃗ ⃗ ( ) ∅ ∅ ∅
𝑎⃗′ = = = = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ 28.05
Both speeds and accelerations are positive.
⃗ ⃗
𝑎⃗ = =
148/203
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐹⃗ = = F⃗ = 1− +v 28.06
𝐸 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ′. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ − 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ 28.07
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐸 =∫ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 1− +v . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ − 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐸 =∫ =∫ = ∫− 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = = =− 𝑑𝑟 28.08
𝐸 =𝑚 c 1+ = = + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑚 c 1+ − =𝑚 c 28.09
𝐸 = − =𝑚 c = 1+ = 1+𝐴 28.10
In this first variant relativistic kinetic energy is greater than inertial energy > 𝑚 c .This causes
Mercury's perihelion to recede. The planet seems heavier due to the movement.
⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ . = = =− 𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑟̂ .
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ . v⃗ = = =− 𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑟̂ . v⃗
⃗ .⃗ ⃗. ⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ . v⃗ = = =− 𝑟̂ . v⃗ 𝐹⃗ = =− 𝑟̂ 28.11
∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ =− 𝑟̂
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗∅ = 2 +r ∅ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟 = 2𝑟 +r = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
𝐹⃗ ̂ = −r 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂
∅
−r =−
∅
= = −L =
∅ ∅
−r =−
∅
+r =
∅
+ = 𝐴= 𝐵=
∅
149/203
= 1+𝐴 = 1 + 3𝐴 + 3𝐴 +𝐴 ≅ 1 + 3𝐴 3𝐴 +𝐴 ≅ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
1 + 3𝐴 + =𝐵 28.12
∅
1 + 3𝐴 + 1 + 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
+ 3𝐴 + + 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅ ∅
+ 3𝐴 𝑤 + w + 3𝐴𝑤 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅ ∅
+ w + 3𝐴 𝑤 + 3𝐴𝑤 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 28.13
∅ ∅
(∅ ) (∅ )
𝑤= = [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] = =
∅ ∅
(∅ ) (∅ )
+ [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] + 3𝐴 [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] + 3𝐴 [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ )
−𝑄 + + − 3𝐴𝑄 − 3𝐴𝑄 + + + 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
(3𝐴 − 3𝐴𝑄 ) + 1 − 𝑄 − 3𝐴𝑄 + + + − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
− + − − + + + − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝜀𝐷𝐵 = = =1
(∅ ) (∅ )
(1 − 𝑄 ) + − − + + + − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
(1 − 𝑄 ) + − − + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑄 = 28.14
(∅ ) (∅ )
1− + − − + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
6A 12A 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (∅𝑄) 1 6A 1 12A 1 12A 2 6A 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)
1+ −1− + 1+ − 1+ − 1+ + 1+
𝜀𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝐷 3𝐴 𝜀𝐷 3𝐴 𝜀𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝐷
1 6A
+ 1+ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝜀 𝐷 𝜀𝐷
(∅ ) (∅ )
− + + − − − − + + + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
− + − + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
6A + − − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) ± .
=
.
(∅ ) ±
=
.
(∅ ) ±
=
150/203
(∅ ) ±
=
(∅ )
= =
(∅ )
= 𝜀− (∅ )
= 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 28.15
For hyperbole eccentricity (𝜀) is defined as 𝜀 = (∅ )
where (∅) is the angle of the asymptote.
Advance of the Periellium 𝐐<𝟏
dt = dt′ 1 + dt′ = dt 1 − dt > 𝑑𝑡′
1− 1+ =1
v= v′ = v′ > v
r⃗ = rr 𝑑r⃗ = drr + rdr 𝑟̂ . 𝑑r⃗ = drr. r + rr. dr = 𝑑𝑟
⃗ ∅ ⃗ ∅
v⃗ = = r+r ∅ v⃗′ = = r+r ∅
⃗ ⃗
v⃗ = v⃗′ =
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂) ∅ ∅ ∅
𝑎⃗ = = = = −r r+ 2 +r ∅
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂) ∅ ∅ ∅
𝑎⃗′ = = = = −r r+ 2 +r ∅
⃗ ⃗
𝑎⃗ = =
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐹⃗ = = 𝐹⃗ ′ = 1+ − v′ 28.16
𝐸 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ′. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ − 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐸 =∫ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 1+ − v′ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ − 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐸 =∫ =∫ = ∫− 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐹⃗ ′. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = = =− 𝑑𝑟 28.17
𝐸 = −𝑚 c 1− =− = + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒 𝐸 = −𝑚 c 1− − = −𝑚 c 28.18
𝐸 =− − = −𝑚 c = 1− = 1−𝐴 28.19
In this second variant relativistic kinetic energy is smaller than inertial energy < 𝑚 c .This causes the
advance of Mercury's perihelion. The planet really is lighter due to movement.
151/203
⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ ′. = = =− =− 𝑟̂ .
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ ′. v⃗′ = = =− 𝑟̂ . v⃗′
⃗. ⃗ ⃗ .⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ ′. v⃗′ = = =− 𝑟̂ . v⃗′ 𝐹⃗ ′ = =− 𝑟̂ 28.20
∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ ′ = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ =− 𝑟̂
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ ′∅ = 2 +r ∅ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟 = 2𝑟 +r = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
𝐹⃗ ′ ̂ = −r 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂
∅
−r =−
∅
= = −L′ =
∅ ∅
−r =−
∅
+r =
∅
+ = 𝐴= 𝐵=
∅
= 1−𝐴 = 1 − 3𝐴 + 3𝐴 −𝐴 ≅ 1 − 3𝐴 3𝐴 −𝐴 ≅ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
1 − 3𝐴 + =𝐵 28.21
∅
1 − 3𝐴 + 1 − 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
− 3𝐴 + − 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅ ∅
− 3𝐴 𝑤 + w − 3𝐴𝑤 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅ ∅
+ w − 3𝐴 𝑤 − 3𝐴𝑤 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 28.22
∅ ∅
(∅ ) (∅ )
𝑤= = [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] = =
∅ ∅
−𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄) 1 −𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄) 1 1
+ [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] − 3𝐴 [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] − 3𝐴 [1 + 𝜀𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅𝑄)] − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝐷 𝜀𝐷 𝜀𝐷
152/203
(∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ )
−𝑄 + + + 3𝐴𝑄 + 3𝐴𝑄 − + + 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ ) (∅ )
−𝑄 + + + 3𝐴𝑄 + 3𝐴𝑄 − − − 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
(3𝐴𝑄 − 3𝐴) + 1 − 𝑄 + 3𝐴𝑄 − + − − 𝐵 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
− + − + − + − − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
(𝑄 − 1) + − +𝑄 − + − − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝜀𝐷𝐵 = = =1
(∅ ) (∅ )
(1 − 𝑄 ) + − + −𝑄 + − + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
(1 − 𝑄 ) + − + −𝑄 + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑄 = 28.23
(∅ ) (∅ )
1− + − + − + + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
1− −1+ + − 1− + 1− − 1− + 1− + 1− =
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
+ − + + − − + + − + − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
+ − + − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) (∅ )
6A − + − = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
(∅ ) ± .
=
.
(∅ ) ±
=
.
(∅ ) ±
=
(∅ ) ±
=
(∅ )
= =
(∅ )
= 𝜀− (∅ )
= 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 28.24
For hyperbole eccentricity (𝜀) is defined as 𝜀 = (∅ )
where (∅) is the angle of the asymptote.
153/203
The movements of the ellipses will focus F '(left) on the origin of the frame.
.
All ellipses are described by the equation 𝑟 = 𝑟(𝑡) = ( )
= ( )
= ( )
In these the angle
.
vector radius (tQ), indicates the position of the planet Mercury in all ellipses, the movement of Mercury in the
ellipses is counterclockwise, with the value of Q being the cause of perihelion advancement or retraction.
The first ellipse in blue represents retrogression of the perihelion, where we have Q = 1.1.
The second red ellipse represents the advancement of the perihelion, in this we have Q = 0.9. In this ellipse
the perihelion and aphelion advance in the trigonometric sense, that is, counterclockwise which is the same
direction as the planet's movement in the ellipse.
The fifth ellipse in green represents a stationary ellipse Q = 1.
154/203
29 Yukawa Potential Energy
Newton's gravitational potential energy E
F⃗ = − r F = F⃗ = F⃗. F⃗ = − r − r = rr = =
F⃗ = −Fr E =− F= = k zero
F⃗ = − r=− r
Yukawa potential energy E
E = −k = −kr e k zero 𝑎 ≥ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 29.01
Potential Core Energy𝐸
Breaking apart E = −k we get:
E = −k = − =𝐸 𝐶 𝐶 = k zero 𝑎 ≥ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
a = zero → C = 1 → E = 𝐸 r = ∞ → E = zero
dE d dr dr
= (−kr e ) = −k (−1)r e + (r )e −a
dr dr dr dr
dE d e e
= (−kr e ) = −k(−r e − ar e )=k + ak
dr dr r r
dE d e e e
= −k = 𝑘 + ak
dr dr 𝑟 r r
e e e e
𝐸 = dE = d −k = 𝑘 + ak 𝑑𝑟 = − k + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒
𝑟 r r 𝑟
F⃗ = − r = −k +a r Attractive force
⃗ ⃗
F⃗ = ma⃗ = = 21.51
⃗ ⃗
F⃗′ = ma⃗′ = = 21.15
First variant.
⃗
F⃗ = = −k +a r 21.51
⃗
E = ∫ F⃗. dr⃗ = ∫ . dr⃗ = ∫ −k +a r . dr⃗
⃗
E = ∫ F⃗. dr⃗ = ∫ dv⃗ . = ∫ −k +a dr
E = ∫ F⃗. dr⃗ = ∫ dv⃗ . v⃗ = − ∫ 𝑘 + ak dr
E = ∫ F⃗. dr⃗ = ∫ = −∫ 𝑘 + ak dr dE = F⃗. dr⃗ = = −k +a dr
155/203
v e
E = −m c 1− = − −𝑘 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒
c 𝑟
E = −m c 1− =k + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒 E = −m c 1− =k −m c
( )
E = −m c 1− −k = −m c E = −m c 1− −k = −m c
1− = − 𝐴=
1− =1−A
m vdv e e
dE = F⃗. dr⃗ = = −k +a dr
v r r
1−
c
dv
dE dr⃗ m v
= F⃗. = 𝑑𝑡 = −k e +a
e
𝑟̂
dr⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 v r r 𝑑𝑡
1−
c
dv⃗
dE m v⃗
= F⃗. v⃗ = 𝑑𝑡 = −k e +a
e
𝑟̂ v⃗
𝑑𝑡 v r r
1−
c
m a⃗ e e
F⃗ = = −k +a 𝑟̂
v r r
1−
c
∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ = −k +a 𝑟̂
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗∅ = 2 +r ∅ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟 = 2𝑟 +r = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
F⃗ ̂ = −𝑟 𝑟̂ = −k +a 𝑟̂
∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1−
∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1−
∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1−A
∅
= = −L =
∅ ∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1−A
∅
+ = 𝑟 +a 1−A 𝐵=
∅
+ = B𝑟 +a 1−A 𝐵=
∅
156/203
+ = Be 1−A + aBre 1−A
∅
+ = Be − ABe + aBre − aABre
∅
+ = Be − AB + aBre − aABe w= 𝑟=w
∅
+ w = Be − ABwe + aBw e − aABe
∅
+ w = Be + aBw e − ABwe − aABe
∅
+ w = (1 + aw )Be − (w + a)ABe
∅
+ w = (1 + aw ) − (w + a)Ae Be
∅
r= (∅)
w = = 𝑄cos(∅) = −𝑄sen(∅) = −𝑄cos(∅)
∅ ∅
−𝑄cos(∅) + 𝑄cos(∅) = (1 + aw ) − (w + a)Ae Be
zero = (1 + aw ) − (w + a)Ae Be
(1 + aw ) − (w + a)Ae = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 w = = 𝑄cos(∅) 𝑟=w = (∅)
1+ (∅)
− [𝑄cos(∅) + a]Ae = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄cos(∅) 1 + (∅)
− 𝑄cos(∅)[𝑄cos(∅) + a]Ae = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄cos(∅) + a − 𝑄 cos (∅)Ae − 𝑄cos(∅)aAe = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
−𝑄cos(∅) − a + 𝑄 cos (∅)Ae + 𝑄cos(∅)aAe = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄 cos (∅)Ae − 𝑄cos(∅) + 𝑄cos(∅)aAe − 𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄 cos (∅)Ae − 𝑄cos(∅) 1 − aAe − 𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄 cos (∅)Ae − 𝑄cos(∅) 1 − aAe − 𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
1 − aAe ± 1 − aAe − 4Ae (−𝑎)
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 − aAe ± 1 − 2aAe +a A e + 4𝑎Ae
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 − aAe ± 1 + 2aAe +a A e
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 − aAe ± 1 + aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 − aAe ± 1 + aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
157/203
1 − aAe − 1 − aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
−aAe − aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
w = = 𝑄cos(∅) = = = −𝑎 𝑟= E = constante
dE d e e e
= −k = 𝑘 + ak = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
dr dr 𝑟 r r
𝑘 + ak = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = −a 𝑟= E = constante
E = −k = −kr e = −k(−𝑎)e = ake
1 − aAe ± 1 + aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 − aAe + 1 + aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 2 1
w= = 𝑄cos(∅) = =
𝑟 2Ae Ae
Second variant.
