A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module in
PHYS 106
PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
(CALCULUS-BASED)

College of Engineering and Technology

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
 CHAPTER 05

MORE APPLICATION OF
NEWTON’S LAW
Adopted from: REYCIELO B. DENZON

Second Semester AY 2021-2022

JINKY P. TABASA
Instructor

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

Cover Page i
Title Page ii
Table of Contents iii
Instruction to the User iv
Introduction v

Chapter 05: More Application of Newton’s Law 1

Overview 1
Pre-test 2
A. Learning Goals 3
B. Time Allotment 3
C. Discussion 4
5.1 Forces of Friction 4
5.2 Extending the Particle in Uniform Circular Motion 9
Model
5.3 Nonuniform Circular Motion 16
5.4 Motion in the Presence of Velocity-Dependent 18
Resistive Forces
5.5 The Fundamental Forces of Nature 22
D. Activities/Exercises 25
E. Evaluation/Post-test 28

References 35
Student’s Information 36

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 INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This learning module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to
ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the topic
about Physics for Engineers.

Gently reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.
2. Answer the pre-test first to measure what you know and what to be learned
about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for better
understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social media
platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly answering
and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were spent in the
preparation in order that learning will still continue amidst this COVID-19
pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

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 INTRODUCTION

This learning module will serve as an alternative learning material to usual way
of classroom teaching and learning delivery. The instructor will facilitate and explain
the module to the students to achieve its expected learning outcomes and to ensure
that they will learn amidst of pandemic.

This material discusses of the most essential learning competency of Physics.

The fundamental goals of this module are:

▪ To build an understanding of concepts and ideas explicitly in terms previous

learning. Students are constantly challenged by the need to layer new concepts
on top of previous concepts they may still be struggling to master. This learning
module provides an important focus on helping students understand how new
concepts are related to and rely upon concepts previously presented.
▪ To emphasize the relationship between conceptual understanding and
problem-solving approaches. Developing problem-solving skills continues to
be the central challenge in a first-year physics course. In this module we include
numerous Examples that present problem-solving techniques followed by
Activities and Exercises that enable students to test their mastery of the
material and techniques introduced. The problem-solving process is illustrated
based on concepts rather than the use of route procedures. This encourages
students to think about a problem before attempting to solve it.
▪ To provide students with a strong foundation of engineering practices. There
are limited opportunities in a first-year physics course to introduce students to
realistic engineering experiences. To continue to take advantage of the
opportunities that do exist, this module includes problems and examples that
use realistic component values. Problems intended to stimulate the student’s
interest in engineering, are also included, where the problems require the type
of insight typical of a practicing engineer.

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 Chapter 05

MORE APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW

OVERVIEW

In Chapter 4, we introduced Newton’s laws of motion and applied them to

situations in which we ignored friction. In this chapter, we shall expand our
investigation to objects moving in the presence of friction, which will allow us to model
situations more realistically. Such objects include those sliding on rough surfaces and
those moving through viscous media such as liquids and air. We also apply Newton’s
laws to the dynamics of circular motion so that we can understand more about objects
moving in circular paths under the influence of various types of forces.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
5.1 Forces of Friction
5.2 Extending the Particle in Uniform Circular Motion Model
5.3 Nonuniform Circular Motion
5.4 Motion in the Presence of Velocity-Dependent Resistive Forces
5.5 The Fundamental Forces of Nature

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 Pre-Test

What Do You Know About?

Instructions: To test your prior knowledge, please answer the pre-test.

Thinking Physics

Question

1. The Copernican theory of the solar system is a structural model in which the
planets are assumed to travel around the Sun in circular orbits. Historically, this
theory was a break from the Ptolemaic theory, a structural model in which the Earth
was at the center. When the Copernican theory was proposed, a natural question
arose: What keeps the Earth and other planets moving in their paths around the
Sun? An interesting response to this question comes from Richard Feynman: “In
those days, one of the theories proposed was that the planets went around because
behind them there were invisible angels, beating their wings and driving the planets
forward. . . . It turns out that in order to keep the planets going around, the invisible
angels must fly in a different direction.” What did Feynman mean by this statement?

