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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

TOPICS Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

Evidence for wave-nature of light

• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves • Diffraction
• The Quantum Particle • Interference
• de Broglie hypothesis
• Davisson-Germer Experiment Evidence for particle-nature of light
• Quantum particle • Photoelectric effect
• The Uncertainty Principle • Compton effect

•This means true nature of light is not describable in

terms of any single classical picture.

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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

MATTER WAVES De Broglie
In 1923 Prince Louis de Broglie postulated that p = momentum of the particle,
h
an electrons or any other material particle must λ= h= p = m v for a non-relativistic particle
exhibit wave like properties in addition to particle p mv m = mass of the particle
properties V = velocity of the particle
Waves associated with a material particle is 1929, The electron accelerated through a potential
called matter waves Nobel Prize
difference of V has a non relativistic kinetic energy
h Planck’s constant
  h  6.6 3  1 0  3 4 Js
K  12 m v 2  e V m = mass, v = velocity
de Broglie wavelength p
p=mv = 2meV
and
h h h
f = E Energy of the particle λ= h =  
h p mv 2mK 2meV
frequency of the particle

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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: P-SE 40.5 The wavelength of an Electron

Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength for an
electron moving at 1.0 x 107 m/s.
SJ: P-SE 40.6 The Wavelength of a Rock
A rock of mass 50 g is thrown with a speed of
40 m/s. What is its de Broglie wavelength?
SJ: P-SE 40.7 An Accelerated Charged Particle
A particle of charge q and mass m has been accelerated
from rest to a nonrelativistic speed through a potential
difference of V. Find an expression for its de Broglie
wavelength.
SJ: Section 40.5 P-35 (a) An electron has a
kinetic energy of 3.0 eV. Find its wavelength.
(b) Also find the wavelength of a photon having
the same energy.

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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Davisson-Germer experiment (1927)
Davisson -Germer experiment Proof of existence of Matter waves
& Scatters beam of electrons from a
Electron Diffraction pattern Ni crystal.

These two experiments confirmed de- Broglie

relationship p = h /.
Subsequently it was found that atomic beams, and beams Davisson G.P. Thomson
of neutrons, also exhibit diffraction when reflected from 1937 : Nobel prize.
regular crystals. Thus de Broglie's formula seems to apply
to any kind of matter.

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 A beam of electrons from a heated filament is accelerated through a

potential difference V.
Results
 The collimated beam of electrons strikes a single crystal of nickel.
For beam of 54eV energy have sharp maximum
in the electron distribution occurred at angle
 Electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms in the crystal.
50o .
 The electron intensity is measured by a detector which can be
moved to any angle  relative to the incident beam.

The kink for 54 V

electrons gives the
strong existence of
electron waves, since
strong diffraction peak
is observed at ɸ =50⁰

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Davisson & Germer experiment • Bragg’s equation:

2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛 𝜆
For Nickel crystal:
Energy of the d=0.91Å; θ=65⁰; n=1
electron beam, 2 × 0.91 × sin 65 = 1.65Å
the angle at 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓Å
which they reach
• De Broglie formula:
the target , and ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
position of the 𝑝 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
detector could be =
.
varied. . .

𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔Å

Since electron KE is 54 eV (small compared with its rest energy mc2=0.51 MeV );
we can write pe=  mv = mv ( as  =1)
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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Now the dual nature of matter and radiation is

Subsequently it was found that atomic beams,
and beams of neutrons, also exhibit diffraction
when reflected from regular crystals. Thus de
Broglie's formula seems to apply to any kind of
matter.
an accepted fact. And it is stated in the principle
of complementarity. This states that wave and
particle models of either matter or radiation
compliment each other.

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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Q. In the Davisson-
Q. A particle of charge q and mass m has been
Germer experiment, 54.0
accelerated from rest to a nonrelativistic speed through
eV electrons were
a potential difference of V. Find an expression for its de
diffracted from a nickel
Broglie wavelength.
lattice. If the first
maximum in the
diffraction pattern was
observed at = 50.0°,
Q. (a) An electron has a kinetic energy of 3.0 what was the lattice
eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find the spacing a between the
wavelength of a photon having the same vertical rows of atoms in
energy. the figure?