⃗
F⃗′ = = −k +a r 21.15
⃗
E = ∫ F⃗′. dr⃗ = ∫ . dr⃗ = ∫ −k +a r . dr⃗
⃗
E = ∫ F⃗′. dr⃗ = ∫ dv⃗′ = ∫ −k +a dr
E = ∫ F⃗′. dr⃗ = ∫ dv⃗′ . v′⃗ = − ∫ 𝑘 + ak dr
E = ∫ F⃗′. dr⃗ = ∫ = −∫ 𝑘 + ak dr dE = F⃗′. dr⃗ = = −k +a dr
v′ e
E =m c 1+ = − −𝑘 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒
c 𝑟
E =m c 1+ =k + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒 E =m c 1+ =k +m c
( )
E =m c 1+ −k =m c E =m c 1+ −k =m c
1+ = + 𝐴=
1+ =1+A
158/203
m v′dv′ e e
dE = F⃗′. dr⃗ = = −k +a dr
v′ r r
1+
c
dv′
dE dr⃗ m v′
⃗
= F′. = 𝑑𝑡′ = −k e +a
e
𝑟̂
dr⃗
𝑑𝑡′ 𝑑𝑡′ v′ r r 𝑑𝑡′
1+
c
dv⃗′
dE m v⃗′
= F⃗′. v⃗′ = 𝑑𝑡 = −k e +a
e
𝑟̂ v⃗′
𝑑𝑡′ v r r
1+
c
m a⃗′ e e
F⃗′ = = −k +a 𝑟̂
v′ r r
1+
c
∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ ′ = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ = −k +a 𝑟̂
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ ′∅ = 2 +r ∅ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟 = 2𝑟 +r = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
F⃗′ ̂ = −𝑟 𝑟̂ = −k +a 𝑟̂
∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1+
∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1+
∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1+A
∅
= = −L′ =
∅ ∅
−𝑟 =− +a 1+A
∅
+ = 𝑟 +a 1+A 𝐵=
∅
+ = B𝑟 +a 1+A 𝐵=
∅
+ = Be 1+A + aBre 1+A
∅
+ = Be + ABe + aBre + aABre
∅
+ = Be + AB + aBre + aABe w= 𝑟=w
∅
+ w = Be + ABwe + aBw e + aABe
∅
+ w = Be + aBw e + ABwe + aABe
∅
+ w = (1 + aw )Be + (w + a)ABe
∅
159/203
+ w = (1 + aw ) + (w + a)Ae Be
∅
r= (∅)
w = = 𝑄cos(∅) = −𝑄sen(∅) = −𝑄cos(∅)
∅ ∅
−𝑄cos(∅) + 𝑄cos(∅) = (1 + aw ) + (w + a)Ae Be
zero = (1 + aw ) + (w + a)Ae Be
(1 + aw ) + (w + a)Ae = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 w = = 𝑄cos(∅) 𝑟=w = (∅)
1+ (∅)
+ [𝑄cos(∅) + a]Ae = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄cos(∅) 1 + (∅)
+ 𝑄cos(∅)[𝑄cos(∅) + a]Ae = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄cos(∅) + a + 𝑄 cos (∅)Ae + 𝑄cos(∅)aAe = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄 cos (∅)Ae + 𝑄cos(∅) + 𝑄cos(∅)aAe + 𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑄 cos (∅)Ae + 𝑄cos(∅) 1 + aAe + 𝑎 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
− 1 + aAe ± 1 + aAe − 4Ae (𝑎)
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
− 1 + aAe ± 1 + 2aAe +a A e − 4𝑎Ae
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
− 1 − aAe ± 1 − 2aAe +a A e
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
− 1 − aAe ± 1 − aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
− 1 − aAe ± 1 − aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
1 −1 + aAe + 1 − aAe
𝑤= = 𝑄cos(∅) = = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑟 2Ae
− 1 − aAe ± 1 − aAe
𝑄cos(∅) =
2Ae
𝑄cos(∅) = w = = 𝑄cos(∅) 𝑟=w = (∅)
1 −2 + 2aAe −1 + aAe 1
w= = 𝑄cos(∅) = = =𝑎−
𝑟 2Ae Ae Ae
160/203
§ 29 Yukawa Potential Energy “Continuation”
Newton's gravitational potential energy E
F⃗ = − r F = F⃗ = F⃗. F⃗ = − r − r = rr = =
F⃗ = −Fr E =− F= = k zero
F⃗ = − r=− r
Yukawa potential energy E
E = −k = −kr e k zero a zero
= (−kr e ) = −k (−1)r e + (r )e −a
dE d e e
= (−kr e ) = −k(−r e − ar e ) = k(r e + ar e )=k +a
dr dr r r
dE d e e e
= −k =k +a
dr dr 𝑟 r r
e e e e
𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 d − =𝑘 +a 𝑑𝑟 = − k
𝑟 r r 𝑟
F⃗ = − r = −k +a r Attractive force
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐹⃗ = = 𝐹⃗ ′ = 1+ − v′ 28.16
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐹⃗ = = 𝐹⃗ = 1+ −v = −k +a r
𝐸 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ′. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ −k +a 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐸 =∫ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 1+ − v′ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ −k +a 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐸 =∫ =∫ = ∫ −k +a 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐸 = 𝐹⃗ ′. 𝑑𝑟⃗ = = = −k +a 𝑑𝑟 28.17
𝐸 = −𝑚 c 1− =− = − −k + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒 28.18
𝐸 = −𝑚 c 1− −k = −𝑚 c 28.18
𝐸 =− −k = −𝑚 c = 1− = 1−𝐴 28.19
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= 1−𝐴 𝐴= 28.19
⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ . = = = −k +a = −k +a 𝑟̂ .
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
= 𝐹⃗ ′. v⃗′ = = = −k +a 𝑟̂ . v⃗′
⃗. ⃗ ⃗ .⃗
= 𝐹⃗ ′. v⃗′ = = = −k +a 𝑟̂ . v⃗′ 28.20
⃗
𝐹⃗ ′ = = −k +a 𝑟̂ 28.20
∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ ′ = −r r+ 2 +r ∅ = −k +a 𝑟̂
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
𝐹⃗ ′∅ = 2 +r ∅ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟 = 2𝑟 +r = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
∅
𝐹⃗ ′ ̂ = −r 𝑟̂ = −k +a 𝑟̂
∅
−r = −k +a
∅
= = −L′ =
∅ ∅
−r =− +a
∅
+r = +a
∅
+ = +a
∅
+ = 𝑟 +a 𝐵=
∅
+ = 𝐵𝑟 +a 𝐵=
∅
= 1−𝐴 = 1 − 3𝐴 + 3𝐴 −𝐴 ≅ 1 − 3𝐴
3𝐴 −𝐴 ≅ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐴=
1 − 3𝐴 + = 𝐵𝑟 +a 28.21
∅
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1 − 3𝐴 + 1 − 3𝐴 = 𝐵𝑟 +a
∅
− 3𝐴 + − 3𝐴 = 𝐵𝑟 +a
∅ ∅
− 3𝐴 + − 3𝐴 = 𝐵e + 𝑟aBe
∅ ∅
− 3𝐴 + − 3𝐴 =𝐵 + aBe 𝑤=
∅ ∅
𝑤 − 3𝐴 e 𝑤 + 𝑤 − 3𝐴e 𝑤 = 𝐵e w + aBe
∅ ∅
𝑤 + 𝑤 = 3𝐴 e 𝑤 + 3𝐴e 𝑤 + 𝐵e w + aBe
∅ ∅
𝑤+𝑤 =e 3𝐴 𝑤 + 3𝐴𝑤 + 𝐵w + aB 28.22
∅ ∅
𝑤 = = 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
= 𝑖𝑥𝑒 ∅ − 𝑖𝑦𝑒 ∅
= −𝑥𝑒 ∅
− 𝑦𝑒 ∅
i = √−1
∅ ∅
𝑑 𝑤
−𝑥𝑒 ∅ − 𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
=e 3𝐴 𝑤 + 3𝐴𝑤 + 𝐵w + aB
𝑑∅
−𝑥𝑒 ∅ − 𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
= −𝑥𝑒 ∅ 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + −𝑥𝑒 ∅ 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ −𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑥𝑒 ∅ + −𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑦𝑒 ∅
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
= −𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑒 =− 𝑥 𝑒 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑒 = − 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑦𝑒
𝑑 𝑤
− 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
=e 3𝐴 𝑤 + 3𝐴𝑤 + 𝐵w + aB
𝑑∅
𝑑 𝑤
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = e 3𝐴 𝑤 + 3𝐴𝑤 + 𝐵w + aB
𝑑∅
𝑑 𝑤
3𝐴 𝑤 + 3𝐴𝑤 + 𝐵w + aB = zero
𝑑∅
3𝐴 −𝑥𝑒 ∅ − 𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ 3𝐴 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ 𝐵 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ aB = zero
3𝐴 −𝑥𝑒 ∅ − 𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
= −3𝐴 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
= −3𝐴 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
−3𝐴 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ 3𝐴 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ 𝐵 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ aB = zero
𝐵 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ aB = zero 𝑥𝑒 ∅
+ 𝑦𝑒 ∅
+ a = zero
1
𝑤= = 𝑥𝑒 ∅ + 𝑦𝑒 ∅
= −a
𝑟
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§ 30 Energy
In §28 simplified calculation of the perihelion retraction we obtain:
E =∫ =∫ = ∫− dr dE = F⃗. dr⃗ = = =− dr 28.08
E =m c 1+ = = + constant E =m c 1+ − =m c 28.09
E = − =m c = 1+ = 1+A 28.10
In this first variant relativistic kinetic energy is greater than inertial energy > m c . This causes
Mercury's perihelion to recede. The planet seems heavier due to the movement.