Answer

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 Chapter 5
More Applications of Newton’s Law

A. LEARNING GOALS

By studying this chapter, you will learn:

Investigate objects moving in the presence of friction.

Understand more about objects moving in circular paths under the
influence of various types of forces.
Apply Newton’s laws to the dynamics of circular motion.
Apply the problem-solving techniques.

B. TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

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 C. DISCUSSION

5.1 FORCES OF FRICTION

When an object moves either on a surface or

through a viscous medium such as air or water,
there is resistance to the motion because the
object interacts with its surroundings. We call
such resistance a force of friction. Forces of
friction are very important in our everyday
lives. They allow us to walk or run and are
necessary for the motion of wheeled vehicles.

Imagine you are working in your garden and

have filled a trash can with yard clippings. You
then try to drag the trash can across the surface
of your concrete patio as in Active Figure 5.1a.
The patio surface is real, not an idealized,
frictionless surface in a simplification model. If
we apply an external horizontal force 𝐹⃗ to the
trash can, acting to the right, the trash can
remains stationary if 𝑭⃗⃗ is small. The force that
counteracts 𝑭⃗⃗ and keeps the trash can from
moving is applied at the base of the can by the
surface and acts to the left. It is called the force
of static friction 𝒇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒔 . As long as the trash can
is not moving, it is modeled as a particle in equilibrium and 𝒇𝒔 = 𝑭. Therefore, if 𝐹⃗ is
increased in magnitude, the magnitude of 𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗𝑠 also increases. Likewise, if 𝐹⃗ decreases,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒇𝑠 also decreases.

If we increase the magnitude of 𝑭 ⃗⃗, as in Active Figure 5.1b, the trash can eventually
slips. When the trash can be on the verge of slipping, 𝒇𝒔 is a maximum as shown in
Active Figure 5.1c. If F exceeds 𝒇𝒔,𝒎𝒂𝒙, the trash can moves and accelerates to the right.
While the trash can is in motion, the friction force is less than 𝒇𝒔,𝒎𝒂𝒙 (Active Fig. 5.1c).
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑘 . The net
We call the friction force for an object in motion the force of kinetic friction 𝑓
force 𝑭 − 𝒇𝒌 in the x direction produces an acceleration to the right, according to
Newton’s second law. If we reduce the magnitude of 𝑭 ⃗⃗ so that 𝑭 = 𝒇𝒌 , the acceleration
is zero and the trash can moves to the right with constant speed. If the applied force is
removed, the friction force acting to the left provides an acceleration of the trash can
in the 2x direction and eventually brings it to rest.

Experimentally, one finds that, to a good approximation, both 𝒇𝒔,𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝒇𝒌 for an
object on a surface are proportional to the normal force exerted by the surface on the
object; therefore, we adopt a simplification model in which this approximation is

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assumed to be exact. The assumptions in this simplification model can be summarized
as follows:

Force of static friction

The magnitude of the force of static friction between any two surfaces in contact can
have the values

where the dimensionless constant s is called the coefficient of static friction and n is
the magnitude of the normal force. The equality in Equation 5.1 holds when the
surfaces are on the verge of slipping, that is, when 𝒇𝒔 = 𝒇𝒔,𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≡ 𝝁𝒔 𝒏 . This situation
is called impending motion. The inequality holds when the component of the applied
force parallel to the surfaces is less than this value.

Force of kinetic friction

The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between two surfaces is

where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction. In our simplification model, this coefficient
is independent of the relative speed of the surfaces.

The values of 𝝁𝒌 and 𝝁𝒔 depend on the nature of the surfaces, but 𝝁𝒌 is generally less
than s. Table 5.1 lists some measured values.

The direction of the friction force on an object is opposite to the actual motion (kinetic
friction) or the impending motion (static friction) of the object relative to the surface
with which it is in contact.

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Example 5.1 The Sliding Hockey Puck

A hockey puck on a frozen pond is given an

initial speed of 20.0 m/s.
(A) If the puck always remains on the ice
and slides 115 m before coming to rest,
determine the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the puck and ice.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize Imagine that the puck in
Figure 5.3 slides to the right and eventually
comes to rest due to the force of kinetic
friction.

