STORY OF IGNITION SYSTEM IN

AUTOMOBILES
INTRODUCTION:
An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high
temperature to ignite a fuel-air mixture in spark ignition internal
combustion engines, oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, rocket engines,
etc. The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion
engines is in petrol (gasoline) road vehicles such as cars and
motorcycles.

Compression ignition Diesel engines ignite the fuel-air mixture by the

heat of compression and do not need a spark. They usually have glow
plugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow starting in cold
weather. Other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition.
While this was common for very early engines it is now rare.

The first ignition was probably Alessandro Volta's toy electric pistol
from the 1780s.

Siegfried Marcus patented his "Electrical igniting device for gas

engines" on 7 October 1884.

HISTORY:
 The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto
 The engine spins a magnet inside a coil, or, in the earlier
designs, a coil inside a fixed magnet, and also operates a contact
breaker, interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be
increased sufficiently to jump a small gap.
 The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto
output. Early magnetos had one coil, with the contact breaker
(sparking plug) inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902,
Bosch introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking
plug, and the contact breaker outside the cylinder.
 Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they
generate their own electricity they are often found on small
engines such as those found in mopeds, lawnmowers,
snowblowers, chainsaws, etc. where a battery-based electrical
system is not present for any combination of necessity, weight,
cost, and reliability reasons.
 They are also used on piston-engine aircraft engines. Although
an electrical supply is available, magneto systems are used
mainly because of their higher reliability.
 Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the
stationary "hit and miss" engine which was used in the early
twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors
before battery starting and lighting became common, and on
aircraft piston engines.
 Magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity
and self-contained operation was more reliable, and because
magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or
alternator.
 Aircraft engines usually have dual magnetos to provide
redundancy in the event of a failure, and to increase efficiency
by thoroughly and quickly burning the fuel air mix from both
sides towards the center.
 The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built
for them in 1903 by Dayton, Ohio inventor, Vincent Groby
Apple.
 Some older automobiles had both a magneto system and a
battery actuated system running simultaneously to ensure proper
ignition under all conditions with the limited performance each
system provided at the time. This gave the benefits of easy
starting (from the battery system) with reliable sparking at speed
(from the magneto).
 Many modern magneto systems (except for small engines) have
removed the second (high voltage) coil from the magneto itself
and placed it in an external coil assembly similar to the ignition
coil described below.
 In this development, the induced current in the coil in the
magneto also flows through the primary of the external coil,
 generating a high voltage in the secondary as a result. Such a
system is referred to as an 'energy transfer system'. Energy
transfer systems provide the ultimate in ignition reliability.

MODERN IGNITION SYSTEM:

The ignition system is typically controlled by a key operated Ignition
switch.

MECHANICALLY TIMED IGNITION:

Most four strokes engines have used a mechanically timed electrical

ignition system. The heart of the system is the distributor. The
distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the engine's drive, a set
of breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External
to the distributor is the ignition coil, the spark plugs and wires linking
the distributor to the spark plugs and ignition coil.

The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the

car's electrical system using a dynamo or alternator. The engine
operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current to an
induction coil (known as the ignition coil).

The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings — the primary

and secondary. These windings share a common magnetic core. An
alternating current in the primary induces an alternating magnetic
field in the core and hence an alternating current in the secondary.
The ignition coil's secondary has more turns than the primary. This is
a step-up transformer, which produces a high voltage from the
secondary winding. The primary winding is connected to the battery
(usually through a current-limiting ballast resistor). Inside the ignition
coil one end of each winding is connected together. This common
point is taken to the capacitor/contact breaker junction. The other,
high voltage, end of the secondary is connected to the distributor's
rotor.
The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact
breaker) closed. A steady current flow from the battery, through the
current-limiting resistor, through the primary coil, through the closed
breaker points and finally back to the battery. This current produces a
magnetic field within the coil's core. This magnetic field forms the
energy reservoir that will be used to drive the ignition spark.

As the engine crankshaft turns, it also turns the distributor shaft at half
the speed. In a four-stroke engine, the crankshaft turns twice for the
ignition cycle. A multi-lobed cam is attached to the distributor shaft;
there is one lobe for each engine cylinder. A spring-loaded rubbing
block follows the lobed portions of the cam contour and controls the
opening and closing of points. During most of the cycle, the rubbing
block keeps the points closed to allow a current to build in the ignition
coil's primary winding. As a piston reaches the top of the engine's
compression cycle, the cam's lobe is high enough to cause the breaker
points to open. Opening the points causes the current through the
primary coil to stop. Without the steady current through the primary,
the magnetic field generated in the coil immediately collapses. This
high rate of change of magnetic flux induces a high voltage in the
coil's secondary windings that ultimately causes the spark plug's gap
to arc and ignite the fuel.

The spark generation story is a little more complicated. The purpose

of the ignition coil is to make a spark that jumps the spark plug's gap,
which might be 0.025 inches (0.64 mm) (it also has to jump the rotor-
to-distributor-post gap). At the moment the points open, there is a
much smaller gap, say about 0.00004 inches (0.001 mm), across the
points. Something must be done to prevent the points from arcing as
they separate; if the points arc, then they will drain the magnetic
energy that was intended for the spark plug. The capacitor
(condenser) performs that task. The capacitor temporarily keeps the
primary current flowing so the voltage across the points is below the
point's arcing voltage. There is a race: the voltage across the points is
increasing as the primary current charges the capacitor, but at the
same time the points' separation (and consequent arcing voltage) is
increasing. Ultimately, the point separation will increase to something
such as 0.015 inches (0.38 mm), the maximum separation of the
points.

In addition to staying below the arcing voltage, the ignition system

keeps the voltage across the points below the breakdown voltage for
an air gap to prevent a glow discharge across the points. Such a glow
discharge would quickly transition to an arc, and the arc would
prevent the spark plug from firing. The minimum voltage for a glow
discharge in air is about 320 V. Consequently, the capacitor value is
chosen to also keep the voltage across the points to be less than
320 V. Keeping the points from arcing when they separate is the
reason the ignition coil includes a secondary winding rather than
using just a simple inductor. If the transformer has a 100:1 ratio, then
the secondary voltage can reach 30 kV.

The ignition coil's high voltage output is connected to the rotor that
sits on top of the distributor shaft. Surrounding the rotor is the
distributor cap. The arrangement sequentially directs the output of the
secondary winding to the appropriate spark plugs. The high voltage
from the coil's secondary (typically 20,000 to 50,000 volts) causes a
spark to form across the gap of the spark plug that in turn ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture within the engine. It is the creation of
this spark which consumes the energy that was stored in the ignition
coil's magnetic field.
The flat twin cylinder 1948 Citroën 2CV used one double ended coil
without a distributor, and just contact breakers, in a wasted spark
system.

Some two-cylinder motorcycles and motor scooters had two contact

points feeding twin coils each connected directly to one of the two
sparking plugs without a distributor; e.g., the BSA Thunderbolt and
Triumph Tigress.

High performance engines with eight or more cylinders that operate at

high r.p.m. (such as those used in motor racing) demand both a higher
rate of spark and a higher spark energy than the simple ignition circuit
can provide. This problem is overcome by using either of these
adaptations:

 Two complete sets of coils, breakers and condensers can be

provided - one set for each half of the engine, which is typically
arranged in V-8 or V-12 configuration. Although the two
ignition system halves are electrically independent, they
typically share a single distributor which in this case contains
two breakers driven by the rotating cam, and a rotor with two
isolated conducting planes for the two high voltage inputs.
 A single breaker driven by a cam and a return spring is limited
in spark rate by the onset of contact bounce or float at high rpm.
This limit can be overcome by substituting for the breaker a 'pair
of breakers' (aka "dual points") that are connected electrically in
parallel but spaced on opposite sides of the cam so they are
driven out of phase. Each breaker then switches current flow at
half the rate of a single breaker and the "dwell" time for current
build up in the coil is maximized since it is shared between the
breakers, one contact set being the "make" pair and the second
being the "break" pair. The Lamborghini V-8 engine has both
 these adaptations and therefore uses two ignition coils and a
single distributor that contains 4 contact breakers.