E =∫ =∫ = ∫− dr 28.08
E =∫ =∫ =∫ − dr
E =m c 1+ = =
( )
E =m c 1+ −m c 1+ = − ( )
= −
E =m c 1+ −m c = −m c = m c 1+ ≥m c ≥m c 30.1
Defining potential energy as E =− : 30.2
And applying in 1 we have E =m c 1+ −m c = − m c = −E 30.3
In 3 we have the energy conservation principle written as E + E = zero 30.4
With 3 the kinetic energy equal to E =m c 1+ −m c = −m c 30.5
n 3 the lowest energy of the system is the inertial energy of rest E =m c 30.6
In 3 the highest energy of the system is E=m c 1+ = 30.7
Now defining p = = m v′ vp = = m vv′ T =m c 1+ T = −m c 1− 30.8
And knowing that E = c m c +p = = +m c 1− = vp − T 30.9
If in 9 m = zero So E = cp. 30.10
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Applying 8 and 9 in 7 we obtain the greatest energy of the written system as:
E = c m c + p = T = vp − T This we have vp = T′ + T 30.7b
With 8 and 9 we can write 3 in the form:
E =m c 1+ −m c = +m c 1− − m c = −E 30.3b
E = T − E = vp − T − E = −E 30.3c
From 3c we can define the resting inertial energy E = m e E = m in the form:
E = T′ + E = m c and E = vp − T + E = m c . 30.11
Defining Lagrangean as L = T − E = −m c 1− + 30.12
This Lagrangian meets = according to §24.
̇
So from 11 temos: E = T′ + E = m c and E = vp − L = m c 30.13
In §28 simplified calculation of perihelion advance we obtain:
E =∫ =∫ = ∫− dr dE = F⃗′. dr⃗ = = =− dr 28.17
E = −m c 1− =− = + constant E = −m c 1− − = −m c 28.18
E =− − = −m c = 1− = 1−A 28.19
In this second variant relativistic kinetic energy is smaller than inertial energy < m c . This causes the
advance of Mercury's perihelion. The planet really is lighter due to movement.
E =∫ =∫ = ∫− dr 28.17
E =∫ =∫ =∫ − dr
E = −m c 1− =− =
( )
E = −m c 1− − −m c 1− =− − − ( )
= −
E = −m c 1− − (−m c ) = − − (−m c ) =
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v m c k
E = −m c 1− +m c = − +m c =
c v r
1+
c
E = m c −m c 1− =m c − = m c ≥m c 1− m c ≥ 30.14
Where applying 2 the definition of potential energy E =− :
We get E = m c −m c 1− =m c − = −E 30.15
In 15 we have the principle of conservation of energy written as E + E = zero.
Being 15 the kinetic energy equal to:
E = m c −m c 1− =m c − 30.16
In 15 the biggest energy of the system is the inertial energy of rest E =m c 30.17
At 15 the lowest energy in the system is E′ = m c 1− = 30.18
Now defining p = =m v vp = = m v′v 30.19
And knowing that E =c m c −p = =− +m c 1+ = −v p + T′ 30.20
If in 20 m = zero so E = icp′ 30.21
Proving 20:
⃓
⃓
⃓
⃓
⃓ ⎛ ⎞
E = = c m c − p = c⃓
⃓m c −⎜ ⎟ =c m c − =m c −
⃓
⃓
⎷ ⎝ ⎠
E = =c m c −p = c 1+ − v′ =
v v
E =m c 1− = c m c − p = c m c − (m v) = c m c − m v = m c c − v = m c 1−
c c
Applying 8, 19 and 20 to 18 results in the lowest energy of the written system as:
E = c m c − p = −T = −v p + T′ This we have v p = T′ + T 30.18b
With 19 and 20 we can write 15 in the form:
166/203
E = m c −m c 1− =m c + −m c 1+ = −E 30.15b
E = E + T = E + v′p′ − T′ = −E 30.15c
From 15c we can define the resting inertial energy E = m e E = m in the form:
E = −T − E = m c and E = −v p + T − E = m c . 30.22
Defining Lagrangean as L =T −E =m c 1+ + 30.23
This Lagrangian meets ̇
= prova no final.
E = −T − E = m c E = −v p + L = m c 30.24
Rewriting 11 e 22:
E = T′ + E = m c and E = vp − T + E = m c . 30.11
E = −T − E = m c and E = −v p + T − E = m c . 30.22
Equating E of 11 with E of 22 we have:
E = vp − T + E = −T − E = m c
This we get vp = −2E −E = = 30.25
Matching −E = the kinetic energy of 3b we have:
E =m c 1+ −m c = +m c 1− − m c = −E = = 30.3d
In 3d we should have:
+m c 1− −m c =
m v +m c 1− −m c 1− = m v
m v +m c −m c −m c 1− = zero
m v +m c −m v −m c 1− = zero
m c − m v −m c 1− = zero
m c 1− −m c 1− = zero
The approximation 1 − ≅ 1− is the cause of Mercury's perihelion setback.
m c 1− −m c 1− = zero Result that proves that E = .
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Equating E of 11 with E of 22 we have:
E = T + E = −v p + T′ − E = m c
This we get v p = −2E −E = = 30.26
Matching−E = the kinetic energy of 15b we have:
E = m c −m c 1− =m c + −m c 1+ = −E = = 30.15d
In 15d we should have:
m c + −m c 1+ =
m c + −m c 1+ = zero
m c 1+ + m v −m c 1+ = zero
m c 1+ + m v −m c −m v = zero
m c 1+ −m c − m v = zero
m c 1+ −m c 1+ = zero
The approximation 1 + ≅ 1+ is the cause of the advance of Mercury's perihelion.
m c 1+ −m c 1+ = zero Result that proves that E = .
From 25 and 26 results vp = v′p′ 30.27
Applying 25 in E of 22:
E = −T − E = −T + =m c 1− + = 1− + 30.28
E = −T − E = −T + = 1− ≅ 1− =m c 30.28
Applying 25 in E of 11:
E = vp − T + E = −T− = −T + Result already obtained on 28.
Applying 26 in E of 11
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E =T +E =T − =m c 1+ − = 1+ − 30.29
E =T +E =T − = 1+ ≅ 1+ =m c 30.29
The approximation that exists in 28 and 29 is the cause of the advance and setback of Mercury's perihelion.
Applying 26 in E of 22
E = −v p + T − E = − +T + =T − Result already obtained on 29.
Proof that ̇
= L′ = T′ − E = m c 1+ +
F′ = ̇
= F′ = ̇
m c 1+ =
v = = ẋ ′ + ẏ + ż ds = |ds| = dx + dy + dz r =x +y +z
F′ = =k (r ) = k(−1)r = −k = −k =
F⃗′ = F′ ı̂ + F′ ȷ̂ + F′ k = −k ı̂ − k ȷ̂ − k k=− xı̂ + yȷ̂ + zk = − r⃗ = − r = 19.01
p′ = ̇
m c 1+ =m c 1+ 2 ̇
= ̇
̇ ̇ ̇
= ̇
ẋ ′ + ẏ + ż = (ẋ ′ + ẏ + ż ) 2x′̇ = =
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
̇ ̇
p′ = ̇
m c 1+ = ̇
= =
̇ ̇
F′ = = = 1+ − ẋ ′ 1+ = ẍ ′ 1 + − ẋ ′ 1+
1+ = 1+ 2 = =
̇
F′ = = = ẍ ′ 1 + − ẋ ′
̇
F′ = = = ẍ ′ 1 + − ẋ ′
F⃗′ = F′ ı̂ + F′ ȷ̂ + F′ k
F⃗′ = ẍ ′ 1 + − ẋ ′ ı̂ + ÿ ′ 1 + − ẏ ′ ȷ̂ + z̈ ′ 1 + − z′ k
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F⃗′ = ẍ ′ 1 + ı̂ − ẋ ′ ı̂ + ÿ ′ 1 + ȷ̂ − ẏ ′ ȷ̂ + z̈ ′ 1 + k − z′ k
F⃗′ = 1+ ẍ ′ı̂ + ÿ ′ȷ̂ + z̈ ′k ı̂ − ẋ ′ + ẏ ′ȷ̂ + z′k
⃗
F⃗′ = 1+ − v⃗′ = 28.16
§30 Energy Continuation Clarifications
With 3d, 6, and 9 we get:
𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 𝐦𝐨 𝐯𝟐 𝐯𝟐 𝟏 𝐦𝐨 𝐯𝟐 𝟏
𝐄𝐤 = 𝐄 − 𝐄𝟎 = − 𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 = + 𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 𝟏 − − 𝐦𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 = = 𝐯𝐩 30.30
𝐯𝟐 𝐯𝟐 𝐜𝟐 𝟐 𝐯𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝐜 𝐜 𝐜
This we get: = 30.31
That applied in 8 results: p= →E = p −m v 30.32
If at 32 m = zero then: E = = vp → v = c 30.33
For a particle with velocity c = λγ and zero resting mass m = zero we have:
E = hγ p= 30.34
Applying c = λγ and 34 in 33 results:
E = = = →E = 30.35
From 34 and 35 we have:
E = 2E 30.36
Applying 36 in 30 we have:
E = E − E → E = 2E − E → E = E = 30.37
Applying E = m c in 37 we obtain:
E =E = =m c →m = = 30.38
With 33 and 38 we get:
E = = m c → 𝑝 = 2m 𝑐 30.39
Clarifications
From 30 and 8 we have E = = vp, E = ,E =m c ,p= 30.40
Let's apply 40 in energy conservation E = E − E 30.41
E =E−E → = −E → m v =m c −E 1− 30.42
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Doing at 42 m = zero we get:
(m = zero)v = (m = zero)c − E 1− → −E 1− = zero 30.43
If in 43 E = zero → −(E = zero) 1 − = zero without any desirable results.
Now if in 43 E ≠ zero → −(E ≠ zero) 1 − = zero → =1→v=c 30.44
In 44 we get v = c regardless of the value of E ≠ zero.
Of 40 we get: = = = 30.45
Of 45 we get: = = = 30.46
But = 1 of 44 was obtained from the conservation of energy E = E − E when m = zero and E ≠ zero
so in 46 we should have = = = =1 30.47
When we have m = zero, v = c and E ≠ zero out of 47 we get
= = 1 → E = 2E equal to 36 30.48
= =1→E = equal to 33 30.49
= = 1 → E = cp equal to 10 30.50
Applying 9 and 32 to the energy conservation equation E = E − E we obtain:
E =E−E → p −m v = c m c + p − E 30.51
In 51 doing m = zero we get:
p − (m = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)v = c (m = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)c + p − E → E = =E equal to 37 30.52
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§31 Quantum mechanics deduction of Erwin Schrödinger's equations
Let's start with the equation 8.5:
/
+ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 8.5
/
+ = + = + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑐= 31.1
+ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.2
The variables involved will be:
𝑐 = 𝜆𝛾 𝑝= 𝐸 = ℎ𝛾 𝐾= 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝛾 31.3
𝑝= = = 𝐾 = ℏ𝐾 𝐸 = ℎ𝛾 = ℎ = ℏ𝜔 ℏ= 31.4
𝑝 = ℏ𝐾 𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 𝐸 = 𝑐𝑝 𝐾= 𝜔 = 𝑐𝐾 31.5
Function construction Ψ:
𝑐 = 𝜆𝛾 = → = 𝛾𝑡 → − 𝛾𝑡 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → 𝑖2π − 𝛾𝑡 = i 𝑥 − 2π𝛾𝑡 = i(𝐾𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.6
e( )
=e =1 i = √−1 i = −1 31.7
Ψ = Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = e ( )
31.8
Some derivatives of the function Ψ=e( )
:
= e( )
(−𝑖𝜔) = −i𝜔Ψ = (−𝑖𝜔)(−𝑖𝜔)e ( )
= −𝜔 Ψ
= −i𝜔Ψ = −𝜔 Ψ 31.9
= e( )
𝑖𝐾 = 𝑖𝐾Ψ = e( )
𝑖𝐾𝑖𝐾 = −𝐾 Ψ
= 𝑖𝐾Ψ = −𝐾 Ψ 31.10
𝑑Ψ = dx + dt = 𝑑(1) = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → 𝑖𝐾Ψdx − i𝜔Ψdt = zero → = =𝑐→ = 1.13
Applying the function Ψ in 2 we obtain:
+ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.11
+ = 𝑖𝐾Ψ − i𝜔Ψ = zero 𝐾=
Construction of the wave equation:
=− 𝑥 =− → = → −𝐾 Ψ = − Ψ→𝐾= 31.12
− = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 Where we have Ψ = Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡). This is the wave equation 31.13
Construction of the first Erwin Schrödinger equation using the wave equation:
− = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → − (−𝜔 Ψ) = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → + 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.14
+ 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 Ψ = Ψ(𝑥) = 31.15
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+ 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.16
ℏ ℏ ℏ ℏ
+ 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 − − 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.17
ℏ ℏ ℏ
− − 𝐾 Ψ=− − Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑝 = ℏ𝐾 31.18
If at 30.4 we have 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) ≠ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 then we can write 𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) = ℏ𝜔. 31.19
Erwin Schrödinger adopted for energy 𝐸 = + 𝐸 (𝑥) where we have 𝐸 = . 31.20
Of 20 we get − = 𝐸 (𝑥) − 𝐸 that applied in 18 results in: 31.21
ℏ ℏ
− − Ψ=− + 𝐸 (𝑥) − 𝐸 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.22
ℏ
− + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝐸Ψ In this we have: Ψ = Ψ(𝑥) 31.23
This 23 is Erwin Schrödinger's equation independent of time for single dimension.
