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GENERAL PHYSICS III

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Optics

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&
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Quantum Physics
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 Chapter XXI

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Quantum Mechanics

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§1. The wave nature of particles

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The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

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§2.
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The Schrödinger equation
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§3.
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Solutions for some quantum systems

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§4.
 It has been known from the previous chapter that light, and in general,
electromagnetic waves have particle behavior.

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 Some latter time than the quantum theory of light, it was discovered
that particles show also wavelike behavior.

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The wave-particle duality of matter is the fundamental concept of

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modern physics

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Newton’s classical physics should be replaced by the new mechanics

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which is able to describe the wave nature of particles
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“QUANTUM MECHANICS”
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§1. The wave nature of particles:
1.1 De Broglie hypothesis:
In 1923, de Broglie put a simple, but extremely important idea which
initiated the development of the quantum theory. He proposed that,

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if light is dualistic (behaving in some situations like waves and in others
like particles) → this duality should also hold for matter. It means that

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electrons, alpha particles, protons,…, which we usually think of as

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particles, may in some situations behave like waves.

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A particle shoud have a wavelength 
related to its momentum in exactly

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the same way as photon

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h
o= (the de Broglie wavelength)
.
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And the relation between frequency and particle’s energy is also in

the same way as photon E
=
h
1.2 Macroscopic and microscopic world:
Question: Why do we not observe the wave nature of particles in our
experience of the macroscopic world?

The answer is given by two following examples:

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Apply the de Broglie hypothesis to two cases, the first on the

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macroscopic scale, and the second on the microscopic scale

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The case of macroscopic particles:

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A particle with m = 10 kg, v = 10 m/s  p = 100 kg.m/s

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 = h/p = (6.63x10-34 / 100) m = 6.63x10-36 m .

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With this scale of wavelengths a mcroscopic particle can not

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produce any observable effect of interference or diffraction.
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The case of microscopic particles:
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An electron with m = 9.1x10-31 kg, accelerated to v = 4.4x106 m/s

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 p = 4.x10-24 kg.m/s  = h/p = 1.65x10-10 m.

With this scale of wavelengths one can observe interference and
diffraction effects of electrons on atoms or molecules of crystal.
1.3 Electron diffraction:
 Davisson & Germer
experiment (1927):
• Elecrons emitted thermally
from the cathode C

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• Then they are accelated by

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a voltage V  a parallel beam

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of monoenergetic electrons

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are produced.

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• A plate P & a diagraph D plays the role of

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o
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a detector which measures the number of
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scattered electrons.
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The experimental graph shows the angular

distribution of the number of scattered
electrons (for V = 54 volts).
There is a peak at = 50o .
 Explanation:
• The existence of the peak at = 50o proves qualitatively &
quantitatively the de Broglie hypothesis !
Such a peak can only explained as a constructive interference of waves
scattered by the periodically placed atoms

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• With electron beam of such low intensity that the electron go through

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the apparatus one at a time the interference pattern remains the same

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 the interference is between waves associated with single electron.

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• For a quantitative consideration, we calculate the electron wavelength:

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by using = h/p, where eV = p2/2m  p = 2meV

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Substuting V = 54 volts, one gets = 1.67x10-10 m


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by using the formula for the first order diffraction peak
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
= d sin
where d was detemined from X-rays diffraction
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experiments, d = 2.15x10-10 m.
For = 50o, one gets  = 1.65x10-10 m
The two obtained values of agree within the accuracy with experiment !
1.4 Application of Matter Waves: Electron Microscopy
 The ability to “resolve” tiny objects improves as the wavelength
decreases. Consider the microscope objective:
Objects d D


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to be 

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resolved diffraction

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f disks

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= focal length of lens

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

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• Nominal (conventional) minimumangle for resolution: c 1 . 22

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D

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• The minimum d for which we can still resolve two objects is

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c times the focal length: d min fc 1.22 f
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A good microscope objective has f/D 2, so with ~ 500 nm
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the optical microscope has a resolution of dmin 1 m.