Categorize The forces acting on the puck are

identified in Figure 5.3, but the text of
the problem provides kinematic variables.
Therefore, we categorize the problem in
two ways. First, it involves a particle under a net force: kinetic friction causes the
puck to accelerate. Furthermore, because we model the force of kinetic friction as
independent of speed, the acceleration of the puck is constant. So, we can also
categorize this problem as one involving a particle under constant acceleration.

Analyze First, let’s find the acceleration algebraically in terms of the coefficient of
kinetic friction, using Newton’s second law. Once we know the acceleration of the
puck and the distance it travels, the equations of kinematics can be used to find the
numerical value of the coefficient of kinetic friction. The diagram in Figure 5.3 shows
the forces on the puck.

Apply the particle under a net force model in the x direction to the puck:

Apply the particle in equilibrium model in the y direction to the puck:

Substitute 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑔 from Equation (2) and 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑛 into Equation (1):

The negative sign means the acceleration is to the left in Figure 5.3. Because the
velocity of the puck is to the right, the puck is slowing down. The acceleration is
independent of the mass of the puck and is constant because we assume 𝜇𝑘 remains
constant.

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(B) If the initial speed of the puck is halved, what would be the sliding distance?
SOLUTION
This part of the problem is a comparison problem and can be solved by a ratio
technique such as that used in Example 3.4.

Example 5.2 Experimental Determination of 𝝁𝒔 and 𝝁𝒌

The following is a simple method of measuring coefficients of friction. Suppose a

block is placed on a rough surface inclined relative to the horizontal as shown in
Active Figure 5.4. The incline angle is increased until the block starts to move. Show
that you can obtain 𝜇𝑠 by measuring the critical angle 𝜃𝑐 at which this slipping just
occurs.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize Consider Active Figure 5.4 and imagine that the block tends to slide
down the incline due to the gravitational force. To simulate the situation, place a
coin on this book’s cover and tilt the book until the coin begins to slide.
Notice how this example differs from Example 4.3. When there is no friction on an
incline, any angle of the incline will cause a stationary object to begin moving. When
there is friction, however, there is no movement of the object for angles less than the
critical angle.

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Categorize The block is subject to various forces. Because we are raising the plane
to the angle at which the block is just ready to begin to move but is not moving, we
categorize the block as a particle in equilibrium.

Example 5.3 Acceleration of Two Connected Objects When

Friction Is Present

A block of mass 𝑚2 on a rough, horizontal surface is connected to a ball of mass 𝑚1

by a lightweight cord over a lightweight, frictionless pulley as shown in Figure 5.5a.
A force of magnitude 𝑭 at an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal is applied to the block as
shown, and the block slides to the right. The coefficient of kinetic friction between
the block and surface is 𝜇𝑘 . Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of the two
objects.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize Imagine what happens as ⃗𝑭⃗ is applied to the block. Assuming ⃗𝑭⃗ is
not large enough to lift the block, the block slides to the right and the ball rises.

Categorize We can identify forces and we want an acceleration, so we categorize

this problem as one involving two particles under a net force, the ball and the block.

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 Analyze First draw force diagrams for the two objects as shown in Figures 5.5b and
5.5c. Notice that the string exerts a force of magnitude T on both objects. The applied
force ⃗𝑭⃗ has x and y components 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝐹 sin 𝜃 , respectively. Because the two
objects are connected, we can equate the magnitudes of the x component of the
acceleration of the block and the y component of the acceleration of the ball and call
them both a. Let us assume the motion of the block is to the right.