Construction of the second Erwin Schrödinger equation using equations 14 and 11:
ℏ ℏ ℏ ℏ
Multiplying 14 by gives : + 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.24
Of 11 we get: + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → 𝑐 + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → 𝑐𝑖𝐾Ψ + = 𝑖𝜔Ψ + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑖𝜔Ψ + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → 𝑖𝑖ℏ𝜔Ψ + 𝑖ℏ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → −ℏ𝜔Ψ + 𝑖ℏ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.25
ℏ ℏ
Adding 24 and 25 = + 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 + −ℏ𝜔Ψ + 𝑖ℏ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
ℏ ℏ
+ 𝐾 Ψ − ℏ𝜔Ψ + 𝑖ℏ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.26
ℏ ℏ
+ 𝐾 Ψ − ℏ𝜔Ψ = −𝑖ℏ 31.27
ℏ ℏ
− − 𝐾 Ψ + ℏ𝜔Ψ = 𝑖ℏ 31.28
ℏ 𝜕 Ψ ℏ 𝜕Ψ
− + ℏ𝜔Ψ − 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑖ℏ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2𝑚 𝜕𝑡
ℏ ℏ
− + ℏ𝜔 − 𝐾 Ψ = 𝑖ℏ 𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 𝑝 =ℏ 𝐾 31.29
ℏ
− + 𝐸− Ψ = 𝑖ℏ 31.30
From the energy of Erwin Schrödinger we obtain 𝐸 = + 𝐸 (𝑥) → 𝐸 (𝑥) = 𝐸 − 31.31
Applying 31 out of 30 We get:
ℏ
− + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝑖ℏ In this we have: Ψ = Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) 31.32
This 32 is Erwin Schrödinger's equation dependent on space and time.
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§31 Simple Quantum Mechanics Deduction of Erwin Schrödinger's Equations
From 30.8 and 30.3d we get:
p= 31.33
E = +m c 1− −m c = 31.34
If in both equations in the ratio the speed of light is considered to be infinite, then we will have = zero
resulting in:
p=m v 31.35
m v +m c −m c = m v → E = m v 31.36
This is what happens in Quantum Mechanics, the speed of light has the character of being infinite and
therefore Erwin Schrödinger's energy equation 𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) where we have 𝐸 = presents perfect
results. We should note that at 36 the inertial energy m c also disappears.
Function construction Ψ:
𝑐= = → 𝑝𝑥 = 𝐸𝑡 → 𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡) = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 31.37
ℏ
( )
eℏ =e =1 i = √−1 i = −1 31.38
( )
Ψ = Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) = eℏ 31.39
( )
Some derivatives of the function Ψ = eℏ :
( ) ℏ
= eℏ − 𝐸 = − 𝐸Ψ = − 𝐸Ψ EΨ = − 31.40
ℏ ℏ ℏ
( )
= eℏ − 𝐸 − 𝐸 =− 𝐸 Ψ =− 𝐸 Ψ 𝐸 Ψ = −ℏ 31.41
ℏ ℏ ℏ ℏ
( ) ℏ
= eℏ 𝑝 = 𝑝Ψ = 𝑝Ψ pΨ = 31.42
ℏ ℏ ℏ
( )
= eℏ 𝑝 𝑝 =− 𝑝 Ψ =− 𝑝 Ψ 𝑝 Ψ = −ℏ 31.43
ℏ ℏ ℏ ℏ
From the total differential of Ψ we obtain:
𝑑Ψ = dx + dt = 𝑑(1) = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → 𝑝Ψ dx + − 𝐸Ψ dt = zero → = =𝑐→ = 31.44
ℏ ℏ
Applying the function Ψ and its derivatives in 𝐸 = 𝑐𝑝 and 𝐸 = 𝑐 𝑝 we obtain 31.11 and 31.13:
ℏ ℏ
𝐸Ψ = 𝑐𝑝Ψ → − =𝑐 →− =𝑐 → + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 31.11 31.45
𝐸 Ψ = 𝑐 𝑝 Ψ → −ℏ =𝑐 −ℏ → =𝑐 → − = 𝑧𝑒𝑜 = 31.13 31.45b
Let's write Erwin Schrödinger's energy equation 𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) where we have 𝐸 = :
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) = + 𝐸 (𝑥) → + 𝐸 (𝑥) = 𝐸 31.46
In this we apply the function Ψ and its derivatives:
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+ 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝐸Ψ → −ℏ + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝐸Ψ 31.47
ℏ
− + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝐸Ψ In this Ψ = Ψ(𝑥) → = 31.48
ℏ
− + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝐸Ψ 31.49
This is 49 is Erwin Schrödinger's equation independent of time for a single dimension.
Let's write Erwin Schrödinger's energy equation 𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) again where we have 𝐸 = :
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 (𝑥) = + 𝐸 (𝑥) → + 𝐸 (𝑥) = 𝐸 31.50
In this we apply the function Ψ and its derivatives:
ℏ
+ 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝐸Ψ → −ℏ + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = − 31.51
.ℏ ℏ
−ℏ + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = − →− + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝑖ℏ 31.52
.
ℏ
− + 𝐸 (𝑥)Ψ = 𝑖ℏ In this we have: Ψ = Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡) 31.53
This 53 is Erwin Schrödinger's equation dependent on space and time.
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§ 32 Relativistic Version of Erwin Schö dinger Equation
A particle moving with velocity v along the x axis is associated with an infinite wave in the form:
( )
Ψ = Ψ(x, t) = Aeℏ∅ = Aeℏ A = Constant 32.1
For a plane wave of constant phase ∅ = ∅(x, t) = px − Et = constant we obtain the velocity u of phase equal
to:
∅ ∅
d∅ = dx + dt = zero → d∅ = pdx − Edt = zero → u = = u= 32.2
The energy E, and the moment p being properties of a particle in motion with velocity v, and the frequency γ
and wavelength λ being properties of the wave motion associated with the particle. Louis De Broglie listed
these properties in the following equations
E = hγ = p = hk = 𝑘= 32.3
From 3 we get the phase speed u:
u= = = 32.4
In 4 we have m > zero because if m = zero then E = cp (30.10) and we would have:
u= = =c 32.5
And in 4 the phase velocity would be u = c and not u = . 32.6
As m > zero then v<c and in 4 we have u > c. 32.7
If at 4 u = the phase velocity then c ≠ because if at 4 c = then we would have:
u= = = = → = →u=v=c= . 32.8
And in 4 the phase velocity would be u = v = c and not u = . 32.9
From 4 we get the velocity v written as:
u= = = →v=c 32.10
Applying 10 in kinetic energy E = vp = we get to m > zero e v < c:
E = vp = c p= →E = 32.11
When m = zero then v = c and we have E = (30.33) and E = cp (30.10).
Multiplying 30.33 by 30.10 we obtain:
E E= cp → E = 32.12
And we have 11 equal to 12 demonstrating that the equation E = is ambivalent and has general
validity for m ≥ zero and v ≤ c.
We know from mathematics that the group velocity v is given by: v = 32.13
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From 3 we get the speed in the form:
E = hγ = → (hγ) 1− =m c → = 1− →v=c 1− 32.14
In 14 we have the particle velocity only as a function of the frequency v = v(γ).
Deriving the velocity of 14 in relation to the frequency we obtain:
=1− → = 1− γ → =− (−2)γ → =
= = = → = 32.15
Deriving the velocity v from 10 in relation to the frequency and considering that k is a function of the
frequency k = k(γ) we obtain:
v=c =c = c kγ → =c γ + k(−1)γ =c − → =c − 32.16
We should have 15 equals 16 so:
= =c − → = − → = − → = +
= + → = + = = = =
= = →v = =v→v =v 32.17
And at 17 we have the group velocity v equal to the velocity v of the particle.
From 30.9 we obtain:
E=c m c +p → = p +m c 32.18
Applying 3 out of 18 and deriving the frequency γ with respect to k we obtain:
=p +m c → =h k +m c → 2γ = h 2k → =c 32.19
v = =c =v→v =v 32.20
And in 20 we have the group velocity v equal to the velocity v of the particle.
The equation 𝐸 = E + E = + E by Erwin Scho ̈dinger of Quantum Mechanics equals the total energy E
with the sum of the kinetic energy E with the potential energy E functions, to proceed with this recipe it is
necessary to name some functions.
The name of kinetic energy in relativity should only be attributed to differences between energies, the best
examples are:
E = −m c =𝐸−𝐸 32.21
𝐸 =m c − =𝐸 −𝐸 32.22
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Writing 30.3:
E =m c 1+ −m c = − m c = −E 30.3
In this denominating 𝑇 the kinetic energy:
𝑇 =m c 1+ −m c 32.23
And it remains as kinetic energy the term E = −m c 32.21
In 30.3 we have the exact result: 𝑇 =E 32.24
The result is exact because applying 1− 1+ = 1 in either one we get the other.
And we have 30.3 written as: 𝑇 = E = −E 32.25
Writing 30.15:
E =m c −m c 1− =m c − = −E 30.15
In this denominating the kinetic energies:
𝑇 =m c −m c 1− and 𝐸 =m c − 3 2.26
At 30.15 we have the exact result: 𝑇 =𝐸 32.27
The result is accurate because applyin 1− 1+ = 1 in either one we get the other.
And we have 30.15 written as: 𝑇 = 𝐸 = −E 32.28
From the kinetic energy 21 we obtain:
E = −m c = +m c 1− −m c 32.29
vp = = −m c + m c −m c 1− = E + T → vp = E + T 32.30
vp = = −m c 1− = E + T → vp = E + T 32.31
In this vp is the difference between the highest and lowest energy. Therefore, the average kinetic energy
E = vp = is the average energy of the difference between the highest and the lowest energy.
From the kinetic energy 22 we obtain:
𝐸 =m c − =m c + −m c 1+ 32.32
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⎛ ⎞
vp = = m c 1+ −m c + ⎜m c − ⎟ = 𝑇 + 𝐸 → v′p′ = 𝑇 + 𝐸 32.33
⎝ ⎠
v′p′ = =m c 1+ − = T′ − E′ → v′p′ = T′ − E′ 32.34
In this v’p’ it is the difference between the highest and lowest energy. Therefore, the average kinetic energy
𝐸 = v′p′ = is the average energy of the difference between the highest and the lowest energy.
