Proterozoic iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE) deposits:

Further evidence of hydrothermal origins

P. A. Gow
Department of Earth Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
V. J. Wall
Mount Isa Mines Exploration, P.O. Box 1042, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia
N. H. S. Oliver
School of Applied Geology, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6001, Australia
R. K. Valenta

Department of Earth Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia

ABSTRACT
Variations in the structural setting and mineralogy of Proterozoic iron oxide Cu-U-Au-
REE (rare earth element) deposits, particularly regarding apparent depth of formation, have
resulted in models ranging from direct injection of an Fe-oxide melt to formation via hydro-
thermal replacement. The Emmie Bluff Fe-oxide deposit, South Australia, is unequivocally of
hydrothermal origin and exhibits overprinting relations, visible at both the meso- and micro-
scopic scale, that strongly support a model involving two temporally distinct fluids, as previ-
ously proposed for the enormous Olympic Dam deposit. The evidence indicates that the first
stage of magnetite-rich ore formation was associated with high-temperature fluids from a m^jor
mid-Proterozoic felsic intrusive event. This was followed by infiltration of lower temperature
fluids that produced the hematite-rich mineralization. Whole-rock stable isotope analyses are
consistent with this model and suggest that the initial fluids were magmatic, with a 8 l s O value
of 8%<>-9%o, whereas the later mineralizing fluids had lower values, 0%«-2%<>, perhaps indicative
of a meteoric fluid component.

INTRODUCTION netite-rich event. Other temporally and spatially related deposits on

Proterozoic Fe-oxide Cu-U-Au-REE (rare earth element) de-
posits are an important new type of ore deposit that has only been
categorized in recent years (Meyer, 1988). Discussion of the depos-
its has been characterized by the presence of a variety of genetic
models. The wide range of views on the origins of these deposits
stems from the large variation in their morphology and apparent
structural setting; genetic models include sedimentary-exhalative
(Parak, 1988), subsurface intrusion of immiscible Fe-oxide melts
(Frietsch, 1989), and hydrothermal replacement (Hitzman et al.,
1992). Recent work on several deposits of this class has produced
evidence that the third process, hydrothermal replacement, is com-
monly a prominent factor in their formation (i.e., Oreskes and Ein-
audi, 1992—Olympic Dam, South Australia; Sidder et al., 1993—
Pea Ridge, Missouri). This is particularly true of the deposits on the
Stuart shelf of South Australia, including the richest deposit of this
class, the giant Olympic Dam Cu-Au-U-Ag-REE hematite-domi-
nated breccia complex (2 billion tonnes at —35% Fe; Hitzman et al.,
1992). The Olympic Dam deposit is now generally accepted as of
hydrothermal origin (Oreskes and Einaudi, 1990; Reeve et al., 1990);
however, the nature and timing of the complex events that produced
the iron oxide and Cu-U-Au-REE mineralization are still unclear.
Oreskes and Einaudi (1992) presented stable isotope and fluid-in-
clusion results from Olympic Dam which indicated that at least two
temporally distinct fluid types were involved in Fe-oxide formation
and ore genesis. They suggested that the first was a high-temperature
(—400 °C) fluid associated with magnetite formation and possibly of
magmatic origin, whereas the later fluid, which was associated with
hematite-bearing ore breccias, was a lower temperature (200-
400 °C) fluid with some component of surficial origin. Visible evi-
dence of this two-phase fluid evolution and associated ore paragen-
esis is rare at Olympic Dam, because the main phase of intense
hematite alteration has obliterated most traces of the earlier mag-
the Stuart shelf are typically less complex and provide an insight into
the processes that may have operated at Olympic Dam during its
early stages of formation. The Emmie Bluff Fe-oxide deposit (—75
km south of Olympic Dam; Fig. 1) is a good example because it is
a relatively uncomplicated deposit, structurally and mineralogically,
and contains excellent examples of both early high-temperature mag-
netite-dominated endoskarn assemblages and later lower tempera-
ture hematite-hosted mineralization. These assemblages show clear
overprinting relations that may be the equivalent of the two-stage
history suggested for Olympic Dam (Oreskes and Einaudi, 1992).
STUART SHELF, SOUTH AUSTRALIA
The Olympic Dam and Emmie Bluff deposits are found on the
Stuart shelf, a 50-200-km-wide strip along the eastern margin of the
Gawler craton of South Australia. It consists of a basement of vo-
luminous felsic volcanic and plutonic rocks of the post-tectonic mid-
Proterozoic Gawler Range volcanic-plutonic event (—1600-1580
Ma; Creaser and Cooper, 1993). These units intrude and overlie an
interbedded greenschist facies calc-silicate-siltstone unit of un-
known age, termed the Wandearah metasiltstone, and older meta-
morphic basement of interpreted Early Proterozoic age (Parker,
1990). The whole Stuart shelf is overlain by 250 to > 1250 m of Late
Proterozoic-age Cambrian cover. In addition to Olympic Dam, the
region hosts many less richly mineralized metasomatic Fe-oxide de-
posits (i.e., Acropolis, Wirrda Well, Oak Dam, and Murdie; Pater-
son and Muir, 1986). In all of these deposits a positive correlation
exists among three factors: (1) intensity of cataclastic brecciation, (2)
hematite/magnetite ratios, and (3) extent and grade of mineraliza-
tion. The presence and intensity of these three factors create a spec-
trum of styles of Fe-oxide alteration, with the highly brecciated,
hematite-enriched, mineralized units at one end (i.e., Olympic Dam)
and the magnetite-rich, poorly mineralized deposits at the other end