A distributor-based system is not greatly different from a magneto

system except that more separate elements are involved. There are
also advantages to this arrangement. For example, the position of the
contact breaker points relative to the engine angle can be changed a
small amount dynamically, allowing the ignition timing to be
automatically advanced with increasing revolutions per minute (RPM)
or increased manifold vacuum, giving better efficiency and
performance.

However, it is necessary to check periodically the maximum opening

gap of the breaker(s), using a feeler gauge, since this mechanical
adjustment affects the "dwell" time during which the coil charges, and
breakers should be re-dressed or replaced when they have become
pitted by electric arcing. This system was used almost universally
until the 1972, when electronic ignition systems started to appear.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IGNITION SYSTEMS:

 It should provide a good spark between the electrodes of the
plugs at the correct timing.
 The duration of the spark must be long enough with sufficient
energy to ensure that ignition of the mixture has a high chance
of occurring.
 The system must distribute this high voltage to each of the spark
plugs at the exact time in every cycle, it must have in it a
distributing device.
 It should function efficiently over the entire range of engine
speed.
 It should be light, effective and reliable in service.
IGNITION MECHANISM:
An automotive ignition system is divided into two electrical circuits --
the primary and secondary circuits.

1. The primary circuit carries low voltage. This circuit operates

only on battery current and is controlled by the breaker points
and the ignition switch. When the ignition key is turned on, a
low voltage current from the battery flows through the primary
windings of the ignition coil, through the breaker points and
back to the battery. This current flow causes a magnetic field to
form around the coil.
2. The secondary circuit consists of the secondary windings in the
coil, the high-tension lead between the distributor and the coil
(commonly called the coil wire) on external coil distributors, the
distributor cap, the distributor rotor, the spark plug leads and the
spark plugs. As the engine rotates, the distributor shaft cam
 turns until the high point on the cam causes the breaker points to
separate suddenly. Instantaneously, when the points open
(separate) current flow stops through the primary windings of
the ignition coil. This causes the magnetic field to collapse
around the coil. The condenser absorbs the energy and prevents
arcing between the points each time they open. This condenser
also aids in the rapid collapse of the magnetic field.
3. The line of flux in the magnetic field cut through the secondary
windings of the ignition coil, creating a high voltage - high
enough to jump the gaps between the rotor and the distributor
cap terminals, and the electrodes at the base of the spark plug.
Assuming that the engine is properly timed, the spark reaches
the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder and combustion begins.
4. As the distributor continues to rotate, electrical contact between
the rotor and distributor cap terminal is broken, stopping the
secondary flow. At the same time, breaker points close to the
complete the primary circuit, allowing primary current to flow.
This primary current will again create a magnetic field and the
cycle is repeated for the next cylinder in the firing order.

NEEDS OF IGNITION SYSTEM:

The purpose of the ignition system is to generate a very high volt age
from the car's 12-volt battery, and to send this to each sparkplug in
turn, igniting the fuel-air mixture in the engine 's combustion
chambers. The purpose of the ignition system is to generate a very
high volt age from the car's 12 volt

The coil is the component that produces this high voltage. It is an

electromagnetic device that converts the low-tension (LT) current
from the battery to high-tension (HT) current each time the distributor
contact-breaker points open.

The distributor unit consists of a metal bowl containing a central

shaft, which is usually driven directly by the camshaft or, sometimes,
by the crankshaft.
The bowl houses the contact-breaker points, rotor arm, and a device
for altering the ignition timing. It also carries the distributor cap.

TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEM:

From the Stone Age distributor and points to the modern-day

distributor less ignition, the automotive ignition system has undergone
many changes over the ages. Despite the mechanical and
technological changes through the years, the basic function of the
ignition system has remained basically the same; take the voltage
from the battery, convert it to higher voltage, then ship this electric
current to the combustion chamber in time to ignite the compressed
fuel and air.
BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM:
The figure shows the battery ignition system for a 4-cylinder engine.
A battery of 12 volts is generally employed. There are two basic
circuits in the system primary and secondary circuits.

The first circuit has the battery, primary winding of the ignition coil,
condenser, and the contact breaker from the primary circuit. Whereas
the secondary winding of the ignition coil, distributor, and the spark
plugs forms the secondary circuits.

The value of the voltage depends upon the number of turns in each
coil. The high voltage 10,000 to 20,000 volts then passes to a
distributor.

It consists of the spark plug of the cylinder in rotation depending upon

the firing order of the engine. This causing a high-intensity spark
jumps across the gap. Thereby ignition of the air-fuel mixture takes
place in all the cylinders. The battery ignition system has massive
use in cars, light trucks, buses, etc.
MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEM:
The magneto ignition system has the same principle of working like
that of the battery ignition system. In this, no battery is required, as
the magneto acts as its own generator.

It consists of either rotating magnets in fixed coils, or rotating coils in

fixed magnets. The current produced by the magneto is made to flow
to the induction coil which works in the same as that of the battery
ignition system.

This high voltage current is then made to flow to the distributor which
connects the sparking plugs in rotation depending upon the firing
order of the engine. This type of ignition system is used small spark-
ignition engines for example Scooters, Motorcycles and small
motorboat engines.
ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM:
The conventional electro-mechanical ignition system uses
mechanical contact breakers. Though it is very simple, it suffers from
certain limitations as follows.

 The contact breaker points handle the heavy current. This

resulting in burn out of contact points. Thus, it requires
periodical servicing and settings.
 The mechanically operated contact breaker has inertial effects.
Hence at higher speeds, the make or break of contact may not
be timed.
 At higher speeds, the dwell time for building up the current in
the coil to its maximum value is low. Thus, the spark strength
may be reduced.

To overcome the above drawbacks, in the modern automobiles,

electronic ignition systems are used. This electronic ignition system
has its best performance at all varying conditions and speed, unlike
electro-mechanical systems.

The electro ignition system consists of transistors, capacitors, diodes,

and resistors. These acts as heavy-duty switches in controlling the
primary current for the high voltage ignition coil.

TRANSISTORIZED IGNITION SYSTEM:

A transistor interrupts a relatively high current carrying circuit, i.e.,
it controls high current in the collector circuit with less current in the
base circuit. Therefore, a transistor is used to assist the work of a
contact breaker. Hence, this system is known as Transistor assisted
ignition system or transistorized ignition system.

Construction:

It consists of battery, ignition switch, transistor, collector, emitter,

ballast resistor, contact breaker, ignition coil. distributor and spark
plugs. The emitter of the transistor is connected to the ignition coil
through a ballast resistor. A collector is connected to the battery.

Working:

The cam in the distributor is rotated by the engine. It opens and closes
the contact breaker points.

When the contact breaker points are closed:

1. A small current flows in the base circuit of the transistor.

2, A large current flows in the emitter or collector circuit of the
transistor and the primary winding of the Ignition coil due to the
normal transistor action.
3. A magnetic field is set up in the primary winding of the coil.
When the contact breaker points are Open:

1. The current flow in the base circuit is stopped.

2. The primary current and the magnetic field in the coil collapse
suddenly due to immediate reverting of the transistor to the non-
conductive state.
3. It produces a high voltage in the secondary circuit.
4. This high voltage is directed to the respective spark plugs through
the rotor of the distributor.
5. This high voltage produces a spark when it is tried to jump the
spark plug gap. It ignites air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.