We can do much better with matter waves because, as electrons with
energies of a few keV have wavelengths less than 1 nm.
 Example: Observation of a virus by an electron microscopy
You wish to observe a virus with a diameter of 20 nm, electron
gun
which is much too small to observe with an optical
microscope. Calculate the voltage required to produce an
electron DeBroglie wavelength suitable for studying this D

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virus with a resolution of dmin = 2 nm. The “f-number” for
an electron microscope is quite large: f/D 100.

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(Hint: First find required to achieve dmin with the given

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f

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f/D. Then find E of an electron from .)

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f
d min 1.22

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D

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 D   D  object
d min 
o   
0 .0164 nm
.
  2nm 

1 .22 f   w
1 .22 f 
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h21.505 eV nm 2
E  5.6 keV
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2 m 
2
0.0164 nm 
2

To accelerate an electron to an energy of 5.6 keV requires 5.6 kilovolts .

§2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
2.1 Wave packet and uncertainty:
Wave-like properties of particles (electrons, photons, etc.) reflect a
fundamental uncertainty in the “knowability” (existence?) of the

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particle’s precise location.

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For classical waves one can produce a localized “wave packet” by

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

superposing waves with a range of wave vectors k. E.g.:

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k: the spread in wave number

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

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 x: the spread in coordinate (the size

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of the wave packet) x

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
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• For wave packets: k.x 1 (see the next slides in more details)
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Interpretation:
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To make a short wavepacket requires a broad spread in wavelengths.

Conversely, a single-wavelength wave would extend forever.
 k → 0

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Wave with definite k () monochromatic plane wave

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 From the quantum relation between momentum and wavelength p = h/

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and the relation k = 2/   p = (h/2  ).k = ħ.k, where ħh/2 
(“h-

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bar”) we have a relation between the spread in the particle’s locations

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x and likely momenta p
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ħ(k·x 1)   (ħk)·x ħ  px·x ħ
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This relation is known as the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

 To understand the relation k·x 1 we consider the following
example
 Numerical example of
a wavepacket:
• Consider the superposition
of 7 sinusoidal waves with
the frequencies & amplitudes

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as below. The component

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waves have a “spead” in k,

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denoted by k.

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The result has such form

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k
• The superposition of an infinite
set of waves with the same “spread”
k has the form which is called
“wave packet”

Note that in the case of an infinite

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set of component waves which cover
a continum of k values, the

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superposition is a single wave packet.

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The Fourier mathematical analytics can

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provide rigorously the foundation

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for this result. The wave packet y(x)

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is represented by the following integral:

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o Wave packet

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From this integral one can show that k (the “spread” in k) and x (the
“spread” in x) are related through the equation k.x 1.
The meaning of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: “we cannot know
both the position and the momentum of a particle simuntaneously with
complete certainity”.
This principle is of fundamental importance in quantum physics.
It means also that in quantum physics there exists not the concept of
a particle’s “path”.

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Note that this uncertainty is from wave nature of particle, but not from

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errors of experimental measurements.

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2.2 Uncertainty in macro- and microscopic worlds:

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Example 1: A person of mass 60 kg who is moving along the x-axis with
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a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The uncertainty principle gives
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This uncertainty is clearly negligible in the macroscopic world.

 Example 2: An electron which is moving with a velocity 2.2x106 m/s
(a typical value of electron velocity in atom). We have

This distance is comparable to the size of the atom, so that this

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uncertainty must be important for electrons.

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Conclusion: The Heisenberg uncertainty becomes important only for

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microscopic objects. In the macroscopic world, this uncertainty is

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negligible.

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2.3 Uncertainty for energy and time:

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The periodity of sinusoidal waves is expressed by the function
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cos(ωt – kx). By analog to the relation k.x 1 for the pair (k, x), we
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can derive the relation ω. t 1 for the pair (ω, t).
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Then from E = h h(/  

ħ 
 ħ(ω.t)  ħ, and we have

E.t  ħ The Heisenberg uncertainty for energy and time.