GEOLOGY, v. 22, p. 633-636, July 1994 633

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 (i.e., the Murdie deposit). The Emmie Bluff deposit is mineralized
but uneconomic, and is in the center of this spectrum.
EMMIE BLUFF DEPOSIT
The Emmie Bluff Fe-oxide deposit was located by diamond
drilling of coincident gravity and magnetic highs, resulting in six drill
holes intersecting a 150-m-thick Fe-oxide unit at ~800 m depth
(Sheard and Binks, 1987). The deposit is situated on a subvertical
arcuate regional-scale dip-slip fault, which is visible in aeromagnetic
Figure 1. Generalized geologic elements of Stuart shelf and Gawler era-
ton. Stuart shelf is located on easternmost margin of Gawler craton and
is truncated by Torrens hinge zone, to east of which Late Proterozoic-
Cambrian cover sequence thickens dramatically within Adelaide fold belt
(after Parker, 1990).
and gravity data (Gow et al., 1993), and is evident within the deposit
by the juxtaposition of older metamorphic units to the north (drill
hole SAE4) with the felsic volcanic rocks to the south (drill hole
SAE7). The crosscutting nature of the deposit, with respect to this
major fault, indicates that much of the fault movement predated, or
was synchronous with, the principal period of Fe-oxide meta-
somatism and that the fault has acted to localize magnetite-bearing
fluids. This is confirmed by the presence of smaller deposits along
the same structure (i.e., the Winjabbie magnetite-dominated depos-
it). The zone of Fe-oxide alteration at Emmie Bluff is —3 km in
diameter and consists of a highly fractured zone of discordant mag-
netite-rich skarn alteration to the south (drill hole SAE7) and an
essentially stratabound metasomatic Fe-oxide-rich subhorizontal
unit, localized in fine-grained laminated units of the Wandearah
metasiltstone, to the north. The Cu-U-Au mineralization is hosted
within the northern section of the deposit in a hematite-rich zone
associated with late-stage reverse faulting. This mineralized zone
clearly overprints the earlier higher temperature magnetite
alteration.
The discordant highly fractured zone of alteration is hosted
within a sericitized trachytic-textured rhyodacite, which typically
displays chloritized phenocrysts. The magnetite is present within an
upper hornblende-hornfels facies skarnlike assemblage consisting of
combinations of clinopyroxene, amphibole, garnet, quartz, calcite,-
K-feldspar, pyrite, and magnetite. The host rocks show little evi-
dence of deformation (i.e., development of a penetrative foliation or
pervasive fold pattern), indicating that the Ca-Fe-rich assemblages
are almost certainly associated with intrusion rather than related to
regional metamorphism. These assemblages are found as replace-
ments of the host and within veins, up to 6 cm wide, showing
open-space growth textures and commonly prominent magnetite ha-
loes (Fig. 2A). The veins are typically found as multistage networks,
interpreted as forming because of high fluid pressures associated
with intrusion and volatile release. Within zones of intense veining
the trachytic texture of the host volcanic rock has been destroyed by
recrystallization and metasomatism. These high-temperature Ca-
Fe-rich assemblages are common across the Stuart shelf (i.e., the
Murdie, Cockey Swamp, and Acropolis deposits; Paterson and
Muir, 1986), and as in most of the Proterozoic iron oxide Cu-U-Au-
REE deposit-bearing districts (i.e.,Kiruna—Cliff and Rickard, 1992;
St. Francois terrane—Kisvarsanyi, 1990), they are typically hosted
by felsic volcanic or intrusive rocks.
The more concordant northern zone of the deposit is hosted by
the Wandearah metasiltstone, a 250-m-thick unit composed of a
poorly sorted basal arkosic unit that fines upward into a sequence of