5.2 EXTENDING THE PARTICLE IN UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

MODEL

An object that moves in a circle at constant speed 𝑣 is said to experience uniform

circular motion. The magnitude of the velocity remains constant but the direction
of the velocity continuously changes as the object moves around the circle (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1. A small object moving in a circle, showing how the velocity changes. At
each point, the instantaneous velocity is in a direction tangent to the circular path.
An object revolving in a circle is continuously accelerating, even when the speed
remains constant (𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣)
Acceleration is defined as
𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 ∆𝑣⃗1
𝑎⃗ = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

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During the time interval ∆𝑡, the particle in Figure 3.2a moves from point 𝐴 to point 𝐵,
covering a distance ∆𝑙 along the arc which subtends an angle ∆𝜃. The change in the
velocity vector (Figure 3.2b) is
𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 = ∆𝑣⃗
Consider ∆𝑡 be very small (approaching zero), then ∆𝑙 and ∆𝜃 will also be very small,
and 𝑣⃗2 will almost parallel to 𝑣⃗1 ; ∆𝑣⃗ will be essentially perpendicular to them (Figure
3.2c). Thus ∆𝑣⃗ points toward the center of the circle. Since 𝑎⃗ by definition, is in the
same direction as ∆𝑣⃗, it too must point toward the center of the circle. Therefore, this
acceleration is called centripetal acceleration (“center-pointing” acceleration) or
radial acceleration (since it is directed along the radius, toward the center of the
circle), and we denote it by 𝑎⃗𝑅 .
We next determine the magnitude of the centripetal (radial) acceleration, 𝑎𝑅 . Because
𝐶𝐴 in Figure 3.2a is perpendicular to 𝑣⃗1 , and 𝐶𝐵 is perpendicular to 𝑣⃗2 , it follows that
the angle ∆𝜃, defined as the angle between 𝐶𝐴 and 𝐶𝐵, is also the angle between 𝑣⃗1 and
𝑣⃗2 . Hence the vectors 𝑣⃗1 , 𝑣⃗2 , and ∆𝑣⃗ in Figure 3.2b form a triangle that is geometrically
similar to triangle 𝐶𝐴𝐵. If we take ∆𝜃 to be very small and setting 𝑣 = 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 because
the magnitude of the velocity is assumed not to change, then
∆𝑣 ∆𝑙
≈
𝑣 𝑟

Figure 3.2. Determining the change in velocity, ∆𝑣⃗, for a particle moving in a circle.
The length ∆𝑙 is the distance along the arc, from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
To find the instantaneous acceleration, let ∆𝑡 approach zero, then
𝑣
∆𝑣 = ∆𝑙
𝑟
To get the centripetal acceleration, 𝑎𝑅 , we divide ∆𝑣 by ∆𝑡:
∆𝑣 𝑣 ∆𝑙
𝑎𝑅 = =
∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡
∆𝑙
But ∆𝑡 is the linear speed, 𝑣, of the object, so

𝑣2
𝑎𝑅 =
𝑟
To summarize,

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An object moving in a circle of radius 𝑟 at constant speed 𝑣 has an acceleration whose
direction is toward the center of the circle and whose magnitude is 𝑎𝑅 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟
The acceleration depends on 𝑣 and 𝑟. The greater the speed 𝑣, the faster the velocity
changes direction; and the larger the radius, the less rapidly the velocity changes
direction.
Note: In uniform circular motion, the speed is constant, but the acceleration is not
zero.
The acceleration vector points toward the center of the circle. But the velocity vector
always points in the direction of motion, which is tangential to the circle. Thus, the
velocity and acceleration vectors are perpendicular to each other at every point in the
path for uniform circular motion (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3. For uniform circular motion, 𝑎⃗ is always perpendicular to 𝑣⃗

Circular motion is often described in terms of the frequency 𝑓, the number of

revolutions per second. The period 𝑇 of an object revolving in a circle is the time
required for one complete revolution.
1
𝑇=
𝑓
For an object revolving in a circle (of circumference 2𝜋𝑟) at constant speed 𝑣,
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
In one revolution, the object travels one circumference.