The longer lifetime of a state, the smaller is its spread in energy.
§3.The Schrödinger equation:
Having established that matter acts qualitatively like a wave, we want
to be able to make precise quantitative predictions, under given conditions.
Usually the “conditions” are specified by giving a potential energy
U(x,y,z) in which the particle is located.

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E.g., * electron in the coulomb potential of the nucleus

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* electron in a molecule

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* electron in a solid crystal

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* electron in a semiconductor ‘quantum well’

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U(x)

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Classically, a particle
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For simplicity, in the lowest energy
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here is a 1-
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state would sit right at

dimensional the bottom of the well.
potential energy In QM this is not
function: possible. (Why?)
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 3.1 Wave function:
 We will see that we can get good predictions (actually, so far they
have never been wrong!!) by assuming that

the state of a particle is described by a “wave function”

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(or “probability amplitude”): (x,y,z,t)

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What do we measure? Often it’s: (x,y,z,t)

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  

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|(x,y,z,t)|2 = the probability density (per unit volume) for detecting

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a particle near some place (x,y,z), and at some time t.

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We need a “wave equation” describing how (x,y,z,t) behaves. It should
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 be as simple as possible

 make correct predictions

 reduce to the usual classical laws of physics when applied to

“classical” objects (e.g., baseballs)

3.2 The Schrödinger Equation (time-dependent):
 In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger proposed an equation that described
the time- and space-dependence of the wave function for slow
matter waves (i.e., electrons, protons,... NOT photons)
The (1-D) Schrödinger Equation (SEQ)

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2 d 2 ( x, t ) d ( x , t )
 U ( x )( x, t ) i 

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2
2m dx dt

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This equation describes the full time- and space dependence of a

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quantum particle in a potential U(x), replacing the classical particle

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dynamics law, a=F/m

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.
Important feature: Superposition Principle

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The time-dependent SEQ is linear in  (a constant times  is also a
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solution), and so the Superposition Principle applies:

If 1 and 2 are solutions to the time-dependent SEQ, then so is
any linear combination of 1 and 2
(example:  0.6 1 + 0.8 i 2)
 3.3 The (time-independent) Schrödinger Equation:
Before we consider the full time-dependence of states, we will look at a
special set of states, called “stationary”, which do nothing interesting in
time  the probability density | |2 does not change with time.

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• A state with a definite value of E is stationary:

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Since E = h.
 ħ  is definite  this corresponds to the case of

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monochromatic waves.

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For monochromatic waves the “t”-dependence is cos(t), or sin(t),

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or, more conveniently, exp(-it) = exp(-iEt/ħ).

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• In 1 dimension we can write (x,t)= (x).exp(-iEt/ħ). Substituting this

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form in 1-D SEQ (see the previous slide), we can separate the “t” variable
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and obtain w
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2
d 2 (x)
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 U (x)(x) E( x) Note: It’s a time-

independent eq.!
2
2m dx
This is one-dimensional Schrödinger Equation for stationary states
(states with a definte energy, or eigenstates).
 What does the time-independent SEQ represent?
It’s actually not so puzzling…it’s just an expression of a familiar result:
Kinetic Energy (KE) + Potential Energy (PE) = Total Energy (E)

2 d 2 ( x )
 U ( x ) ( x ) E ( x )

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2
2 m dx

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KE term PE term Total E term

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KE 2 d 2(x )

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Why it represents the kinetic energy of

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
term: the particle?

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2m dx 2

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   k
C o n s id e r :
o c o s(k x ), p

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d 2
w
2
 k 2 c o s ( k x )
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dx
2 d 2 2 k 2 p 2
 2
   
2m dx 2m 2m
p2
This wave function Ψ describes a free particle: U(x) = 0   E 
2m
3.4 Complementary conditions for wave functions:
As you see, the Schrödinger Equation is a differential equation of the
second order in wave function . To solve it and derive physical
consequences, we need use complementary conditions for .