F i g u r e 2. P h o t o m i c r o -
graphs of important as-
semblages and textures
within Emmie Bluff deposit.
A: Quartz-amphibole-mag-
netite-skarn assemblage
within vein networks in
quartz-rich volcaniclastic
unit. Formation of magnet-
ite is strongly controlled by
layering and distance from
vein. Transmitted light. B:
M a g n e t i t e (m) w i t h i n
quartz-amphibole skarn
assemblage, showing al-
teration to hematite (h). Re-
flected light. C: Formation
of chalcopyrite (c) and
quartz within matrix of
brecciated pyrite (p) grain.
Reflected light.

634 GEOLOGY, July 1994

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 Cu content (ppm) Magnetic Susceptibility Whole Rock
(SI x 10«) 8180
3 5
10' IO IO 10' (%<>)
800 • • • • • • • — • • » •—• 800 -
Pandurra Formation - arenaceous
Upper Q [vy.VVv

\
sedimentary deposits
850 • 850 • X X U
X i—i Silicifled reverse-fault zone
X X
X O
900 900 • X X N Fe-oxide rich, tine-grained, laminated
X O Middle?
sedimentary deposits containing
7 S5 S siliciclastic lenses - interpreted as an
equivalent of the Wandearah Metasiltstone
950 • — osn 0.17 w
H Vo" «Vl Coarse-grained arkosic unit - interpreted
§ ^CT hematite- • O »?.?[ as a locally derived basal unit for the
rich Pi Wandearah Metasiltstone
.C 1000 -^T 1000 CLh
K. 1.38 Metagranite - interpreted as a
u
Q 4.19
Lower
LE Lincoln Complex equivalent

1050 -) 1050
6.38
...... / ••o..OC
1100 0• © ».OD ••
/ magnetite Figure 3. Logs of Cu content and magnetic susceptibility
\ - rich 0 O •• in drill hole SAE6 from Emmie Bluff area. Cu values are
O»* 10.54 highest immediately below reverse-fault zone, where fluid
1150 - 1150 J 6 0° • • 8.86
Oí• o«..oac0 flow has been focused by increased permeability associ-
V • o *t ated with fault-related brittle fracturing. Cu-bearing fluids
os•• «a• «o
.o e
•».«e
have deposited Cu sulfides and oxidized magnetite to hem-
1200 1200 atite in oxidation-reduction reaction described In text.