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Electron Diffraction pattern-Experiment • What is a Quantum Particle?

Double –slit experiment with electrons (1989)

• How to represent a quantum particle?

• Wave packet
•Phase velocity
•Group velocity

•Conclusion
•Summary

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

What is a Quantum Particle? How to represent a quantum particle?

To represent a quantum wave, we have to

Quantum particle is a model by which
particles having dual nature are represented.
We must choose one appropriate behavior for
the quantum particle (particle or wave) in
order to understand a particular behavior.
combine the essential features of both an ideal
particle and an ideal wave.
An essential feature of a particle is that it is
localized in space. But an ideal wave is
infinitely long (unlocalized) as shown in figure
below.

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Now to build a localized entity from an If we add up large number of waves in a similar
infinitely long wave, waves of same way, the small localized region of space where
amplitude, but slightly different frequencies constructive interference takes place is called a
are superposed. The result of superposition of wavepacket, which represents a particle.
two such waves are shown below.

In the figure, large

number of waves are
Combined. The result
is a wave packet,
which represents a
particle.

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Beat
Mathematical Representation of a wave packet Where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2. frequency

superposition of two waves of equal amplitude, but The resulting wave oscillates with the average
frequency, and its amplitude envelope varies
with slightly different frequencies, f1 & f2 and
according to the difference frequency.
wavelengths, traveling in the same direction are
considered. The waves are written as
(
y = A cos k 1 x - ω 1 t
1
) and (
y 2 = A cos k 2 x - ω 2 t )
The resultant wave is, y = y1 + y2

[ (
y = 2A cos
Δk Δω
2
x-
2
t )] cos( k +2k x - ω +2ω t)
1 2 1 2

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

This envelope can travel through space with a different A realistic wave is characterized by two different
speed than the individual waves. This speed is called speeds. The phase speed, the speed with which
the group speed or the speed of the wave packet (the single wave moves, which is given by
group of waves)

The group speed, υg =

(Δω 2) =
Δω
(Δk 2) Δk & the group speed, the speed with which the
envelope moves. This is given by
For a superposition of large number of waves to form a
wave packet, this ratio is
dω
υg =
dk In general these two speeds are not the same.

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Relation between group speed and phase speed Relation between group speed and particle speed

ω E 2π 2π 2π p
we have, υphase = =fλ ω = 2π f = 2π and k= = =
k h λ hp h
2π
i.e., ω = k υphase = k υp dω dE dE
vg = = h =
dk 2π dp
d ( kvp ) dυp dp
dω h
But υg = = =k + υp For a classical particle moving with speed u, the
dk dk dk
kinetic energy E is given by
Substituting for k in terms of , we get 1 2 p2 2 p dp dE p
E= mu = and dE = or = = u
dυ p 2 2m 2m dp m
g = p –  dω dE
dλ i.e., υg = = speed
= v, the particle velocity
dk dp
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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED

we should identify the group speed with the Electron interference

particle speed, speed with which the energy Experimental details
moves. And the discussion of
the results
To represent a realistic wave packet, confined to
The slit separation d is much greater than the individual slit
a finite region in space, we need the widths and much less than the distance between the slit and
superposition of large number of harmonic waves the detector. The electron detector is movable along the y
direction in the drawing and so can detect electrons
with a range of k values.
diffracted at different values of . The detector acts like the
“viewing screen” of Young’s double-slit experiment with
light as learned in interference of light.
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THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED

This experiment proves the dual nature of electrons.

Photograph of a double-slit
interference pattern produced
by electrons.
The electrons are detected as particles at a localized
spot at some instant of time, but the probability of
arrival at that spot s determined by finding the
intensity of two interfering waves.