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Restricting ourselves in the 1-D time-independent SEQ,  = (x),

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the following conditions must be imposed:

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
x& d/dx should be

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• finite

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• single-valued

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• continous

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What’s a quantum mechanical problem?
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For a given potential function U(x), you must
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• substitute U(x) in the Schrödinger equation

• identify the boundary conditions for wave function (x)
• find the eigenvalues of energy E (the energy levels)
• find the corresponding eigenstates (the specified wave functions)
§4. Solutions for some quantum systems:
By some examples you will see how can solve a quantum mechnical
problem and derive physical consequences.

4.1 Particle in a potential well:

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A potential well is of the following form:

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0 when 0 < x < a

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U(x) =

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∞ when x ≤0 and x ≥a

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• In classical mechanics, particle can

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move in the 1-D box, and have any energy (a continuum od energy levels).
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 How do particle behave in quantum mechanics?
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• Inside the well:

The time independent SEQ for the region 0 < x < a (U = 0):


  where

The general solution of this equation is

or, equivalently, (a, b, A, B are constants).

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• Outside the well: ψ(x) = 0 everywhere

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• Apply the required conditions to ψ(x):

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From the single valuedness at x = 0: ψ(x=0) = 0  A = 0

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

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Similarly, at x = a: ψ(x=a) = 0  B sin(ka) = 0
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 either if B=0, or if sin(ka)=0
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The option B=0 is trivial case, thus we must choose the second option:
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sin(ka)=0  k = n( /a) , n=1,2,3,… The eigenvalues for k.

Note that the n=0 possibility has not been included (why? see below
to understand).
The solutions for the problem (the eigenfunctions) are therefore

These are the wave functions which describe the states of a particle in
the 1-D potential well. They are “labelled” by interger numbers n.

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Now recall the equation , from the eigenvalues for k 

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

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

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It means that the particle’s energy may have a discrete set of values,

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called the energy levels of a particle in the potential well.
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Note that En is proportional to n2.
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• Normalization of the eigenfunctions:
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Recall that |ψ(x)|2 = the probability density (per unit volume) of finding
the particle  the total probability must be 1: 
 ( x ) dx 1 
2


 
n x 
a
2
   ( x ) dx  1 B 
2
B sin  2 2

 0 a  a

2 n x 
n ( x )  sin  , n 1, 2 ,3,...

a a 

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These are the normalized

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eigenfunctions which describe

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the particle’s states in

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F
the well.

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P
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* Remark: The lowest particle’s

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energy must be E1 which
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corresponds to n=1.
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We can not take n=0,

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because in this case ψ0

over all the space.
 It means that there exists
no particle !
4.2 Tunneling through a potential barrier:
A potential barrier is of the following form:

U0 when 0 < x < a

U(x) =
0 when x ≤0 and x ≥a

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Classically, a particle of total energy E

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(I) (II) (III)

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in the region x < 0 (the region I)

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• will remain in (I) as if E < U0

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• can move to the region (II) & (III) when E >U0

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But the situation is very different in quantum mechanics !

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o
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Time independent SEQ: w
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d 2 ( x ) 2 mE

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In the regions A & C:  k 2

( x )  0 , k 

1
dx 2 1

d (x)
2
2m(U 0 E )
In the region B: k 2  ( x )  0 , k2 
2

dx 2

(We are interested in the case E < U 0  k2 is real).
The solutions have the following form:
ik 1 x
 ( x )  Ae  Be
ik 1 x
, x 0
ik 1 x
 ( x ) Ce ik 1 x
 De , x a
k 2 x
 ( x )  Fe Ge , 0 x a

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k2 x

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A C

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B

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The equations for the coefficents:

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D 0 (in the region x>a there can not be waves reflected from ∞)
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A B F G (the single valuedness of ψat x=0)
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Ce ik1a Fe k2 a Ge k2 a (the single valuedness of ψat x=a)

ik1 A ik1B k2G k2 F (the single valuedness of dψ/dx at x=0)

ik1Ce k1a k2Gek2a k2 Fek2a (the single valuedness of dψ/dx at x=a)
 One introduces two quantities which is of physical interest:
B
2 R: The coeficient of reflection (the ratio between the
R 2 square of amplitude of the reflected wave and that of
A
the incident wave).
T: The coeficient of transmission (the ratio between the

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2
C

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T  2 square of amplitude of the transmitted wave and that of

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A

T
the incident wave).