interbedded cherts, lutites, and carbonate-facies sediments (Fig. 3).
The magnetite alteration is hosted within the fine-grained laminated
units, typically with a lower temperature assemblage of chlorite +
quartz + magnetite ± pyrite, with localized zones rich in actinolite,
apatite, tourmaline, or K-feldspar. The bulk of the magnetite is fine
grained and disseminated (locally grading to massive), and on a mi-
croscopic scale it shows evidence of strong preferential growth in
the quartz-poor layers, particularly at vein margins. The magnetite
may also be present as larger grains showing a bladed habit (Fig. 2B).
On a mesoscale, physicochemical controls have acted to localize
magnetite deposition. Magnetite is abundant in the fine-grained fer-
ruginous phyllosilicate-rich layers that have reacted with the mag-
netite-bearing fluids, whereas the quartzose-arkosic units have re-
mained relatively unaltered (see the log of magnetic susceptibility in
Fig. 3).
The Cu mineralization is present as chalcopyrite, bornite, and
minor covellite, within a low-temperature assemblage of hematite +
quartz + chlorite + pyrite. This assemblage may be present as veins
or as a replacement of the host rock. Much of the hematite shows
magnetite cores, indicating the existence of precursor magnetite.
Although some preexisting pyrite is present with the early high-
temperature magnetite, the bulk of the sulfides in the deposit are
spatially and temporally associated with hematite, suggesting that
the second-stage fluids were rich in sulfur (Fig. 2C). The petroge-
netic relations between the oxide minerals, combined with a com-
parison of the silicate assemblages from the two major phases of
Fe-oxide deposition (i.e., early high-temperature skarn assemblages
followed by a lower temperature quartz-chlorite assemblage), sug-
gest that the later mineralizing fluids were at a lower temperature,
and were more oxidizing and Cu rich, than the earlier fluids that
deposited the magnetite. The ore-forming reaction, which has been
discussed widely among economic geologists but has not been pub-
lished, may be generalized as
32Fe 3 0 4 + 4(SC>4_) + 2Cu + + 6 H +
magnetite + sulfur-rich Cu-bearing fluid
= 47Fe 2 0 3 + 2CuFeS 2 + 3H 2 0.
= hematite + chalcopyrite + fluid.
The channeling of the mineralizing fluids in the Emmie Bluff
area has been locally controlled by a set of reverse faults that pro-
duce stratigraphic repetitions in the Wandearah metasiltstone. The
relation between these structures and the regional-scale fault that
has localized magnetite deposition is unclear. One of the reverse
faults is present in drill hole SAE6 (Fig. 3) where it truncates the
metasomatized magnetite-rich Wandearah metasiltstone with an up-
lifted block of the underlying Early Proterozoic-age metagranite.
Veins of the ore-bearing assemblage chlorite + hematite + Cu sul-
fides are present both crosscutting and within breccia clasts of the
silicifled fault zone, indicating that movement on the fault was syn-
chronous with mineralization. Negligible Cu mineralization devel-
oped in the overlying metagranite due to a lack of magnetite as a
source of iron for the mineralizing reaction, but immediately below
the fault zone extensive deposition of Cu sulfides occurred in the
magnetite-rich Wandearah metasiltstone. Enhanced permeability
caused by brittle fracturing associated with the fault was also a major
influence on the localization of mineralization. In contrast to the
metagranite above the fault, which shows few brittle-fracture tex-
tures, the highly mineralized Wandearah metasiltstone is exten-
sively brecciated, with a correspondingly high permeability. The
intense brecciation extends —60 m below the fault, and the gradual
decrease in brecciation correlates with the gradually decreasing Cu
grades below the fault (Fig. 3). This variability in permeability may
reflect the propensity of the banded metasiltstone to fracture, par-
ticularly along bedding planes, rather than the massive granite.
Quartz and calcite veining occurred throughout the mineraliz-
ing phase, locally producing multistage veins showing open-space
growth textures. The Cu sulfides are typically associated with the
quartz phases. Pervasive sericite alteration and late-stage fluorite
veins represent the final phases of the hydrothermal activity (Table
1).
PRELIMINARY ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE
Nine whole-rock samples from drill holes SAE7 and SAE6
were prepared for oxygen isotope analysis. Three samples consisted
of high-temperature magnetite skarn assemblages (hosted by felsic
volcanic rocks) and recorded 8 1 8 0 values between 7.79%« and 9.55%o
(relative to standard mean ocean water [SMOW]), which are char-