If slit 2 is blocked half the time, keeping slit 1

the min imum occurs when dsinθ  λ/2
Electron wavelengt h is given by λ  h /p. open, and slit 1 blocked for remaining half the time,
h keeping 2 open, the accumulated pattern of
For small angle θ, sin θ ≈ θ 
2pd counts/ min is shown by blue curve. That is
interference pattern is lost and the result is simply
the sum of the individual results.
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THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
Results of the two-slit electron diffraction
experiment with each slit closed half the time (blue).
The result with both slits open (interference pattern)
is shown in brown.
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• A wave packet is localized – a good representation
for a particle!
• A wave packet is a group of waves with slightly
different wavelengths interfering with one another in
a way that the amplitude of the group (envelope) is
non-zero only in the neighbourhood of the particle
• If several waves of different wavelengths
(frequencies) and phases are superposed
together, one would get a resultant which is a
localized wave packet
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THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
The observed interference pattern when both the
slits are open, suggests that each particle goes
through both slits at once. We are forced to
conclude that an electron interacts with both the
slits simultaneously shedding its localized
behaviour.
If we try to find out which slit the particle goes
through the interference pattern vanishes! Means,
if we know which path the particle takes, we lose
the fringes. We can only say that the electron
passes through both the slits.
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• The velocities of the individual waves which
superpose to produce the wave packet representing
the particle are different - the wave packet as a whole
has a different velocity from the waves that comprise
it
• Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the
wave propagates in space
• Group velocity: The rate at which the envelope of the
wave packet propagates
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For a particle represented by a single

wavelength wave existing throughout
The spread of wave packet in wavelength depends on space,  is precisely known, and
the required degree of localization in space – the according to de- Broglie hypothesis, its p
central wavelength is given by is also known accurately. But the position
(x) of the particle becomes uncertain.
This means  = 0, p =0; but x = 
h
 
p In contrast, if a particle
whose momentum is
uncertain (combination/
a range of wavelengths
The uncertainty principle is confirmed by experiment, are taken to form a
and is a direct consequence of the de Broglie’s hypothesis wavepacket ), so that x
is small, but  is large.
If x =0, , & thereby
p = 

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THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Quantum theory predicts that, it is fundamentally

impossible to make simultaneous measurements
of a particle’s position & momentum with
infinite accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. The uncertainties arise from
 
h
, we have the following the quantum structure of matter.
p In short ( x ) ( px) ≥ h / 4

x  Also ( E ) ( t) ≥ h / 4

These uncertainties are inherent in the physical world

x and have nothing to do with the skill of the observer or
 ? with quality of the experimental equipment
x : large |∆p small
x : small |∆p large
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THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Locating an electron Q. Find the minimum kinetic energy of a

The speed of an electron is measured to be proton confined within a nucleus having a
5.00 x 103 m/s to an accuracy of 0.0030%.
diameter of 1.0 x 10-15 m. [5.21 MeV]
Find the minimum uncertainty in determining
the position of this electron. [0.386 mm]

The Line Width of Atomic Emissions

The lifetime of an excited atom is given as 1.0 x 10-8 s.
Using the uncertainty principle, compute the line width
f produced by this finite lifetime? [8.0 × 106 Hz]

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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

Q. A typical atomic nucleus is about 5×10-15 m. use
QUESTIONS
the uncertainty principle to place a lower limit on
1. Explain (a) Stefan’s law (b) Wien’s displacement law
the energy an electron must have if it is to be part
(c) Rayleigh-Jeans law. [1 EACH]
of nucleus. [20MeV]
2. Sketch schematically the graph of wavelength vs intensity of
radiation from a blackbody. [1]
3. Explain Planck’s radiation law. [2]
4. Write the assumptions made in Planck’s hypothesis of
blackbody radiation. [2]
5. Explain photoelectric effect. [1]
6. What are the observations in the experiment on photoelectric
effect? [5]
7. What are the classical predictions about the photoelectric
effect? [3]
8. Explain Einstein’s photoelectric equation. [2]

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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

QUESTIONS QUESTIONS
10.Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment 20.Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the
explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation? [2] particle speed. [2]
11.Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference to 21.Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. [1]
the photoelectric effect: (a) photoelectric current vs applied 22.Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and
voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic electron vs momentum (b) energy and time. [1]
frequency of incident light. [1EACH]
12.Explain Compton effect. [2]
13.Explain the experiment on Compton effect. [5]
14.Derive the Compton shift equation. [5]
15.Explain the wave properties of the particles. [2]
16.Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically. [2]
17.Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.
[1+1]

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