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R and T give the probabilities of reflected and transmitted waves,

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respectively,

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By solving the equations for the coeficients (in the last slide) it is found

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that   2 k 2 a 2 m (U 0 E )
E
o E
.
T 16 
1 U 
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e k2 
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
w
U0  
w
0
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 In quantum mechanics, a particle with E < U0 , which is incident to a

potential barrier, has a certain probability T of penetrating through the
barrier and appearing on the other side.
This phenomenon is called barrier penetration or tunneling .
 l
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T
A solution for the wave function ψ(x)

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F
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Remark:

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• It is clear that ψ(x) is single-valued and continuous (dψ(x)/dx is single-

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valued also).
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• In the left side and the right side of the barrier the wave function
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is sinusoidal. Inside the barrier it is exponential.

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• The amplitude of the transmitted wave is smaller that of the incident

wave.
4.3 Simple harmonic oscillator:
In classical physics a harmonic oscillator is a particle acted on by a force
F = -kx. The corresponding potential energy is U(x) = ½ kx2 .
The wave function for a quantum harmonic oscillator obeys the following

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SEQ:

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m
F
By investigating and solving the SEQ it is found that:

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The energy levels of a quantum oscillator are

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 1 k

ni
E n n    where  n 1, 2,3,...
o
.
 2 w m
itr
w 1
w
1 mk 2
1  mk  2
8  x
E 0     2 2 
2
N

• The ground quantum state:  e

  
0
2
3
1 mk 2
• The next higher state: E1    1  2
3 mk  8 
2
x
 2 2 
xe 2

2   
 7
E 0  
2

l
o r
ia
T
5
E 0  

m
F
2

f.c
D
pd
P
tro
3

ni
E 0  
o
.
2 w
itr
w
w
N

1
E 0  
2
 Resume
Some formulas of the wave behavior of a particle:
h
 wavelength  momentum

l
p

ia
E
 frequency  energy

o r
T
h

m
p k  h  2

F
  k k  : the module of wave vector

f.c
 2 

D
pd
P
tro
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

ni
o
.
w E.t 
itr
p x .x 
w
w
N

The state of a paeticle is described by a “wave function” ( x , y , z , t )

( x , y , z , t )  Probability density of finding the particle

2

at the location x,y,z and the moment t

In general cases, the equation for the wave function is the 3-D
Schrödinger eqution (SEQ). For some physical problems one can reduce
to the 1-D case.
2 d 2 ( x, t ) d ( x , t )
The 1-D SEQ:  U ( x)( x, t ) i

l
2m dx 2 dt

o r
ia
For states with a definite value of E (stationary states) one can

T
m
separate the time variable

F
 E 
( x , t ) ( x ) exp i t 

f.c
.

D
 

pd
P
tro
Substituting in the time dependent 1-D SEQ we have the 1-D time

ni
o
2 d 2 (x)
.
independent SEQ:
 w U (x)(x) E( x)
itr
w
w
2
2m dx
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 With a given potential energy function U(x) we must solve the SEQ
to find the eigenvalues for energy and the eigenfunctions ( x ) .
The energy levels for some 1-D problems:
A particle in the indefinte potential well:
22
E n n 2 E 0 , E0  n 1, 2 ,3 ,...
2ma 2

l
ia
A quantum simple harmonic oscillator:

o r
T
m
 1 k n 1, 2,3,...


F
E n n   where 

f.c
 2

D
m

pd
P
tro
Quantum tunnelling: A particle can penetrate through a potential

ni
o
.
barrier even in the case when the particle’s energy E is less than the
w
itr
w
w
height U0 of the barrier.
N