Advantages:

1. It increases the life of contact breaker points.

2. It gives high ignition voltages.
3. It gives longer duration of sparks.
4. It has very accurate control of timing.
5. It needs less maintenance.
Disadvantages:

1. More mechanical points are needed similar to a conventional

system.
2. It has a tendency to side tracking.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BATTERY IGNITION AND

MAGNETO IGNITION:

S.No BATTERY IGNITION MAGNETO IGNITION

.
1. As the name implies, battery No battery is needed in this type
is necessary in this type of of ignition system. It has its own
ignition electric generator.
system.
2. It is difficult to start when There is no such problem
the battery is discharge. because no battery is used.
3. It required high It required less maintenance.
maintenance due to battery.
4. In battery ignition system In magneto ignition system,
current for primary circuit is required electric current is
obtain by battery. generated by the magneto,
which is an electric generator.
5. Spark strength does not Spark strength depends on
depend on speed of engine speed of engine due to magneto.
due to current is
supplied by battery.
6. Good spark is available at During starting or at low speed,
 low speed. quality of spark is poor.
7. Efficiency of system Efficiency of the system
decreases with the improves as the engine speed
reduction in spark intensity rises due to high intensity spark.
as engine speed rises.
8. Battery ignition system Compare to battery ignition
occupies more space. system, magneto ignition system
requires less space.
9. Commonly employed in cars It is mainly used in racing cars
and light commercial and two wheelers.
vehicles.

These are all major differences between battery ignition system and
magneto ignition system.
IGNITION COIL:
An ignition coil (also called a spark coil) is an induction coil in an
automobile's ignition system that transforms the battery's voltage to
the thousands of volts needed to create an electric spark in the spark
plugs to ignite the fuel. Some coils have an internal resistor, while
others rely on a resistor wire or an external resistor to limit the current
flowing into the coil from the car's 12-volt supply. The wire that goes
from the ignition coil to the distributor and the high voltage wires that
go from the distributor to each of the spark plugs are called spark plug
wires or high tension leads. Originally, every ignition coil system
required mechanical contact breaker points and a capacitor
(condenser). More recent electronic ignition systems use a power
transistor to provide pulses to the ignition coil. A modern passenger
automobile may use one ignition coil for each engine cylinder (or pair
of cylinders), eliminating fault-prone spark plug cables and a
distributor to route the high voltage pulses.
Ignition systems are not required for diesel engines which rely on
compression to ignite the fuel/air mixture.
CONTACT BREAKER:
A contact breaker (or "points") is a type of electrical switch, and the
term typically refers to the switching device found in the distributor of
the ignition systems of spark-ignition internal combustion engines.
PURPOSE:
The purpose of the contact breaker is to interrupt the current
flowing in the primary winding of the ignition coil. When this occurs,
the collapsing current induces a high voltage in the secondary
winding of the coil, which has many more windings. This causes a
very high voltage to appear at the coil output for a short period—
enough to arc across the electrodes of a spark plug.
OPERATION:

The contact breaker is operated by an engine-driven cam inside the

distributor. The position of the contact breaker is set so that it opens
(and hence generates a spark) at exactly the optimum moment to
ignite the fuel/air mixture. This point is generally just before the
piston reaches the top of its compression stroke. The contact breaker
is usually mounted on a plate that is able to rotate relative to the
camshaft operating it. The plate is most typically rotated by a
centrifugal mechanism, thus advancing the ignition timing (making
the spark occur earlier) at higher revolutions. This gives the fuel
ignition process time to proceed so that the resulting combustion
reaches its maximum pressure at the proper point in the crankshaft's
rotation.

Many engines are also fitted with a manifold vacuum-operated

servomechanism to provide additional rotation of the plate's position
(within limits), in order to advance the timing when the engine is
required to speed up on demand. Advancing the ignition timing helps
to prevent pre-ignition (or pinging).
DISADVANTAGES OF CONTACT BREAKER:

Since they open and close several times with every turn of the engine,
contact breaker points and cam follower suffer from wear—both
mechanical and pitting caused by arcing across the contacts. This
latter effect is largely prevented by placing a capacitor parallel across
the contact breaker—this is usually referred to by the more old
fashioned term condenser by mechanics. As well as suppressing
arcing, it helps boost the coil output by creating a resonant LC circuit
with the coil windings.

A drawback of using a mechanical switch as part of the ignition

timing is that it is not very precise, needs regular adjustment of the
dwell (contact) angle, and at higher revolutions, its mass becomes
significant, leading to poor operation at higher engine speeds. These
effects can largely be overcome using electronic ignition systems,
where the contact breakers are retrofitted by a magnetic (Hall effect)
or optical sensor device. However, because of their simplicity, and
since contact breaker points gradually degrade instead of
catastrophically failing, they are still used on aircraft engines.

 DUAL BREAKER POINTS:

In some v-8 distributors, two sets of point breakers are used.

They are connected in parallel so that either set can complete the
primary circuit to ground. One set of the point is called maker points
and the other breaker points. The maker points will always close the
primary circuit and the breaker points will always open it. While the
cam is in operation, the maker points will close before the breaker
points open while the breaker points are still closed. The circuit will
be opened only when the breaker points are opened, i.e., When both
sets of points open, thus the primary current is made to flow for a
larger period of time, giving the coil the building up of large cam
angle.

 CAM ANGLE (DWELL ANGLE):

The cam angle is the number of degrees travelled by the distributor

cam while the ignition points are closed.
A 4-cylinder engine has about 41°cam angle.

A 6-cylinder engine has about 36°cam angle.

A 8-cylinder engine has about 31°cam angle.

A 6-cylinder engine has 6 lobe cams for contact breaker and the cam
angle is about 36. It means during the 60 of cam rotation devoted to
the firing of each cylinder, the points are closed for the 36 and opened
for the 60 -36 = 24.

The cam angle can be measured directly with a cam angle meter. The
motor is connected to the ignition distributor during operation in
engine. Some metres are designed to measure percent of dwell. A 36-
cam angle is equals to 60% dwell, 360/60 = 60%.

The importance of correct cam angle lies in the fact that the position
of the points is closed, the coil building up so that, when they are
open, a proper amount of high-tension current will be available at the
spark plug.

 IGNITION POINT GAP:

The ignition point gap should be correct as specified by the

manufacturer. The point gap is measured with a feeler gauge when the
points are at their widest opening. An increase in the gap results in a
decreased cam angle, a decrease in the gap produces a larger cam
angle. If the points are adjusted too closely, the engine will not run
evenly. If the points are adjusted with too much clearance, the engine
will miss at high speeds, because the points will not be closed long
enough to allow the coil to build up properly. It will also advance the
spark by causing the points to open soon. Hence, it is most important
to adjust the point gap to the correct clearance or cam angle before
timing the engine.
DISTRIBUTORS:
A distributor is an enclosed rotating shaft used in spark-ignition
internal combustion engines that have mechanically timed ignition.
The distributor's main function is to route secondary, or high voltage,
current from the ignition coil to the spark plugs in the correct firing
order, and for the correct amount of time. Except in magneto systems
and many modern computer controlled engines that use crank
angle/position sensors, the distributor also houses a mechanical or
inductive breaker switch to open and close the ignition coil's primary
circuit.

The first reliable battery operated ignition was the Delco ignition
system developed by Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co. (Delco)
and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed by
Charles Kettering and was considered a wonder in its day. Atwater
Kent invented his Unisparker ignition system about this time in
competition with the Delco system. By the end of the 20th century
mechanical ignitions were disappearing from automotive applications
in favor of inductive or capacitive electronic ignitions fully controlled
by engine control units (ECU), rather than directly timed to the
engine's crankshaft speed.

A distributor consists of a rotating arm or rotor inside the distributor

cap, on top of the distributor shaft, but insulated from it and the body
of the vehicle (ground). The distributor shaft is driven by a gear on
the camshaft on most overhead valve engines, and attached directly to
a camshaft on most overhead cam engines. (The distributor shaft may
also drive the oil pump.) The metal part of the rotor contacts the high
voltage cable from the ignition coil via a spring-loaded carbon brush
on the underside of the distributor cap. The metal part of the rotor arm
passes close to (but does not touch) the output contacts which connect
via high tension leads to the spark plug of each cylinder. As the rotor
spins within the distributor, electric current is able to jump the small
gaps created between the rotor arm and the contacts due to the high
voltage created by the ignition coil.[2]

The distributor shaft has a cam that operates the contact breaker (also
called points). Opening the points causes a high induction voltage in
the system's ignition coil.[2]

The distributor also houses the centrifugal advance unit: a set of

hinged weights attached to the distributor shaft, that cause the breaker
points mounting plate to slightly rotate and advance the spark timing
with higher engine revolutions per minute (rpm). In addition, the
distributor has a vacuum advance unit that advances the timing even
further as a function of the vacuum in the inlet manifold. Usually
there is also a capacitor attached to the distributor. The capacitor is
connected parallel to the breaker points, to suppress sparking to
prevent excessive wear of the points.