Comparing 30 with 33 we see that all terms in the sequence are exactly the same so we have:
vp = v′p′ E =𝑇 T =𝐸 32.35
Comparing 31 with 34 we see that all terms in the sequence are exactly the same so we have:
vp = v′p′ E = 𝑇′ T = −𝐸′ 32.36
The energies E and T are related by:
E = −m c = E = 32.37
The energies 𝐸 and 𝑇 are related by:
𝐸 =m c − = 𝐸 = 32.38
From 25 and 28 we get:
E = −E → E + E = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐸 = −E → 𝐸 + E = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 32.39
Now naming the Hamiltonians H and H’ as:
H=E +E 𝐻′ = 𝐸 + E 32.40
The Hamiltonians being the total energy of the particle, which by hypothesis is not necessarily equal to zero.
Now we must also define the Lagrangian in terms of kinetic energy.
Now from 30 and 33 we get:
vp = E + T → E = vp − T v p =T +E →E =v p −T 32.41
Applying 41 out of 40 we get:
H = E + E = vp − T + E 𝐻′ = 𝐸 + E = v p − 𝑇 + E 32.42
Defining Lagrangian as:
L=T −E =m c −m c 1− + 32.43
𝐿 =𝑇 −E =m c 1+ −m c + 32.44
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Applying 43 and 44 to 42 we obtain the relationship between the Hamiltonians and Lagrangians:
H = vp − T + E = vp − T − E = vp − L → H = vp − L 32.45
H′ = v p − T + E = v p − T − E = v p − L → H′ = v p − L′ 32.46
Now to redefine the Hamiltonians let's add H and H’ to 40:
H=E +E + 𝐻′ = 𝐸 + E → 𝐻 + 𝐻 = E + 𝐸 + 2E 32.47
Applying 𝑇 = 𝐸 from 27 to 47 we obtain:
𝐻 + 𝐻 = E + 𝐸 + 2E = E + 𝑇 + 2E → 𝐻 + 𝐻′ = E + 𝑇 + 2E 32.48
Applying 30 vp = E + T in 48 we obtain:
H + H = E + T + 2E = vp + 2E → H + H = vp + 2E 32.49
Now defining the Hamiltonians according to 49:
𝐻 = vp + E 32.50
𝐻 = v′p′ + E 32.51
These Hamiltonians are H = H’ invariants.
Adding 50 plus 51 we get:
H = vp + E + H = v′p′ + E → H + H = (vp + v p ) + 2E = vp + 2E 32.52
And we get 52 = 49.
The Hamiltonian 𝐻 = vp + E must agree with the Hamiltonian equation v = .
= vp + E = vp = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 32.53
= vp = p+ v = p+ v 32.54
Deriving the velocity of 10 v = c we have
= c =c (𝑝𝐸 )=c 𝐸 +c 𝑝 = − c 𝑝𝐸
= − c 𝑝𝐸 = −c 32.55
Now deriving E with respect to p in 18 we get:
=p +m c → = 2p → =p→ =c =v 32.56
Applying 55 and 56 out of 54 we obtain:
∂H 1 ∂v 1 1 c p ∂E 1 1 c p 1
= p+ v= −c p+ v= −c (v) p + v
∂p 2 ∂p 2 2 E E ∂p 2 2 E E 2
∂H 1 c p 1 1c 1 p 1 1 1v 1
= −c (v) p + v = p− c v+ v= v− v+ v
∂p 2 E E 2 2E 2 E 2 2 2c 2
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∂H 1 1v 1 1v 1v
= v− v+ v= v− v =v 1−
∂p 2 2c 2 2c 2c
=v 1− =v 32.57
In 57 we consider the term = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 or we could consider that the speed of light has the character of being
infinite in Quantum Mechanics (QM) ( )
= 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
Applying the formula 10 of the velocity v = c to the Hamiltonian of 50 we obtain:
H = vp + E = c p+E = +E → 𝐻 = +E 32.58
And at 58 we have the ambivalent kinetic energy of 11 E = .
From 58 we get the value of p:
p= H−E = H−E = H−E 32.59
In this doing c = ∞ we obtain:
p= H−E = H−E = 2m H − E →𝑝= 2m H − E 32.60
( )
In 60 we have the p value of the theory of Erwin Schö dinger.
Applying 60 out of 10 we get the particle velocity:
v=c = H−E →v= H−E 32.61
In what follows the development is approximately the method of the own Erwin Schö dinger.
In Hamiltonian 58 applying the Hamilton Jacobi equations to the x axis we obtain:
= =p − =H = −H q, , t = −H 𝑥, ,t 32.62
H= +E = +E =− 32.63
+E + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 32.64
For a conservative system the Hamilton Jacobi equations are given by:
=p = −H 32.65
From 65 it is concluded that the action S can be in the form:
S = S(𝑥, 𝑡) = f(x) + 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒 32.66
Where f = f(x) is a function of x that should result in = =p 32.67
Applying = e = −H in 64 we obtain:
+E + = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → + E − 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 32.68
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Now let's make the transformation in 68 f = f(x) = 𝑘𝑙𝑛Ψ 32.69
Where k is a constant.
The f function of 69 has an analogy with entropy.
Applying 69 out of 68 we obtain:
( )
+ E − 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → + E − 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 32.70
( )
+ E − 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → + E − 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
+ E − 𝐻 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → + E − 𝐻 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
+ E − 𝐻 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 32.71
Now suppose 71 is not null and has a remainder R in the form:
𝑅 = 𝑅 Ψ, ,𝑥 = + E −𝐻 Ψ 32.72
The rest R must be a minimum so it must meet the functional:
∫ 𝑅 Ψ, , 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 32.73
And we get from the Euler Lagrange equation of the functional:
− = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 → + E −𝐻 Ψ − + E −𝐻 Ψ = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
+ E −𝐻 Ψ − + E −𝐻 Ψ =2 E −𝐻 Ψ− 2 =
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
2 E −𝐻 Ψ− 2 = E −𝐻 Ψ− =− + E − 𝐻 Ψ = zero
− + E − 𝐻 Ψ = zero → − + E Ψ = HΨ
− + E Ψ = HΨ 32.74
In 74 we have Ψ = Ψ(𝑥) → = 32.75
− + E Ψ = HΨ → − + E Ψ = HΨ 32.76
Applying the energy 𝐸 = in 76 we obtain:
− + E Ψ = HΨ → − + E Ψ = HΨ → − + E Ψ = HΨ 32.77
Making in 77 𝑐 = ∞ we obtain:
− + E Ψ = HΨ → − + E Ψ = HΨ → − + E Ψ = HΨ 32.78
( )
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Now in 78 making k equal to Planck's constant 𝑘 = ℏ and replacing H with E because now it doesn't cause
any more confusion:
ℏ
− + E Ψ = HΨ → − + E Ψ = EΨ
ℏ
− + E Ψ = EΨ 32.79
And we have 79 equal to Erwin Schö dinger. equation 31.49. The method used in this work is approximately
the one used by Erwin Schö dinger.
§33 Hyperbolic Relativistic Energy
Next, we will conclude that relativistic energy is a hyperbolic function.
From the energy of 30.9 we obtain:
E=c p +m c 33.1
E =c p +m c → E −c p = m c 33.2
(E + cp)(E − cp) = m c . m c 33.3
( ) ( )
. =1 33.4
In this denominating:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
( ) ⎝ ⎠
e∅ = = = + = = 33.5
∅ = ln 33.6
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∅ ( ) ⎝ ⎠
e = = = − = = 33.7
−∅ = ln 33.8
e∅ . e ∅
=1 that is in agreement with 4. 33.9
Now calling the hyperbolic cosine (ch) as:
∅ ∅ ( ) ( )
x = ch∅ = = + = = = 33.10
And naming the hyperbolic sine (sh) as:
∅ ∅ ( ) ( )
y = sh∅ = = − = = = 33.11
To prove that cosine and sine agree with the hyperbola equation let's make cosine equal to x and sine equal
to y of the hyperbola equation 12:
x −y =1 33.12
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− = = =1 33.13
− = − = =1 33.14
Since e∅ and e ∅
are always positive, the hyperbolic cosine is always greater than zero:
∅ ∅
x = ch∅ = = = > zero 33.15
So there is no negative energy.
Now defining the hyperbolic tangent, secant cotangent and cosecant have:
∅ ∅ ∅
th∅ = = ∅ ∅ = = = = 33.16
∅
∅ ∅ ∅
coth∅ = = ∅ ∅ = = = = 33.17
∅
sech∅ = = ∅ ∅ = = = = 1− 33.18
∅
cossech∅ = = ∅ ∅ = = = = 1− 33.19
∅
Trigonometric Functions ⇆ Hyperbolic Functions
Construction of relationships that transform hyperbolic functions into trigonometric functions.
The Pythagorean formula for a right triangle with hypotenuse “h” and side “a” adjacent to angle 𝛼 and side
“b” opposite angle 𝛼 is:
ℎ =𝑎 +𝑏 33.20
For this triangle we have the following trigonometric functions 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑓𝑡(𝛼) with angle 𝛼:
𝑎 = ℎ. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑏 = ℎ. 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.21
Reshaping the Pythagorean formula gives:
ℎ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 → 𝑏 = ℎ − 𝑎 = (ℎ + 𝑎)(ℎ − 𝑎) → = 𝑒 ∅𝑒 ∅ = 1 33.22
This is divided into the following hyperbolic functions 𝑓ℎ = 𝑓ℎ(∅) with angle ∅:
𝑒∅ = > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 33.23
∅
𝑒 = > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 33.24
Where applying the trigonometric functions we obtain 𝑓ℎ(∅) = 𝑓𝑡(𝛼):
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.
𝑒∅ = = = 33.25
.
∅ .
𝑒 = = = 33.26
.
The real equality of the functions 𝑓ℎ(∅) = 𝑓𝑡(𝛼) only occurs if the angle of the hyperbolic function is equal to
the angle of the trigonometric function, that is, if 𝑓ℎ(∅) = 𝑓𝑡(∅) where both are hyperbolic functions or
𝑓ℎ(𝛼) = 𝑓𝑡(𝛼)
where both are trigonometric functions.
From trigonometry we have:
𝑡𝑔 = = = 33.27
Applying 27 we obtain the fundamental function of the trigonometric angle 𝛼 as a function of the hyperbolic
angle ∅, 𝛼 = 𝛼(∅):
𝑒∅ = = = = 33.28
∅
𝑒 = = 𝑡𝑔 = 33.29
∅
𝛼 = 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 𝑒 33.30
The substitution of the angle 30 𝛼 = 𝛼(∅) in the trigonometric functions transforms it into hyperbolic functions
with the necessary restrictions of existence, in the following form:
𝑓ℎ(∅) = 𝑓𝑡(𝛼) = 𝑓𝑡[𝛼(∅)] = 𝑓𝑡(∅) → 𝑓ℎ(∅) = 𝑓𝑡(∅) 33.31
From 28 and 29 we obtain the fundamental formulas of the hyperbolic angle ∅ as a function of the
trigonometric angle 𝛼, ∅ = ∅(𝛼):
𝑙𝑛 𝑒 ∅ = 𝑙𝑛 → ∅ = ∅(𝛼) = 𝑙𝑛 33.32
∅
𝑙𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑡𝑔 → −∅ = 𝑙𝑛 𝑡𝑔 → ∅ = ∅(𝛼) = 𝑙𝑛 33.33
The functions (30) 𝛼 = 𝛼(∅) and (32) ∅ = ∅(𝛼) are inverses of each other.