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 TABLE 1. ALTERATION PARAGENESIS
Stage Description Assemblage
Magnetite-quartz ± amphibole ±
pyroxene ± garnet, ± K-feldspar ±
1 Fe metasomatism
tourmaline ± calcite ± biotite ±
pyrite ± apatite
Quartz - hematite - pyrite ± Cu-
2 Hematite overprint
sulfides ± chlorite ± epidote
3 Late-stage veins Calcite, fluorite
4 Pervasive alteration Sericite
acteristic values for magmatic-derived fluids (Taylor and Sheppard,
1986). The other samples were taken from the mineralized Wan-
dearah metasiltstone in drill hole SAE6 and recorded more complex
results, with 8 1 8 0 values ranging from 0.17%o to 10.54%c, showing a
systematic trend with regard to the degree of hematite alteration
(Fig. 3). The lowest 8 1 8 0 value (0.17%o) is in the samples showing the
most intense hematite alteration immediately below the fault zone.
As the degree of brecciation and the hematite/magnetite ratio de-
creases, 5 1 8 0 increases to 8%<^10%c in the relatively unaltered ar-
kosic units below 1090 m (150 m below the fault). If we assume that
the fractionation factor for hematite is similar to that of magnetite
(Clayton and Epstein, 1958), calculations based on the mineral abun-
dances and the whole-rock 8 l s O values for the two hematite +
quartz-rich samples indicate that the mineralizing fluids had a 8 l s O
oi0%o-2%o. These calculations are based on a temperature of 250 °C
for the chlorite-quartz-hematite assemblage and use fractionation
factors from Bottinga and Javoy (1973). These results suggest that
magnetite and hematite in the Emmie Bluff area were formed from
different fluids with a marked contrast in oxygen isotope ratios. The
value of the later fluid associated with hematite deposition (0%o-2%o)
is consistent with the two-fluid model for Olympic Dam (Oreskes
and Einaudi, 1992), in which the low 8 l s O value of the fluids asso-
ciated with overprinting hematite may reflect meteoric fluids that
infiltrated the rocks at moderate temperatures (Ohmoto, 1986).
DISCUSSION
The evidence presented above indicates that genesis of the Cu
mineralization in the Emmie Bluff deposit involved two stages: (1)
deposition of magnetite and pyrite, characteristically as skarnlike
Ca-Fe-rich assemblages, from magmatic fluids with a 8 l s O of ~8%o-
9%o, at low pressures, and at temperatures of 400-600 °C; and (2)
overprinting of the magnetite assemblages by hematite-associated
Cu mineralization from lower temperature Cu-rich fluids, with some
meteoric component and a 8 l s O between 0%o and 2%o.
The source of fluids for the early metasomatic event that pro-
duced the magnetite were clearly magmatic and were probably re-
lated to the main phase of felsic intrusion associated with the Gawler
Range volcanic-plutonic event (i.e., the Hiltaba suite of granitoids).
The source of the later oxidized mineralizing fluids remains debat-
able. Timing relations from Olympic Dam indicate that the primary
hydrothermal activity and formation of the breccia complex were
coeval with the Gawler Range volcanic-plutonic event (Reeve et al.,
1990). If this is correct, the data presented here suggest that the latest
stages of the Gawler Ranges volcanic-plutonic event involved down-
ward circulation of surface-derived meteoric fluids along major re-
verse faults, with attendant mineralization.
636
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Supported by Mount Isa Mines Exploration Proprietary Limited and
North Broken Hill-Geopeko Proprietary Limited. We thank Ian Cartwright
for the isotope analyses, and Naomi Oreskes, Alfonso Trudu, and Bear
McPhail for comments on the manuscript.
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Manuscript received November 5, 1993
Revised manuscript received April 20, 1994
Manuscript accepted April 26, 1994
Printed in U.S.A. GEOLOGY, July 1994