Around the 1970s[citation needed] the primary breaker points were largely
replaced with a Hall effect sensor or optical sensor. As this is a non-
contacting device and the ignition coil is controlled by solid state
electronics, a great amount of maintenance in point adjustment and
replacement was eliminated. This also eliminates any problem with
breaker follower or cam wear, and by eliminating a side load it
extends distributor shaft bearing life. The remaining secondary (high
voltage) circuit stayed essentially the same, using an ignition coil and
a rotary distributor.

Most distributors used on electronically fuel injected engines lack

vacuum and centrifugal advance units. On such distributors, the
timing advance is controlled electronically by the engine computer.
This allows more accurate control of ignition timing, as well as the
ability to alter timing based on factors other than engine speed and
manifold vacuum (such as engine temperature). Additionally,
eliminating vacuum and centrifugal advance results in a simpler and
more reliable distributor.

DISTRIBUTOR CAP:
The distributor cap is the cover that protects the distributor's internal
parts and holds the contacts between internal rotor and the spark plug
wires.

The distributor cap has one post for each cylinder, and in points
ignition systems there is a central post for the current from the
ignition coil coming into the distributor. There are some exceptions
however, as some engines (many Alfa Romeo cars, some 1980s
Nissans) have two spark plugs per cylinder, so there are two leads
coming out of the distributor per cylinder. Another implementation is
the wasted spark system, where a single contact serves two leads, but
in that case each lead connects one cylinder. In General Motors high
energy ignition (HEI) systems there is no central post and the ignition
coil sits on top of the distributor. Some Toyota and Honda engines
also have their coil within the distributor cap. On the inside of the cap
there is a terminal that corresponds to each post, and the plug
terminals are arranged around the circumference of the cap according
to the firing order in order to send the secondary voltage to the proper
spark plug at the right time.

The rotor is attached to the top of the distributor shaft which is driven
by the engine's camshaft and thus synchronized to it. Synchronization
to the camshaft is required as the rotor must turn at exactly half the
speed of the main crankshaft in the 4-stroke cycle. Often, the rotor
and distributor are attached directly to the end of the one of (or the
only) camshaft, at the opposite end to the timing drive belt. This rotor
is pressed against a carbon brush on the centre terminal of the
distributor cap which connects to the ignition coil. The rotor is
constructed such that the centre tab is electrically connected to its
outer edge so the current coming in to the centre post travels through
the carbon point to the outer edge of the rotor. As the camshaft
rotates, the rotor spins and its outer edge passes each of the internal
plug terminals to fire each spark plug in sequence.

Engines that use a mechanical distributor may fail if they run into
deep puddles because any water that gets onto the distributor can
short out the electric current that should go through the spark plugs,
rerouting it directly to the body of the vehicle. This in turn causes the
engine to stop as the fuel is not ignited in the cylinders.[3] This
problem can be fixed by removing the distributor's cap and drying the
cap, cam, rotor and the contacts by wiping with tissue paper or a clean
rag, by blowing hot air on them, or using a moisture displacement
spray e.g. WD-40 or similar. Oil, dirt or other contaminants can cause
similar problems, so the distributor should be kept clean inside and
outside to ensure reliable operation. Some engines include a rubber O-
ring or gasket between the distributor base and cap to help prevent
this problem. The gasket is made of a material like Viton or butyl for
a tight seal in extreme temperatures and chemical environments. This
gasket should not be discarded when replacing the cap. Most
distributor caps have the position of the number 1 cylinder's terminal
moulded into the plastic. By referencing a firing order diagram and
knowing the direction the rotor turns, (which can be seen by cranking
the engine with the cap off) the spark plug wires can be correctly
routed. Most distributor caps are designed so that they cannot be
installed in the wrong position. Some older engine designs allow the
cap to be installed in the wrong position by 180 degrees, however.
The number 1-cylinder position on the cap should be noted before a
cap is replaced.

The distributor cap is a prime example of a component that eventually

succumbs to heat and vibration. It is a relatively easy and inexpensive
part to replace if its Bakelite housing does not break or crack first.
Carbon deposit accumulation or erosion of its metal terminals may
also cause distributor-cap failure.

As it is generally easy to remove and carry off, the distributor cap can
be taken off as a means of theft prevention. Although not practical for
everyday use, because it is essential for the starting and running of the
engine, its removal thwarts any attempt at hot-wiring the vehicle.
PROGRAMMED IGNITION (DIGITAL IGNITION):
Programmed ignition makes use of computer technology and permits
the mechanical, pneumatic and other elements of the conventional
distributor to be dispensed with. Figure shows an early form of a
digital ignition system.

A digital ignition system.

The term programmed ignition is used by Rover and some other
manufacturers. Ford, Bosch and some others name it electronic spark
advance (ESA). Constant energy electronic ignition is commonly used
in countless applications. Its limitations, however, lies on the
dependence upon mechanical components for speed and load advance
characteristics. In many cases these did not match ideally the
requirements of the engine.
Programmed ignition systems operate digitally, which is the major
difference compared to earlier systems. In this system sensed
information regarding the operating requirements of a particular
engine can be programmed into memory of the electronic control unit.
The data for storage in read only memory (ROM) is obtained from
rigorous testing on an engine under various operating conditions.
Programmed ignition has several advantages as follows :
(i) The ignition timing can be accurately matched to the individual
application under a
range of various operating conditions.
(ii) Control inputs like coolant temperature and ambient air
temperature can be used.
Other inputs such as engine knock can be taken into account.
(Hi) Starting is improved, fuel consumption as well as emissions are
reduced, and idle control is better.
(iv) The number of wearing components is considerably reduced in
this system.
Programmed ignition or ESA can be installed as a separate system or
included as part of the fuel control system. This provides numerous
possibilities in the management of the engine control.

SENSORS AND INPUTS:

The layout of the Rover programmed ignition system is shown in Fig.
Certain input information is required by the ECU to calculate suitable
timing and dwell outputs.

Layout of the Rover programmed ignition system

CRANKSHAFT SENSORFOR ENGINE SPEED AND POSITION:

The crankshaft sensor is a simple reluctance sensor, which is

consisted of a permanent magnet, a winding and a soft iron core and
is mounted close to a reluctor disc. The disc has 34 teeth spaced at 10
degrees intervals around the periphery of the disc and has two teeth
missing at 180 degrees, and at a known position before TDC. This
technique, with minor changes is used by many manufacturers. When
a tooth of the reluctor disc passes the core of the sensor the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit is changed, which induces a voltage in the
winding, because the frequency of the wave form is proportional to
the engine speed. The missing tooth causes a missed output wave,
which is used to determine engine position.

MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE PRESSURE SENSORE FOR ENGINE

LOAD:

Since engine load is proportional to manifold pressure, high load

conditions produce high pressure and
lower load conditions such as cruise produce lower pressure. Load
sensors are therefore pressure transducers and are either mounted in
the ECU or as a separate unit. They are connected to the inlet
manifold with a pipe. The pipe often has a restriction to damp out
fluctuations and a vapour trap to prevent petrol fumes reaching the
sensor.

ENGINE COOLANT TEMPERATURE SENSORE:

Coolant temperature measurement is carried out by a simple

thermistor, which is also used, in many cases, for the operation of the
temperature gauge and to provide information to the fuel control
system. The basic timing settings are corrected using a separate
memory map

DETONATION (KNOCK) SENSORE:

An engine may face serious damage due to combustion knock or

detonation if subjected for long periods. The over-advanced ignition
timing causes this knock. On the other hand, an engine in general runs
most efficiently when the timing is advanced as far as possible. To
achieve this, the basic timing map should provide the data as close to
the knock limit of the engine is possible. The knock sensor provides a
margin for error. The sensor is often of the piezo-electric type
accelerometer and fitted in the engine block between cylinders two
and there on in-line four-cylinder engines. V-engines require two
sensors, one on each side. The ECU receives the signals from the
knock sensor in the engine’s knock window for each cylinder. This is
often just a few degrees each side of TDC. This prevents clatter from
the valve mechanism being interpreted as knock. If detonation is
detected, the ignition timing is retarded on the fourth ignition pulse in
four-cylinder engine in steps until knock is no longer detected. A 2
degrees step is typical although the steps vary between manufacturers.
The timing is then advanced slowly in steps of less than 1 degree over
a number of engine revolutions, until the advance required is restored.
This fine control allows the engine to be run very close to the knock
limit without risk of engine damage.