The substitution of angle 32 ∅ = ∅(𝛼) in the hyperbolic functions transforms it into trigonometric functions
with the appropriate existence restrictions, in the following form:
𝑓𝑡(𝛼) = 𝑓ℎ(∅) = 𝑓ℎ [∅(𝛼)] = 𝑓ℎ(𝛼) → 𝑓𝑡(𝛼) = 𝑓ℎ(𝛼) 33.34
In the unitary hyperbola x − 𝑦 = 1 applying the functions x = ch∅ and y = sh∅ we get:
x − 𝑦 = ch ∅ − sh ∅ = (ch∅ + sh∅)(ch∅ − sh∅) = 𝑒 ∅ . 𝑒 ∅
=1 33.35
Breaking it down into two functions yields the hyperbolic cosine "ch∅" and hyperbolic sine "sh∅" functions:
∅ ∅
ch∅ + sh∅ = 𝑒 ∅ → 𝑥 = ch∅ = 33.36
∅ ∅
∅
ch∅ − sh∅ = 𝑒 → 𝑦 = sh∅ = 33.37
In 36 and 37 we have the fundamental properties of the hyperbolic functions.
Applying to the hyperbolic cosine ch∅, the previous variables are obtained:
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∅ ∅
𝑥 = 𝑐ℎ∅ = = + = = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 33.38
.
Applying to the hyperbolic sine sh∅, the previous variables are obtained:
∅ ∅ .
𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ∅ = = − = = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔𝛼 33.39
.
Applying the hyperbolic cosine 𝑥 = ch∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 and the hyperbolic sine 𝑦 = sh∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔𝛼 to the unitary
hyperbola equation 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 we get:
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐ℎ ∅ − 𝑠ℎ ∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔 𝛼 = 1 33.40
Which is a result of trigonometry.
With the relations of the hyperbolic cosine ch∅ and the hyperbolic sine sh∅ we can define the other relations
between the trigonometric functions and the hyperbolic functions:
∅
𝑡𝑔ℎ∅ = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 33.41
∅
∅
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔ℎ∅ = = = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 33.42
∅
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ∅ = = = 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.43
∅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ∅ = = = = 𝑡𝑔𝛼 33.44
∅
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ ∅ + 𝑡𝑔ℎ ∅ = 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 1 33.45
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔ℎ ∅ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ ∅ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼 − 𝑡𝑔 𝛼 = 1 33.46
Construction of the already known relationships that transform the hyperbolic functions into the exponential
form of a complex number.
Next, we will use Euler's formulas:
𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.47
Reshaping the Pythagorean formula, we get:
( )( )
ℎ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 − (𝑖𝑏) = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) → = 𝑒 ∅𝑒 ∅
=1 33.48
This breaks down into the following complex hyperbolic functions:
𝑒∅ = > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 33.49
∅
𝑒 = > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 33.50
For this triangle we have the trigonometric relations:
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.51
Applying trigonometric relations, we get:
𝑒∅ = = + 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.52
∅
𝑒 = = − 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.53
To conform to Euler's formulas we must change the hyperbolic arguments to ∅ = 𝑖𝛼 and thus we obtain the
hyperbolic functions written as the exponential form of a complex number:
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𝑒∅ = 𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.54
∅
𝑒 =𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.55
Calling the cosseno 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝛼 hyperbolic complex as:
𝑥 = 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝛼 = = [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼) + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼)] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 33.56
And naming the sine 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝛼 hyperbolic complex as:
𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝛼 = = [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼) − (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼)] = 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.57
Applying the cosine 𝑥 = 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 hyperbolic complex and the sine 𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝛼 = 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 hyperbolic complex
in the equation of the unit hyperbola 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 results:
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝛼 − 𝑠ℎ 𝑖𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝛼 = 1 33.58
Which is a result of trigonometry.
With the relationships of the hyperbolic cosine 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 and the hyperbolic sine 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝛼 = 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 we can
define the other relationships between complex trigonometric functions and complex hyperbolic functions.
Construction of relationships that transform hyperbolic functions into trigonometric functions similar to those
that occur in Gudermannian functions.
The Pythagorean formula for a right triangle with hypotenuse “h” and side “a” adjacent to angle 𝛼 and side
“b” opposite angle 𝛼 is:
ℎ =𝑎 +𝑏 33.59
For this triangle we have the trigonometric relations:
𝑎 = ℎ. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑏 = ℎ. 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.60
Reshaping the Pythagorean formula gives:
ℎ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 → 𝑎 = ℎ − 𝑏 = (ℎ + 𝑏)(ℎ − 𝑏) → = 𝑒 .𝑒 =1 33.61
This is divided into the following hyperbolic functions:
𝑒 = > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 33.62
𝑒 = > 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 33.63
Where applying the trigonometric relations we obtain:
.
𝑒 = = = 33.64
.
𝑒 = = = 33.65
.
From these we obtain the fundamental formulas of the hyperbolic angle 𝛽:
𝑙𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛 → 𝛽 = 𝑙𝑛 33.66
𝑙𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛 → 𝛽 = −𝑙𝑛 33.67
Denominating the hyperbolic cosine 𝑐ℎ𝛽 as:
𝑥 = 𝑐ℎ𝛽 = = + = = = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 33.68
.
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And calling the hyperbolic sine 𝑠ℎ𝛽 as:
.
𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝛽 = = − = = = = 𝑡𝑔𝛼 33.69
.
Applying the hyperbolic cosine 𝑥 = 𝑐ℎ𝛽 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 and the hyperbolic sine 𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝛽 = 𝑡𝑔𝛼 to the unitary
hyperbola equation 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 we get:
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐ℎ 𝛽 − 𝑠ℎ 𝛽 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼 − 𝑡𝑔 𝛼 = 1 33.70
Which is a result of trigonometry.
With the relations of the hyperbolic cosine 𝑐ℎ𝛽 and the hyperbolic sine 𝑠ℎ𝛽 we can define the other relations
between the trigonometric functions and the hyperbolic functions:
𝑡𝑔ℎ𝛽 = = = 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝛼 33.71
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔ℎ𝛽 = = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 33.72
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝛽 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 33.73
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝛽 = = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔𝛼 33.74
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝛽 + 𝑡𝑔ℎ 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝛼 = 1 33.75
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔ℎ 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑔 𝛼 = 1 33.76
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§34 Hyperbolic equations similar to Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac's equations
In what follows we are always dealing with the free particle E = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
Writing the relativistic energy equation 30.9:
E =c m c +p → E =c p +m c 34.1
E =c p +c p +c p +m c p =p +p +p 34.2
=p +p +p +m c 34.3
Dirac proposed that the product of the two following equations results in 3.
=α p +α p +α p +α m c 34.4
=α p +α p +α p +α m c 34.5
Making the 4x5 product we get:
E
= α α p p + α α p p + α α p p + m cα α p + α α p p + α α p p +
c
α α p p + m cα α p + α α p p + α α p p + α α p p + m cα α p + 34.6
m cα α p + m cα α p + m cα α p + m cm cα α .
For 6 to be equal to 3, you must meet the following requirements:
𝑖=𝑘→𝛼 =𝛼 =1 34.7
𝑖 ≠ 𝑘 → 𝛼 𝛼 + 𝛼 𝛼 = zero 34.8
Breaking down product 6 into two equations we get 9 and 15:
p = α α p p + α α p p + α α p p + (α α + α α )p p +
(α α + α α )p p + (α α + α α )p p . 34.9
In this case, if the matrices that represent the α are in accordance with 7 and 8, we will have:
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.10
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.11
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.12
α α =α α =α α =1 34.13
Com isso resulta de 9:
p =p +p +p 34.14
The rest of product 6 is:
m c = (α α + α α )p m c + (α α + α α )p m c + (α α + α α )p m c 34.15
+α α m cm c.
In this case, if the matrices that represent the α are in accordance with 7 and 8, we will have:
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.16
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.17
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.18
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α α =1 34.19
This results in 15:
m c = m cm c 34.20
And the final result is 6 equal to 3.
The so-called Dirac α matrices are:
0 1 0 0
𝛼 = 1 0 0 0 34.21
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 −i 0 0
𝛼 = i 0 0 0 34.22
0 0 0 i
0 0 −i 0
1 0 0 0
𝛼 = 0 −1 0 0 34.23
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1
0 0 0 −1
𝛼 = 0 0 1 0 34.24
0 1 0 0
−1 0 0 0
Let's do operations 10 to 13
0 −i 0 0 0 1 0 0 −i 0 0 0
α α = i 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 = 0 i 0 0 34.25
0 0 0 i 0 0 0 1 0 0 i 0
0 0 −i 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −i
0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 i 0 0 0
α α = 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 = 0 −i 0 0 34.26
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 −i 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 i
−i 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
α α +α α = 0 i 0 0 + 0 −i 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 34.27
0 0 i 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
α α = 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 = −1 0 0 0 34.28
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0
α α = 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 = 1 0 0 0 34.29
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0
α α +α α = −1 0 0 0 + 1 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 34.30
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0
0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0
α α = 0 −1 0 0 i 0 0 0 = −𝑖 0 0 0 34.31
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 𝑖
0 0 0 −1 0 0 −i 0 0 0 𝑖 0
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0 −i 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 𝑖 0 0
α α = i 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 = 𝑖 0 0 0 34.32
0 0 0 i 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −𝑖
0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 −𝑖 0
0 −𝑖 0 0 0 𝑖 0 0 0 0 0 0
α α +α α = −𝑖 0 0 0 + 𝑖 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 34.33
0 0 0 𝑖 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0 0 0
0 0 𝑖 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
α α = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 = 0 1 0 0 34.34
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 −i 0 0 0 −i 0 0 1 0 0 0
α α = i 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 = 0 1 0 0 34.35
0 0 0 i 0 0 0 i 0 0 1 0
0 0 −i 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
α α = 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 = 0 1 0 0 34.36
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1
And the requirements from 10 to 13 are fulfilled:
Let's do operations 16 to 19:
0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0
α α = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 1 34.37
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
−1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0
α α = 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 0 0 −1 34.38
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
α α +α α = 0 0 0 1 + 0 0 0 −1 = 0 0 0 0 34.39
1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 −1 0 −i 0 0 0 0 i 0
α α = 0 0 1 0 i 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 i 34.40
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 i i 0 0 0
−1 0 0 0 0 0 −i 0 0 i 0 0
0 −i 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 −𝑖 0
α α = i 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 0 0 −𝑖 34.41
0 0 0 i 0 1 0 0 −𝑖 0 0 0
0 0 −i 0 −1 0 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0
0 0 i 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0 0 0 0
α α +α α = 0 0 0 i + 0 0 0 −𝑖 = 0 0 0 0 34.42
i 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 i 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
α α = 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 = 0 0 1 0 34.43
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0
−1 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1
α α = 0 −1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 0 −1 0 34.44
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
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0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0
α α +α α = 0 0 1 0 + 0 0 −1 0 = 0 0 0 0 34.45
0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
−1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 0
α α = 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0 0 34.46
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
−1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
And the requirements from 16 to 19 are fulfilled:
Therefore, applying requirements 7 and 8 on the product results in 4x5 = 3:
=p +p +p +m c = =α p +α p +α p +α m c x =α p +α p +α p +α m c 34.47
In matrix form the 4x5 product is equal to:
α α α α α α α α p
α α α α α α α α p
= [p p p m c]
α α α α α α α α p 34.48
α α α α α α α α m c
In this we have:
α α α α α α α α α
α α α α α α α α α
α [α α α α ]=
α α α α α α α α 34.49
α α α α α α α α α
And applying 49 out of 48 we get:
α p
α p
= [p p p m c]
α [α α α α ]
p 34.50
α m c
Breaking apart we get 4 or what is the same 5:
α
α
= [p p p m c]
α =α p +α p +α p +α m c 34.51
α
p
p
= [α α α α ]
p =α p +α p +α p +α m c 34.52
m c
Isolating the energy in 52 we obtain:
E = α cp + α cp + α cp + α m c 34.53
Let's apply the matrices α to 53:
0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 1 0 0 0
E = α 𝑐p + α cp + α 𝑐p + α cm c = 1 0 0 0 cp + i 0 0 0 𝑐p + 0 −1 0 0 𝑐p +
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 −1
0 0 0 −1
0 0 1 0 m c 34.54
0 1 0 0
−1 0 0 0
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0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
E= 1 0 0 0 𝑐p + i 0 0 0 𝑐p + 0 −1 0 0 𝑐p + 0 0 1 0 m c 34.55
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 i 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 −i 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
On this one we must write everything in matrix form:
E 0 1 0 0 cp 0 −i 0 0 cp 1 0 0 0 cp 0 0 0 −1 ⎡m c
⎤
E = 1 0 0 0 𝑐p cp 0 0 𝑐p 1 0 ⎢m c ⎥ 34.56
+ i 0 0 0 + 0 −1 + 0 0
𝐸 0 0 0 1 cp 0 0 0 i cp 0 0 1 0 cp 0 1 0 0 ⎢m c ⎥
⎢ ⎥
𝐸 0 0 1 0 cp 0 0 −i 0 cp 0 0 0 −1 𝑐p −1 0 0 0 ⎣m c ⎦
In this replacing the following quantum operators we obtain:
E = H = iℏ p = −iℏ p = −iℏ p = −iℏ 34.57
⎡iℏ ⎤ ⎡−iℏc ⎤ ⎡−iℏc ⎤ ⎡−iℏc ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 0 1 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ 0 −i 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ 1 0 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ 0 0 0 −1 m c
⎡ ⎤
⎢iℏ ⎥ 1 0 0 0 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ i 0 0 0 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ 0 −1 0 0 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ 0 0 1 0 ⎢m c ⎥ 34.58
⎢ ⎥= 0 0 0 1 ⎢ ⎥+ 0 0 0 i ⎢ ⎥ +
0 0 1 0 ⎢ ⎥ +
0 1 0 0 ⎢m c ⎥
⎢iℏ ⎥ 0 0 1 0 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ 0 0 −i 0 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ 0 0 0 −1 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ −1 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣m c ⎦
⎣iℏ ⎦ ⎣−iℏc ⎦ ⎣−iℏc ⎦ ⎣−iℏc ⎦
By respectively multiplying each level by Ψ , Ψ , Ψ , Ψ we obtain:
⎡iℏ ⎤ ⎡−iℏc ⎤ ⎡−iℏc ⎤ ⎡−iℏc ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 0 1 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ 0 −i 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ 1 0 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ 0 0 0 −1 m c Ψ
−iℏc ⎡ ⎤
⎢iℏ ⎥ ⎢−iℏc ⎥ 0 0 0 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢−iℏc ⎥ ⎢m c Ψ
⎢ ⎥=
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 ⎢ ⎥+
i
0 0 0 i ⎢−iℏc ⎥+
0 −1 0 0
0 0 1 0 ⎢ ⎥+
0
0
0 1
1 0 0
0
⎢m c Ψ
⎥
⎥ 34.59
⎢iℏ ⎥ 0 0 1 0 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ 0 0 −i 0 ⎢ ⎥ 0 0 0 −1 ⎢−iℏc ⎥ −1 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣m c Ψ ⎦
⎣iℏ ⎦ ⎣−iℏc ⎦ ⎣−iℏc ⎦ ⎣−iℏc ⎦
From this matrix product the following Dirac equations result:
iℏ = −iℏc −i + −m c Ψ 34.60
iℏ = −iℏc +i − +m c Ψ 34.61
iℏ = −iℏc +i + +m c Ψ 34.62
iℏ = −iℏc −i − −m c Ψ 34.63
Hyperbolic equations similar to Dirac's equations 60 to 63
In what follows we are always dealing with free particleE = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
From the 30.9 energy equation we obtain:
E=c p +m c → −p =m c 34.64
−p =m c = +p . − p = m c. m c 34.65
. = e∅ . e ∅
=1 34.66
That broken down into two equations results:
∅
= p + m ce 34.67
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= −p + m ce∅ 34.68
In these applying 𝑝 = α p + α p + α p 34.69
Note that the hyperbolic coefficients e∅ and e ∅
already break the term m c into two fractions, making the
coefficient α . unnecessary.
∅
= α p + α p + α p + m ce 34.70
= −α p − α p − α p + m ce∅ 34.71
The product of both should result in:
=p +m c =p +p +p +m c 34.72
Let's make the 70x71 product:
E
= −α α p p − α α p p − α α p p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ α p − α α p p −
c
α α p p − α α p p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ α p − α α p p − α α p p − 34.73
α α p p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ α p − m ce ∅ α p − m ce ∅ α p −
m ce ∅ α p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ .
Breaking down the product 73 into two equations X and Y we get 74 and 82:
X = −α α p p − α α p p − α α p p − (α α + α α )p p −
(α α + α α )p p − (α α + α α )p p . 34.74
The remainder Y of product 73 is:
Y = m 𝑐 𝑒∅ − e ∅
α p +α p +α p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ . 34.75
From 33.11 we get:
∅ ∅
𝑠ℎ∅ = = → 2𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝑒 ∅ − e ∅
34.76
In this applying 69 we obtain:
𝑚 𝑐 𝑒∅ − e ∅
= 2𝑝 = 2 α p + α p + α p 34.77
Applying 77 out of 75 we obtain:
Y=2 α p +α p +α p α p +α p +α p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ . 34.78
Making the product we get:
Y = 2 α p + α p + α p α p + α p + α p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ =
α α p p + α α p p + α α p p + (α α + α α )p p +
2 + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ . 34.79
(α α + α α )p p + (α α + α α )p p
Y = 2α α p p + 2α α p p + 2α α p p + 2(α α + α α )p p +
2(α α + α α )p p + 2(α α + α α )p p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ . 34.80
Adding 80 and 74 we get:
= X + Y = −α α p p − α α p p − α α p p − (α α + α α )p p − (α α + α α )p p − (α α +
α α )p p + 2α α p p + 2α α p p + 2α α p p + 2(α α + α α )p p + 2(α α + α α )p p + 2(α α +
α α )p p + m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅ 34.81
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Simply put, we get:
= α α p p + α α p p + α α p p + (α α + α α )p p + (α α + α α )p p + (α α + α α )p p +
m 𝑐𝑒 ∅ m ce ∅
34.82
For 82 to be equal to 72, you must meet the following requirements:
𝑖=𝑘→𝛼 =𝛼 =1 34.83
𝑖 ≠ 𝑘 → 𝛼 𝛼 + 𝛼 𝛼 = zero 34.84
To meet the requirements of 83 and 84 we must have:
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.85
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.86
α α + α α = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 34.87
α α =α α =α α =1 34.88
That makes 82 equal to 72:
=p +m c =p +p +p +m c 34.89
The so-called α Pauli matrices are:
0 1
𝛼 = 34.90
1 0
0 −i
𝛼 = 34.91
i 0
1 0
𝛼 = 34.92
0 −1
Let's do the operations from 85 to 88:
0 −i 0 1 −i 0
α α = = 34.93
i 0 1 0 0 i
0 1 0 −i i 0
α α = = 34.94
1 0 i 0 0 −i
−i 0 i 0 0 0
α α +α α = + = 34.95
0 i 0 −i 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
α α = = 34.96
0 −1 1 0 −1 0
0 1 1 0 0 −1
α α = = 34.97
1 0 0 −1 1 0
0 1 0 −1 0 0
α α +α α = + = 34.98
−1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 −i 0 −i
α α = = 34.99
0 −1 i 0 −i 0
0 −i 1 0 0 i
α α = = 34.100
i 0 0 −1 i 0
0 −i 0 i 0 0
α α +α α = + = 34.101
−i 0 i 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0
α α = = 34.102
1 0 1 0 0 1
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0 −i 0 −i 1 0
α α = = 34.103
i 0 i 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
α α = = 34.104
0 −1 0 −1 0 1
Therefore, requirements 83 and 84 are met and we have:
∅
=p +m c =p +p +p +m c = = α p + α p + α p + m ce x = −α p − α p − α p +
∅
m ce 34.105
Isolating energy at 105 we obtain:
∅
E = α 𝑐p + α 𝑐p + α 𝑐p + m c e 34.106
E = −α cp − α 𝑐p − α 𝑐p + m c e∅ 34.107
Let's apply the matrices α and the matrix I to 106 and 107:
∅ 0 1 0 −i 1 0 1 0 ∅
E = α 𝑐p + α cp + α 𝑐p + m c e = cp + 𝑐p + 𝑐p + m c e 34.108
1 0 i 0 0 −1 0 1
0 1 0 −i 1 0 1 0
E = −α 𝑐p − α cp − α 𝑐p + m c e∅ = − cp − 𝑐p − 𝑐p + m c e∅ 34.109
1 0 i 0 0 −1 0 1
0 1 0 −i 1 0 1 0 ∅
E= cp + 𝑐p + 𝑐p + m c e 34.110
1 0 i 0 0 −1 0 1
0 1 0 −i 1 0 1 0
E=− cp − 𝑐p − 𝑐p + m c e∅ 34.111
1 0 i 0 0 −1 0 1
On these we must write everything in matrix form:
𝐸 0 1 cp 0 −i 𝑐p 1 0 𝑐p 1 0 m c e ∅
= + + + 34.112
𝐸 1 0 cp i 0 𝑐p 0 −1 𝑐p 0 1 m c e ∅
𝐸 0 1 cp 0 −i 𝑐p 1 0 𝑐p 1 0 m c e∅
=− − − + 34.113
𝐸 1 0 cp i 0 𝑐p 0 −1 𝑐p 0 1 m c e∅
In this replacing the following quantum operators we obtain:
E = H = iℏ p = −iℏ p = −iℏ p = −iℏ 34.114
iℏ −iℏc
0 1 −iℏc 0 −i 1 0 −iℏc 1 0 m c e ∅
= + + + ∅
34.115
iℏ 1 0 −iℏc i 0 −iℏc 0 −1 −iℏc 0 1 m c e
iℏ −iℏc
0 1 −iℏc 0 −i 1 0 −iℏc 1 0 m c e∅
=− − − + 34.116
iℏ 1 0 −iℏc i 0 −iℏc 0 −1 −iℏc 0 1 m c e∅
By respectively multiplying each level by Ψ , Ψ , Ψ , Ψ we obtain:
iℏ −iℏc
0 1 −iℏc 0 −i 1 0 −iℏc 1 0 m c e ∅Ψ
= + + + 34.117
iℏ 1 0 −iℏc i 0 −iℏc 0 −1 −iℏc 0 1 m c e ∅Ψ
iℏ −iℏc
0 1 −iℏc 0 −i 1 0 −iℏc 1 0 m c e∅ Ψ
=− − − + 34.118
iℏ 1 0 −iℏc i 0 −iℏc 0 −1 −iℏc 0 1 m c e∅ Ψ
These matrix products result in the following hyperbolic equations:
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∅
iℏ = −iℏc −i + +m c e Ψ 34.119
∅
iℏ = −iℏc +i − +m c e Ψ 34.120
iℏ = −iℏc − +i − + m c e∅ Ψ 34.121
iℏ = −iℏc − −i + + m c e∅ Ψ 34.122
197/203
§ 35 The Geometry of Transformations by Hendrik Lorentz
Let us consider two functions f(∅) = η and g(∅) = μ inversely proportional in the form:
f(∅). g(∅) = η. μ = 1 35.1
That applied to the unitary hyperbola x − y = 1 results:
x − y = (x + y)(x − y) = η. μ = 1 35.2
Breaking down 2 we can define the hyperbolic cosine x = ch∅ and the hyperbolic sine y = sh∅ in the
following form:
x + y = η → x = ch∅ = (η + μ) → A
35.3
x − y = μ → y = sh∅ = (η − μ) → B
Where we add A+B to get the ch∅ and subtract A-B to get the sh∅.
The hyperbolic cosine x = ch∅ and hyperbolic sine y = sh∅ functions are the fundamental hyperbolic
functions.