Reluctance engine speed and position, crankshaft sensor.

Knock limit of an engine.

BATTERY VOLTAGE:

A lower voltage supply to the coil requires a slightly higher dwell

figure, therefore correction to dwell settings becomes necessary when
the battery voltage falls. This information is often stored in the form
of a dwell correction map.

ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT:

With the increase of sophistication of systems, the information held in

the memory chips of the ECU has also increased. The earlier versions
of programmed ignition system of Rover attained ignition timing
accuracy of ± 1.8 degrees, whereas a conventional distributor is
accurate to ± 8 degrees. The information, which is obtained from
dynamometer tests and running tests in the vehicle, is stored in ROM.
The basic timing map contains the correct ignition advance for 16
engine speeds and 16 engine load conditions.

Cartographic representation of a basic timing map.

A separate three-dimensional map, containing eight speed and eight
temperature locations, is also used to incorporate corrections for
engine coolant temperature to the basic timing settings. This improves
driveability and can be used to decrease the warm-up time of the
engine. The data also need an additional load correction below 343 K.

IGNITION OUTPUT:
The output from this programmed ignition is very simple and is in
common with most electronic ignition. The output stage consists of a
heavy-duty transistor, which forms part of, or is driven by, a
Darlington pair. This allows control of the high ignition primary
current. The switch-off point of the coil controls ignition timing
whereas the switch-on point controls the dwell period.
HIGH TENSION DISTRIBUTION:

The high-tension distribution is similar to a conventional system. The

rotor arm, however, is installed at the end of the camshaft. The
distributor cap is positioned over the top and is fixed on a base plate
made of Crasline. This mounting point prevents any oil, which leaks
from the camshaft seal, fouling the cap and rotor arm. The cap is
made of Vela, which is similar to epoxy resin but has better electrical
characteristics. The mounting plate also prevents the build-up of
harmful gases such as ozone and nitric oxide by venting them to the
atmosphere. These gases are generated by the electrolytic action of
the spark as it jumps the air gap between the rotor arm and the cap
segment. The rotor arm is also made of Crasline and is reinforced
with a metal insert to relieve fixing stresses.

Programmed ignition ECU block diagram.

OPTOELECTRONIC SENSING IGNITION:

the electronic ignition photoelectronic distributor sensor used on a
Kia. There are two electronic devices involved in the operation of the
basic device. One is a light-emitting diode (LED), which converts
electricity into light, and the other is a photo-diode that can be
‘switched on’ when the light from the LED falls on it.
 An Optical Sensor.
Another version of this type of sensor is shown in next figure. Here
the rotor plate has 360 slits placed at 1Ž intervals, for engine speed
sensing, and a series of larger holes for TDC indication that are placed
nearer the centre of the rotor plate. One of these larger slits is wider
than the others and it is used to indicate TDC for number 1 cylinder.

An alternative form of optoelectronic sensor.

As the processing power of microprocessors has increased it is natural
to expect that system designers will use the increased power to
provide further features such as combustion knock sensing and
adaptive ignition control.

DIRECT IGNITION:

Direct ignition is in a way the extension of the distributor less

ignition. This system has an inductive coil for each cylinder. Figure
16.58 shows a cross section of the direct ignition coil. These coils are
mounted directly on the spark plugs. The use of an individual coil for
each plug provides a very fast rise time for the low inductance
primary winding, which ensures a very high voltage and high energy
spark. This voltage can be in excess of 40 kV, due to which efficient
initiation of the combustion process takes place under cold starting
conditions and with weak mixtures. Some direct ignition systems such
as the SAAB system use capacitor discharge ignition.
Igniter units are used to switch the ignition coils and these units can
control up to three coils. These in fact are simply the
power stages of the control unit, but located in a separate container to
avoid interference in the main ECU due to heavy current switching.

CONTROL OF IGNITION:

Ignition timing and dwell are controlled in the same manner as

described in previous systems. One important additional feature in
this system is a camshaft sensor used to identify the cylinder, which is
on the compression stroke. The Bosch Motronic 1.8 system also uses
information from the automatic transmission control unit. This helps
in retardation of timing in order to assist gear changes.
A system is available, which does not require a sensor such as a
crankshaft sensor to determine the cylinder that is on compression. To
do this initially all of the coils are fired. A voltage is then applied
across the plugs. The measurement of the current of each spark
indicates the cylinder that is on its combustion stroke. The cylinder
with the highest current at this point is the cylinder on the combustion
stroke, because a burning mixture has a lower resistance. An
additional feature is provided in some systems where the engine is
cranked over for an excessive time, causing flooding. The plugs are
all fired with multi-sparks for a period of time after the ignition is left
in the on position for five seconds. This burns away any excess fuel.
In difficult starting conditions, multi-sparking is also used by some
systems (SAAB) during 70 degrees of crank rotation before TDC.
This assists with starting and then, once the engine is running, the
timing returns to its normal calculated position.

DISTRIBUTORLESS IGNITION:

Distributor less ignition system used extensively by Ford incorporates

all the features of electronic spark advance systems, except a special
type of ignition coil is used in place of HT distributor. The system is
generally used only on four- or six-cylinder engines, because the
control system becomes highly complex for higher number of
cylinders. It works on the principle of the lost spark. The spark
distribution is achieved by the help of two double ended coils, fired
alternately by the ECU. The ignition timing is obtained from a
crankshaft speed and position sensor as well as through load and other
corrections. When one of the coils is fired, a spark is delivered to two
engine cylinders, either 1 and 4, or 2 and 3. The spark delivered to the
cylinder on the compression stroke ignites the mixture as normal.
Whereas the spark in other cylinder causes no effect, as this cylinder
is just completing its exhaust stroke. Because of the low compression
and the exhaust gases in the lost spark cylinder, the voltage only of
about 3 kV is needed for the spark to jump the gap. This is similar to
cap voltage of the more conventional rotor arm. The spark produced
in the compression cylinder is therefore not affected.
It may be noted that the spark on one of the cylinders jumps from the
earth electrode to the spark plug centre, whereas in others it jumps
from the centre electrode. This is because the energy available from
modern constant energy systems produces a spark of suitable quality
in either direction. However, the disadvantage is that the spark plugs
may wear more quickly with this system.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS:

The distributor less ignition system contains three main components

such as the electronic module, a crankshaft position sensor and the
distributor less ignition coil. Many systems use a manifold absolute
pressure sensor, integrated in the module. The module functions
almost in the same way as the electronic spark advance system.
The crankshaft position sensor operates in the similar way to the one
described in the previous section. It is also a reluctance sensor
positioned against the front of the flywheel or against a reluctor wheel
just behind the front crankshaft pulley. The tooth pattern uses 36-1
teeth, which are spaced at 10-degree intervals, with a gap for the 36th
tooth. The missing tooth is located at 90 degrees before TDC for
numbers 1 and 4 cylinders. This reference position is located a fixed
number of degrees before TDC for calculating the timing or ignition
point as a fixed angle after the reference mark.
The distributor less ignition coil (Fig. 16.56) has a low-tension
winding, which is supplied with battery voltage to a centre terminal.
The appropriate half of the winding is then connected to earth in the
module. The high-tension windings are separate and are specific to
cylinders 1 and 4, or 2 and 3. Figure shows a typical Ford distributor
less ignition coil. The Citroen 2 CV has been using a double ended
ignition coil together with contact breakers for many years.
 Distributor-less ignition coil as part of the complete system.