Applying x = ch∅ and y = sh∅ to the unitary hyperbola x − y = 1 we obtain the inverse functions:
x − y = ch ∅ − sh ∅ = (η + μ) − (η − μ) 35.4
x − y = ch ∅ − sh ∅ = η + 2ημ + μ − η + 2ημ − μ
x − y = ch ∅ − sh ∅ = 2ημ + 2ημ = η. μ = 1
x − y = ch ∅ − sh ∅ = η. μ = 1 35.5
The sum of ch∅ and sh∅ results in η and the subtraction of ch∅ and sh∅ results in μ:
ch∅ + sh∅ = (η + μ) + (η − μ) 35.6
ch∅ + sh∅ = η + μ + η − μ = η
ch∅ + sh∅ = η 35.7
ch∅ − sh∅ = (η + μ) − (η − μ)
ch∅ − sh∅ = η + μ − η + μ = μ
ch∅ − sh∅ = μ 35.8
So for two functions to be hyperbolic it is only necessary that they are inversely proportional in the form
f(∅). g(∅) = η. μ = 1.
We can construct with the unit hyperbola x − y = 1 a right triangle described as follows:
x −y =1 → x = y +1 =h =a +b . 35.9
In this triangle we have the hypotenuse h equal to x, the leg “a” equal to y and the leg b equal to 1.
With 3 and 9 we get:
h = x = ch∅ = (η + μ) a = y = sh∅ = (η − μ) b=1 35.10
h + a = ch∅ + sh∅ = η h − a = ch∅ − sh∅ = μ 35.11
198/203
We can define the following trigonometric functions on this triangle:
a = h. cosα b = h. senα = 1 → h = a = h. cosα = 35.12
h = a + b → h = (h. cosα) + (h. senα) → sen α + cos α = 1 35.13
From 10 and 12 we obtain the relations between the hyperbolic functions and the trigonometric functions:
h = ch∅ = a = sh∅ = 35.14
With 11 and 14 we get:
η= h+a= + = = 35.15
μ = h−a = − = = μ= 35.16
η = = →η= η. μ = 1 35.17
μ = = →μ= η. μ = 1 35.18
From trigonometry we have:
tg = 35.19
This applied in 17 and 18 results:
η= = η. μ = 1 35.20
μ = tg = η. μ = 1 35.21
In §17 we define the proportion factors η and μ as:
x − ct = η(x − ct) A
→ 17.04 η. μ = 1 35.22
x + ct = μ(x + ct) B
Equations 22 and their inverses are:
x − ct = μ(x − ct ) C x − ct = η(x − ct) A
17.04 η. μ = 1 35.23
x + ct = η(x + ct ) D x + ct = μ(x + ct) B
Applying 20 and 21 to 23 we get:
x − ct = tg (x − ct ) C x − ct = (x − ct) A
35.24
x + ct = (x + ct ) D x + ct = tg (x + ct) B
tg = tg = 35.25
tg = tg = 35.26
tg = = 35.27
In 27 we have the description of two right triangles with the same angles.
In the following table according to 23 we have the geometry that describes 27.
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The Geometry of Transformations by Hendrik Lorentz (GTHL)
Distance between Distance between
Axle Coordinate Coordinate
points of points of
X⊥Y X Y
X axis Y axis
Ponto Observer O Observer O’
0 zero zero X0 ↔ X1 x − ct X0 ↔ Y1 x − ct′
1 x − ct = μ(x − ct ) x − ct = η(x − ct) X1 ↔ X2 ct Y1 ↔ Y2 ct’
2 x x’ X2 ↔ X3 ct Y2 ↔ Y3 ct’
3 x + ct = η(x + ct ) x + ct = μ(x + ct)
The X and Y axes are perpendicular X⊥Y.
Observer O is on the X axis and Observer O' is on the Y axis.
The line joining X1 ↔ Y1 makes angle 𝛼/2 with the Y axis.
The line joining X3 ↔ Y3 makes angle 𝛼/2 with the X axis.
Doing on 23 the additions (C+D) and (A+B) and the subtractions (D-C) and (B-A) yields the H. Lorentz
Transforms of 28 in primary form without any consideration of the propagation of a light ray. The same is
obtained from the GTHL table if, for both coordinates, we average the sum of point 1 with point 3 or the
average of the subtraction of point 3 minus point 1.
x − ct = μ(x − ct ) C x − ct = η(x − ct) A
17.04 η. μ = 1 35.23
x + ct = η(x + ct ) D x + ct = μ(x + ct) B
x = [η(x′ + ct′) + μ(x′ − ct′)] → x > ct → A x = [μ(x + ct) + η(x − ct)] → x > ct → C
35.28
ct = [η(x + ct ) − μ(x − ct )] → ct < x → B ct = [μ(x + ct) − η(x − ct)] → ct < x → D
In the Lorentz Transforms of 28 for both observers space is greater than time. Consequently space
propagates at a speed that is greater than the speed of propagation of time which propagates at the speed
of light.
200/203
§ 35 Continuation
In §17.07 we obtained the proportion factors η and μ described as follows:
η= μ= η. μ = 1 17.07 35.29
Considering ct ≥ zero and ct′ ≥ zero and the variables η = η(v) and μ = μ(v) being functions of velocity, thus in 29
when v = zero we will have η = μ = 1 and when zero < v < c then we have η > 1 > μ. 35.30
With 17.02 and 17.03 we can write:
ab = cd = (x + ct)(x − ct) = (x + ct )(x − ct ) = x − c t = x − c t 35.31
where is denominated:
a = x + ct c = x + ct
35.32
b = x − ct d = x − ct
a − b = (x + ct) − (x − ct) = 4xct c − d = (x + ct ) − (x − ct ) = 4x′ct′ 35.33
The inverses of 32 are:
x = (a + b) → a + b = 2x x = (c + d) → c + d = 2x′
35.34
ct = (a − b) → a − b = 2ct ct = (c − d) → c − d = 2ct′
From 34 we get:
xct = (a + b) (a − b) = (a − b ) x ct = (c + d) (c − d) = (c − d ) 35.35
And we have 35 equals 33.
Applying 34 by 31 we get:
ab = (x + ct)(x − ct) = x − c t = (a + b) − (a − b) = ab 35.36
cd = (x + ct )(x − ct ) = x −c t = (c + d) − (c − d) = cd 35.37
Applying 32 to 23 and writing in alphabetical order we get the fundamental proportions:
a = ηc c = μa
b = μd d = ηb η. μ = 1 35.38
With the following properties:
ab = cd ad = η bc bc = μ ad ac = ca bd = db 35.39
From 32 and 38 we get:
η= = = = μ= = = = 35.40
η. μ = 1 → . = 1 → . =1 35.41
Applying 30 v = zero → η = 1 in 39 results:
ad = η2 bc → = η2 = 12 → = → ad = bc 35.42
With ad = bc → = we build the following proportions:
201/203
ad = bc → ad + ac = bc + ac → a(c + d) = c(a + b) → = →A
35.43
ad = bc → ad − bd = bc − bd → d(a − b) = b(c − d) → = →B
From 43 we get the proportions: ad = bc → = = = 35.44
= → ac + ad = ac + bc → ad = bc → η = 1 35.45
= → ac − ad = ac − bc → ad = bc → η = 1 35.46
= → ad + bd = bc + bd → ad = bc → η = 1 35.47
= → bc − bd = ad − bd → ad = bc → η = 1 35.48
= → (a + b)(c − d) = (c + d)(a − b) → ad = bc → η = 1 35.49
Making η = in 39 where ad = η bc → . = η. η for zero < v < c e η > 1 > μ:
1 c b
η > 1 → η = → . = η. η → η = = → ab = cd → μ = =a=d→η>1 35.50
With the proportion η = = → ab = cd and 43 we obtain for η > 1:
η= = = = → (a + b)(a − b) = (c + d)(c − d) → a − b = c − d 35.51
μ= = = = → (a + b)(a − b) = (c + d)(c − d) → a − b = c − d 35.52
η. μ = . =1 35.53
In 51 and 52 it is only useful for zero < v < c which results in the ratio ab = cd which is best described as:
η= = →η= = →A
→ ab = cd → (a + b)(a − b) = (c + d)(c − d) 35.54
μ= = →μ= = →B
For η > 1 in 54 we only have the fundamental proportions of 38 and the proportions:
a + b = η(c + d) → A c + d = μ(a + b) → C
35.55
a − b = μ(c − d) → B c − d = η(a − b) → D
From 55 we get:
(a + b)(a − b) = η(c + d)μ(c − d) → a − b = c − d 35.56
(c + d)(c − d) = μ(a + b)η(a − b) → c − d = a − b 35.57
Adding and subtracting 55 we get the alpha transformation:
a = [η(c + d) + μ(c − d)] → A c = [μ(a + b) + η(a − b)] → C
35.58
b = [η(c + d) − μ(c − d)] → A d = [μ(a + b) − η(a − b)] → C
Applying 58 to a − b we get:
1 1
a −b = [η(c + d) + μ(c − d)] − [η(c + d) − μ(c − d)]
4 4
1 1
a −b = [η (c + d) + 2η(c + d)μ(c − d) + μ (c − d) ] − [η (c + d) − 2η(c + d)μ(c − d) + μ (c − d) ]
4 4
202/203
1 1
a −b = [2(c + d)(c − d)] + [2(c + d)(c − d)] = (c + d)(c − d) = c − d
4 4
a − b = (c + d)(c − d) = c − d 35.59
Applying 58 to c − d we get:
1 1
c −d = [μ(a + b) + η(a − b)]2 − [μ(a + b) − η(a − b)]2
4 4
1 1
c −d = [μ (a + b) + 2μ(a + b)η(a − b) + η (a − b) ] − [μ (a + b) − 2μ(a + b)η(a − b) + η (a − b) ]
4 4
1 1
c −d = [2(a + b)(a − b)] + [2(a + b)(a − b)] = (a + b)(a − b) = a − b
4 4
c − d = (a + b)(a − b) = a − b 35.60
Applying 34 to the equality (a + b ) = (a + b) + (a − b) we get:
(a + b ) = (a + b) + (a − b) = [x] + [ct] = 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑡 35.61
Applying 34 to the equality (c + d ) = (c + d) + (c − d) we get:
(c + d ) = (c + d) + (c − d) = [x′] + [ct′] = 𝑥′ + 𝑐 𝑡′ 35.62
In 61 and 62 we have the mean square where x and x' are the radii, so again we have Space greater than time, that is,
x > ct and x′ > ct′.
"Although nobody can return behind and perform a new beginning,
any one can begin now and create a new end"
(Chico Xavier)
Bibliography
[1] Alonso & Finn, Vol. I e II, Ed. Edgard Blücher LTDA, 1972.
[2] Robert Resnik, Introduçao à Relatividade Especial, Ed. Univ. de S. Paulo e Ed. Polígono S.A., 1971.
[3] E. Terradas Y R. Ortiz, Relatividad, Cia. Ed. Espasa-Calpe Argentina S. A., 1952.
[4] Abraham Pais, “Sutil é o Senhor...” A ciência e a vida de Albert Einstein, Ed. Nova Fronteira, 1995.
[5] Marcel Rouault, Física Atômica, Ao Livro Técnico LTDA, 1959.
[6] H. A. Lorentz, A. Einstein e H. Minkowisk, O Princípio da Relatividade, edição da Fundação Calouste
Gulbenkian, 1989.
[7] L. Landau e E. Lifchitz, Teoria do Campo, Hemus – Livraria Editora LTDA.
[8] Robert Martin Eisberg, Fundamentos da Física Moderna, Ed. Guanabara Dois S.A., 1979.
[9] Max Born, Física Atômica, edição da Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1986.
http://www.wbabin.net/physics/faraj7.htm
[10]Princípios de Mecânica Quântica Vladimir A. Fock.
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