Distributor less ignition coils. A. 2-Spark coil. B. 2 x 2 Spark coil.

C. 3 x 2 spark coil (Bosch).

FAULT DIAGNOSIS:

The distributor less ignition system is highly reliable, specifically

because it does not have any moving parts. The normal manufacturers
servicing schedule should be adhered to for the replacement of spark
plugs (often after 19,200 km operation). Some problems may be faced
when trying to examine HT oscilloscope patterns, due to the lack of a
king lead. This can be overcome by using a special adapter and
shifting the sensing clip to each lead in turn.
An ohmmeter can be used to test the distributor less ignition coil. The
resistance of each primary winding should be 0.5 Q and the secondary
windings between 11 and 16 kv. The coil produces open circuit
voltage in excess of 37 kV. The plug leads have integral retaining
clips to prevent water ingress and vibration problems. The maximum
resistance for the HT leads is 30 kv per lead. Except for the octane
adjustment on some models no service adjustments are possible with
this system. This adjustment involves connecting two pins together on
the module for normal operation, or earthing one pin or the other to
change to a different fuel. The actual procedure as specified by the
manufacturer for each particular model should be followed.
Cross section of the direct ignition coil (Bosch) (1 refers to switching
stage).

FIRING ORDER:
The firing order of an internal combustion engine is the sequence
of ignition for the cylinders.

In a spark ignition (e.g., gasoline/petrol) engine, the firing order

corresponds to the order in which the spark plugs are operated. In a
Diesel engine, the firing order corresponds to the order in which fuel
is injected into each cylinder. Four-stroke engines must also time the
valve openings relative to the firing order, as the valves do not open
and close on every stroke.

Firing order affects the vibration, sound and evenness of power output
from the engine. The firing order heavily influences crankshaft
design.

CYLINDER NUMBERING:

Numbering systems for car engines:

Knowing the cylinder numbering is crucial to understanding a firing

order. Incorrectly identifying the cylinders can cause significant
damage when dealing with timing the numbering system for cylinders
is generally based on the cylinder numbers increasing from the front
to the rear of an engine (See engine orientation below). However,
there are differences between manufacturers in how this is applied;
some commonly used systems are as listed below.

Straight engine

Cylinders numbered from front (#1 cylinder) to rear.

V engine

V8 engine with cylinder numbering based on crankshaft position

(instead of following each cylinder bank)

The frontmost cylinder is usually #1, however there are two common
approaches:

 Numbering the cylinders in each bank sequentially (e.g., 1-2-3-4

along the left bank and 5-6-7-8 along the right bank). This
approach is typically used by V8 engines from Audi, Ford and
Porsche.
 Numbering the cylinders based on their position along the
crankshaft (e.g. 1-3-5-7 along the right bank and 2-4-6-8 along
the left bank). This approach is typically used by V8 engines
from General Motors, and Chrysler.

The selection of whether the #1 cylinder is on the left bank or right

bank usually depends on which bank is closer to the front of the
crankshaft. However, the Ford Flathead V8 and Pontiac V8 engine
actually have the #1 cylinder behind the cylinder from the opposite
bank. This was done so that all Ford engines would have cylinder #1
on the right bank and all Pontiac engines would have cylinder #1 on
the left bank, to simplify the process of identifying the cylinders.

The cylinders are numbered around the circle, with the #1 cylinder at
the top.

ENGINE ORIENTATION WITH IN CARS:

The simplest situation is a longitudinal engine located at the front of

the car, which means the engine's orientation is the same as the cars.
This illustrates that the rear of the engine is the end that connects to
the transmission, while the front end often has the drive belt for
accessories (such as the alternator and water pump). The left bank of
the engine is on the left side of the car (when looking from behind the
car), and vice versa for the right bank of the engine.

For a transverse engine located at the front of the car, whether the
front of the engine is at the left-hand or right-hand side of the car is
best determined based on the side of the car where the transmission is
located (which corresponds to the rear of the engine). Most transverse
engine front-wheel drive models have the front of the engine at the
right-hand side of the car (except for many Honda cars). As a
consequence, the left bank of a transversely V engine is usually
closest to the front of the car.

For cars where the engine is installed 'backwards' (i.e., the

transmission is closer to the front of the car than the engine), cylinder
#1 is located towards the rear of the car. This is the case for the
Citroën Traction Avant and many rear-engine cars.

NUMBERING SYSTEM FOR SHIP ENGINES:

Contrary to most car engines, a ship's engines are often numbered

starting from the end of the engine with the power output. Large
diesel truck and locomotive engines, particularly of European
manufacture, may also be numbered this way.
Cylinders on V engines often include a letter representing the cylinder
bank. For example, a V6 engine could have cylinders A1-A2-A3-B1-
B2-B3, with cylinders A1 and B1 located at the power output end of
the engine.

COMMON FIRING ORDER:

Common firing orders are listed below. For V engines and flat
engines, the numbering system is L1 for the front cylinder of the left
bank, R1 for the front cylinder of the right bank, etc.

 In two-cylinder engines, the cylinders can either fire

simultaneously (such as in a flat-twin engine) or one after the
other (such as in a straight-twin engine.
 In straight-three engines, there is no effective difference
between the possible firing orders of 1-2-3 and 1-3-2.
 Straight-four engines typically use a firing order of 1-3-4-2,
however some British engines used a firing order of 1-2-4-3.
 Flat-four engines typically use a firing order of R1-R2-L1-L2.
 Straight-five engines typically use a firing order of 1-2-4-5-3, in
order to minimise the primary vibration from the rocking
couple.
 Straight-six engines typically use a firing order of 1-5-3-6-2-4,
which results in perfect primary and secondary balance.
 V6 engines with an angle of 90 degrees between the cylinder
banks have used a firing order of R1-L2-R2-L3-L1-R3 or R1-
L3-R3-L2-R2-L1. Several V6 engines with an angle of 60
degrees have used a firing order of R1-L1-R2-L2-R3-L3.
 Flat-six engines have used firing orders of R1-L2-R3-L1-R2-L3
or R1-L3-R2-L1-R3-L2.
 V8 engines use various different firing orders, even using
different firing orders between engines from the same
manufacturer.
 V10 engines used firing orders of either R1-L5-R5-L2-R2-L3-
R3-L4-R4-L1 or R1-L1-R5-L5-R2-L2-R3-L3-R4-L4.
 V12 engines use various different firing orders.
In a radial engine, there are always an odd number of cylinders in
each bank, as this allows for a constant alternate cylinder firing order:
for example, with a single bank of 7 cylinders, the order would be 1-
3-5-7-2-4-6. Moreover, unless there is an odd number of cylinders,
the ring cam around the nose of the engine would be unable to
provide the inlet valve open - exhaust valve open sequence required
by the four-stroke cycle.

FIRING INTERVAL:

To minimise vibrations, most engines use an evenly spaced firing

interval. This means that the timing of the power stroke is evenly
spaced between cylinders. For a four-stroke engine, this requires a
firing interval of 720° divided by the number of cylinders, for
example a six-cylinder engine would have a firing interval of 120°.
On the other hand, a six-cylinder engine with an uneven firing
interval could have intervals of 90° and 150°.

Engines with an even firing interval will sound smoother, have less
vibration and provide more even pressure pulses in the exhaust gas to
the turbocharger. Engines with an uneven firing interval usually have
a burble or a throaty, growling engine sound and more vibrations.

The main application of uneven firing intervals is motorcycle engines,

such as big-bang firing order engines. Examples of odd-firing engines
are most four-stroke V-twin engines, 1961-1977 Buick V6 engine,
1985-present Yamaha VMAX, 1986–present Honda VFR 750/800,
1992-2017 Dodge Viper V10, 2008-present Audi/Lamborghini 5.2
V10 40v FSI and the 2009-2020 Yamaha R1 (inline four engine with
a cross plane crankshaft).
FIRING ORDER REFERANCE LIST:

The following table is a running list of firing orders by application:

(Please expand on the list if you see something missing.)

Number of Firing
Application
Cylinders Order
1 1 Curved Dash Oldsmobile
Buick Model B, C, F, G, 14, James and
2 1-2
Browne
1-2-3 Saab two-stroke, Perodua Kancil engine
3
1-3-2 BMW K75 engine, Subaru Justy engine
1-3-4-2 Most straight-4s, Ford Taunus V4 engine
Some British Ford and Riley engines, Ford
1-2-4-3
Kent engine, Riley Nine
4
Subaru 4-cylinder engines, Yamaha R1 cross
1-3-2-4
plane
1-4-3-2 Volkswagen air-cooled engine
1-2-4-5-3 Straight-five engine, Volvo 850, Audi 100
5
1-3-5-4-2 GM Atlas engine
AMC straight-6 engine, Chrysler Slant-6
engine, Mercedes-Benz M104 engine,
1-5-3-6-2-4
Maserati 3500 GT I6, Volkswagen VR6
engine, Opel Omega A, Nissan L Engine
6 Mercedes-Benz M272 engine, Volkswagen
1-4-3-6-2-5
V6's (both engines are 90-degree V6's)
1-6-5-4-3-2 GM 3800 engine, Rover KV6 engine
1-2-3-4-5-6 General Motors 60° V6 engine, Mazda JE
 3.0 litre 60-degree V6 engine, Chrysler Penta
star engine
Ford Cologne V6 engine, Ford Essex V6
1-4-2-5-3-6
engine (UK)
1-4-5-2-3-6 Chevrolet Corvair
1-6-3-2-5-4 Subaru Alcyone/XT-6/Vortex ER-27 Flat-6
1-6-2-4-3-5 Porsche Boxster Flat-6
1-6-2-5-3-4 Maserati Quattroporte IV V6-4AC-24
1-4-2-6-3-5 Toyota HZ engine[8]
1-3-5-7-2-
7 7-cylinder single row radial engine
4-6
1-8-7-3-6-
Nissan VK engine
5-4-2
1-8-7-2-6-
GM LS engine
5-4-3
Chrysler and Dodge V8s, Chevrolet Small-
1-8-4-3-6-
Block engine, Pontiac, Rover V8, Toyota UZ
5-7-2
engine
1-6-2-5-8-
8 Straight-8
3-7-4
1-5-6-3-4-
Cadillac V8 engine 368, 425, 472, 500 only
2-7-8
1-5-4-8-7-
BMW S65
2-6-3
1-5-4-8-6- Ford Modular 5.0, Ford Flathead, Bentley
3-7-2 L410 V8 (from 1959 to 1986)

1-5-4-8-3- 5.2 L "Voodoo" V8

 7-2-6
Ford Small Block 221/255/260/289/302, FE
1-5-4-2-6-
Series 352/360/390/406/410/427/428, Ford
3-7-8
385 series Big Block 429/460
1-5-3-7-4-
Ferrari V8's, (all are flat-plane crank)
8-2-6
Porsche 928, Ford Modular V-8, 351
1-3-7-2-6- Windsor, 5.0 H.O., 335 series
5-4-8 (351C/351M/400M), Bentley L410 V8 (from
1987 to present)
1-3-6-8-4-
Alfa Romeo 8C
2-7-5
1-2-7-8-4-
Holden V8
5-6-3
1-2-7-3-4-
Cadillac North star Engine
5-6-8
1-3-5-7-9- 9-cylinder single row radial engine
9
2-4-6-8 Lycoming R-680-13 engine]
1-10-9-4-3-
Dodge Viper V10
6-5-8-7-2
1-6-5-10-2-
10 BMW S85, Ford V10
7-3-8-4-9
1-8-7-6-5-
Isuzu 10PE1
4-3-10-9-2
1-7-5-11-3-
9-6-12-2-8- 2001 Ferrari 456M GT V12
12 4-10
1-7-4-10-2- 1997 Lamborghini Diablo VT
8-6-12-3-9-
 5-11
1-4-9-8-5-
2-11-10-3- Caterpillar Inc. 3412E
6-7-12
1-12-5-8-3-
10-6-7-2- Audi VW Bentley W12 engine
11-4-9
1-12-7-6-3-
10-11-2-5- Rolls-Royce Merlin
8-9-4
1-12-4-9-2-
11-6-7-3- 2011 Lamborghini Aventador
10-5-8
1L-1R-2L-
2R-4L-4R-
(Wärtsilä)-Sulzer 14ZV40/48 V14 marine
14 6L-6R-7L-
diesel
7R-5L-5R-
3L-3R
1-12-8-11-
7-14-5-16-
16 2003 Cadillac V16 engine
4-15-3-10-
6-9-2-13

IGNITION ADVANCE:

The purpose of spark advance mechanism is to assure that

under every condition of engine operation, ignition takes place at the
most favourable instant in time i.e., most favourable from a standpoint
of engine power, fuel economy and minimum exhaust dilution. By
means of these mechanisms the advance angle is accurately set so that
ignition occurs before TDC point of the piston. The engine speed and
the engine load are the control quantities required for the automatic
adjustment of the ignition timing. Most of the engines are fitted with
mechanisms which are integral with the distributor and automatically
regulate the optimum spark advance to account for change of speed
and load.

Ignition advance basics:

1. Ignition advance is the condition when ignition of fuel occurs

earlier than the correct ignition timing. Ignition of mixture takes
place near the end of compression stroke.
2. If the ignition is advanced it means fuel-air mixture will burn
too early before the end of compression stroke. In this case, the
crank and connecting rod will have to push the piston in order to
compress the gases (for completing the compression stroke).
3. In this situation, the force applied on piston by the connecting
rod in upward direction may not be able to overcome the
downward force acting on piston.
4. This downward force acting on the piston is due to enormous
pressure generated by the combustion of fuel. Under this
condition, the engine may stop or stall.
5. Spark advance may also cause the fuel to explode suddenly
under certain operating conditions.

IGNITION ADVANCE MECHANISMS:

Two automatic advance mechanisms are used for spark advance and
retard in engines depending on engine speed and other operating
conditions:

(a) Centrifugal spark advance mechanism.

(b) Vacuum spark advance mechanism.

Ignition timing is first set manually. After this these mechanisms are
used to modify it suitably.

CENTRIFUGAL SPARK ADVANCE MECHANISM:

 This mechanism consists of two fly weights, a base plate, cam

and a spring. Fly weights are also called advance weights. The
base plate is fixed to the drive shaft.
 The fly weights are rotated by distributor drive shaft through the
base plate. The weights are pivoted on the base plate and also
attached to the cam with the help of springs. The cam is also
joined with the distributor shaft through springs, flywheel and
plate.
 If engine speed increases, the fly weights are displaced out
radially due to centrifugal force acting on it. Movement of
weights causes the ignition advance (spark advance). At low
speeds there is no advance while it is full advance of very high
speeds.

VACUUM ADVANCE MECHANISM:

 Vacuum advance mechanism consists of a diaphragm whose

movement automatically advances and retards the ignition
depending upon engine speed and other operating conditions.
 On side of diaphragm is connected to the induction manifold
and other side is connected to atmosphere. (Induction manifold
is at lower pressure than atmospheric and this pressure depends
upon engine speed). The diaphragm is connected to the
distributor through a linkage.
 As engine speed increases the pressure on one side of diaphragm
decreases. This change in pressure controls the movement of
diaphragm which ultimately controls the ignition timings. At
 normal position of diaphragm, the ignition timing is set at fully
retarded position. As engine speed increases the ignition timings
are advanced.

DELAY PERIOD IN C.I ENGINE:

Delay period is basically the time gap between starting of mixing of

air and fuel and the start of ignition.

This time gap is divided into 2 parts:

1. Physical delay
2. Chemical delay

Physical Delay is the time taken for the air and fuel to mix with each
other properly.

Chemical delay is the time taken for the chemical reactions to take
place till the time of start of ignition.

The time taken together by both these delays is called as the delay
period.
The time or the turn angle of a piston engine crankshaft from the start
of fuel injection into the combustion chamber to the instant of
appearance of flame (cold flame glow) or rise of pressure in the
chamber due to heat evolution upon combustion of the fuel is
considered as the ignition delay.

FACTORS EFFECTING IGNITION DELAY:

The primary factors investigated are those pertaining to the fuel spray,
such as injection timing, quantity, and pressure (affecting drop size,
velocity and injection rate); hole diameter (affecting drop size and
injection rate) and spray form (nozzle type); and those pertaining to
the engine, such as temperature, pressure and air velocity.
Engine operating variables such as speed and load affect the ignition
delay because they change the primary factors such as injection
pressure, compression temperature, pressure and air velocity.
It has been found that under normal running conditions, compression
temperature and pressure are the major factors. All other factors have
only secondary effects.
Under starting conditions, when ignition is marginal, mixture
formation becomes as important as compression temperature and
pressure. Such factors as air velocity and spray form which affect the
mixing pattern can have a very pronounced effect on ignition delay.

SPARK PLUG:
A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an
ignition system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine
to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while
containing combustion pressure within the engine.

A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a

central electrode by a ceramic insulator. The central electrode, which
may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the
output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal
shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder head and thus electrically
grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain
insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark
gaps between the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or
more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end of the
threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode.

PARTS OF SPARK PLUG:

TERMINAL:

The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition
system. Over of the years variations in the terminal configuration
have been introduced by manufacturers. The exact terminal
construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most
passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but
some wires have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug
under a nut. The standard solid non-removable nut SAE configuration
is common for many cars and trucks. Plugs which are used for these
applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double purpose
as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either
type of connection. This type of spark plug has a removable nut or
knurl, which enables its users to attach them to two different kinds of
spark plug boots. Some spark plugs have a bare thread, which is a
common type for motorcycles and ATVs. Finally, in very recent
years, a cup-style terminal has been introduced, which allows for a
longer ceramic insulator in the same confined space.
INSULATOR:

The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina
(Al2O3), a very hard ceramic material with high dielectric strength,
printed with the manufacturer's name and identifying marks, then
glazed to improve resistance to surface spark tracking. Its major
functions are to provide mechanical support and electrical insulation
for the central electrode, while also providing an extended spark path
for flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in engines
with deeply recessed plugs, helps extend the terminal above the
cylinder head so as to make it more readily accessible.

RIBS:

By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the
grounded metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs
functions to improve the electrical insulation and prevent electrical
energy from leaking along the insulator surface from the terminal to
the metal case. The disrupted and longer path makes the electricity
encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in
the presence of dirt and moisture. Some spark plugs are manufactured
without ribs; improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator
make them less important.

INSULATOR TIP:
Two spark plugs in comparison views in multiple angles, one of
which is consumed regularly, while the other has the insulating
ceramic broken and the central electrode shortened, due to
manufacturing defects and / or temperature swing

On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator

protruding into the combustion chamber is the same sintered
aluminium oxide (alumina) ceramic as the upper portion, merely
unglazed. It is designed to withstand 650 °C (1,200 °F) and 60 kV.

Older spark plugs, particularly in aircraft, used an insulator made of

stacked layers of mica, compressed by tension in the centre electrode.
SEALS:

Because the spark plugs also seals the combustion chamber of the
engine when installed, seals are required to ensure there is no leakage
from the combustion chamber. The internal seals of modern plugs are
made of compressed glass/metal powder, but old-style seals were
typically made by the use of a multi-layer braze. The external seal is
usually a crush washer, but some manufacturers use the cheaper
method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt
sealing.

METAL CASE:

The metal case/shell (or the jacket, as many people call it) of the spark
plug withstands the torque of tightening the plug, serves to remove
heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and acts as
the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the
side electrode. Spark plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal
cycle fatigue. It's important to install spark plugs with the correct
"reach," or thread length. Spark plugs can vary in reach from 0.095 to
2.649 cm (0.0375 to 1.043 in), such for automotive and small engine
applications. Also, a marine spark plugs shell is double-dipped, zinc-
chromate coated metal.

CENTRAL ELECTRODE:

The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal

wire and commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of
RF noise from the sparking. Non-resistor spark plugs, commonly sold
without an "R" in the plug type part number, lack this element to
reduce electro-magnetic interference with radios and other sensitive
equipment. The tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-
iron, chromium, or noble metals.

SPARK PLUG GAP:

Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be
adjusted by the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the
ground electrode slightly. The same plug may be specified for several
different engines, requiring a different gap for each. Spark plugs in
automobiles generally have a gap between 0.6 and 1.8 mm (0.024 and
0.071 in). The gap may require adjustment from the out-of-the-box
gap. The gap adjustment can be crucial to proper engine operation. A
narrow gap may give too small and weak a spark to effectively ignite
the fuel-air mixture, but the plug will almost always fire on each
cycle. A gap that is too wide might prevent a spark from firing at all
or may misfire at high speeds, but will usually have a spark that is
strong for a clean burn. A spark which intermittently fails to ignite the
fuel-air mixture may not be noticeable directly, but will show up as a
reduction in the engine's power and fuel efficiency.

Heat range:
The operating temperature of a spark plug is the actual physical
temperature at the tip of the spark plug within the running engine,
normally between 500 and 800 °C (932 and 1,472 °F). This is
important because it determines the efficiency of plug self-cleaning
and is determined by a number of factors, but primarily the actual
temperature within the combustion chamber. There is no direct
relationship between the actual operating temperature of the spark
plug and spark voltage. However, the level of torque currently being
produced by the engine will strongly influence spark plug operating
temperature because the maximal temperature and pressure occur
when the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque and
rotational speed directly determine the power output). The
temperature of the insulator responds to the thermal conditions it is
exposed to in the combustion chamber, but not vice versa. If the tip of
the spark plug is too hot, it can cause pre-ignition or sometimes
detonation/knocking, and damage may occur. If it is too cold,
electrically conductive deposits may form on the insulator, causing a
loss of spark energy or the actual shorting-out of the spark current.

TYPES OF SPARK PLUG:

COPPER SPARK PLUG:

This spark plug is mostly made from solid copper. Its central
electrode is made from nickel alloy and it has the largest diameter of
all the other spark plugs. This means it’ll need more voltage to
generate an electric current.
Nickel alloy is a material that is soft and not very durable. This means
it won’t last long. It is best to use copper spark plugs in older vehicles
which didn’t have high electrical needs.

 Pros – Better for older vehicles built before 1980.

 Cons – They don’t last as long; Requires more voltage.

IRIDIUM SPARK PLUGS:

Iridium spark plugs will last the longest. Iridium is a metal that is
harder and more durable than platinum. Although you will have to
pay more money for iridium spark plugs, you will get what you pay
for.

These spark plugs have a small centre electrode which means they use
less voltage to generate the electric current. That is why many car
manufacturers are starting to recommend iridium spark plugs for their
vehicles.

If you already have these spark plugs installed and you need new
ones, do not downgrade to platinum or copper because they will
diminish the performance of your vehicle.

 Pros – Harder than platinum; Lasts the Longest; Uses Less

Voltage
 Cons – Expensive.
PLATINUM SPARK PLUGS:

A platinum spark plug is similar to a copper spark plug, except that its
centre electrode has a platinum disc which is welded to its tip area.
The copper spark plug only has nickel alloy material in this area.

As a result, the platinum spark plug is more durable and can last as
many as 100,000 miles.

These plugs also generate more heat, which means that debris build
up will be reduced. If you have a new car with an electronic
distributor ignition system, platinum spark plugs are recommended.

 Pros – Lasts longer than copper; Reduces debris build up.

 Cons – Not the strongest spark plug on the market.

DOUBLE PLATINUM SPARK PLUG:

If your distributor ignition system is a waste spark system, then

double platinum spark plugs are recommended. This system causes
the spark plugs to fire twice, once in the compression stroke’s
cylinder and the other in the exhaust stroke’s cylinder.
The spark for the latter gets wasted because there is no ignition there.
The benefit of the waste spark system is that it is more reliable and
isn’t affected by environmental conditions such as rain or dampness.

 Pros – Recommended for Waste Spark Systems; Reliable

 Cons – Not recommended for electronic DIS