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Example 5.4 Acceleration of a revolving ball

A 150 − 𝑔 ball at the end of a string is revolving uniformly in a horizontal circle of

radius 0.6 𝑚. The ball makes 2 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 in a second. What is its centripetal
acceleration?
APPROACH
The centripetal acceleration is 𝑎𝑅 = 𝑣 2 /𝑟. We are given 𝑟, and we can find the speed
of the ball, 𝑣, from the given radius and frequency.
SOLUTION
If the ball makes two complete revolutions per second, then the ball travels in a
complete circle in a time interval equal to 0.5 𝑠, which is its period 𝑇. The distance
traveled in this time is the circumference of the circle, 2𝜋𝑟, where 𝑟 is the radius of
the circle. Therefore, the ball has speed
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
2𝜋(0.6𝑚)
𝑣=
0.5 𝑠
𝑣 = 7.54 𝑚/𝑠
The centripetal acceleration is
𝑣2
𝑎𝑅 =
𝑟
(7.54 𝑚⁄𝑠)2
𝑎𝑅 =
0.6 𝑚
𝒂𝑹 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

Example 5.5 Moon’s centripetal acceleration

The moon’s nearly circular orbit about the Earth has a radius of about
384,000 𝑘𝑚 and a period 𝑇 of 27.3 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. Determine the acceleration of the
Moon toward the Earth.
APPROACH
Again, we need to find the velocity 𝑣 in order to find 𝑎𝑅 . We will need to
convert to SI units to get 𝑣 in 𝑚/𝑠.
SOLUTION
In one orbit around the Earth, the moon travels a distance 2𝜋𝑟, where 𝑟 =
3.84 𝑥 108 𝑚 is the radius of its circular path. The time required for one
complete orbit is the Moon’s period of 27.3 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. The speed of the Moon in
its orbit about the Earth is 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑟/𝑇. The period 𝑇 in seconds is
24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 3600 𝑠
𝑇 = 27.3 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
6
𝑇 = 2.36 𝑥 10 𝑠
Therefore,
𝑣2
𝑎𝑅 =
𝑟
(2𝜋𝑟/𝑇)2
𝑎𝑅 =
𝑟
4𝜋 2 𝑟 2
𝑎𝑅 = 2
𝑇 𝑟

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 4𝜋 2 𝑟
𝑎𝑅 = 2
𝑇
4𝜋 2 (3.84 𝑥 108 )
𝑎𝑅 =
(2.36 𝑥 106 𝑠)2
𝒂𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

According to Newton’s second law (Σ𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗), an object that is accelerating must have
a net force acting on it. An object moving in circle, such as a ball on the end of a string,
must therefore have a force applied to it to keep it moving in that circle. That is, a net
force is necessary to give it centripetal acceleration.
The magnitude of the required force can be calculated using Newton’s second law for
the radial component.
Σ𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑅
𝑣2
Σ𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚( )
𝑟

For uniform circular motion (𝑣=constant), the acceleration is 𝑎𝑅 , which is directed

toward the center of the circle at any moment. Thus, the net force too must be directed
toward the center of the circle (Figure 3.4). A net force is necessary because otherwise,
if no net force were exerted on the object, it would not move in circle but in a straight
line, as with Newton’s first law. The force is called a centripetal (“pointing toward the
center”).

Figure 3.4. A force is required to keep an object moving in a circle. If the speed is
constant, the force is directed toward the circle’s center.

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Example 5.6 Force on revolving ball
Estimate the force a person must exert on a string attached to a 0.150 − 𝑘𝑔 ball to
make the ball revolve in a horizontal circle of radius 0.6 𝑚. the ball makes
2 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑇 = 0.500 𝑠).
APPROACH
First, we need to draw the free-body diagram for the ball. The forces acting on the
ball are the force of gravity, 𝑚𝑔⃗ downward, and the tension force 𝐹⃗𝑇 that the string
exerts toward the hand at the center (which occurs because the person exerts that
same force on the string). The free-body diagram for the ball is as shown in Figure
3.5. the ball’s weight complicates matters and makes it impossible to revolve a ball
with the cord perfectly horizontal. We assume the weight is small, and put 𝜙 ≈ 0.
Thus 𝐹⃗𝑇 will act nearly horizontally and, in any case, provides the force necessary to
give the ball its centripetal acceleration.

Figure 3.5.
Example
3.3

SOLUTION
We apply Newton’s second law to the radial direction, which we assume is
horizontal:
Σ𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑅
where
𝑣2
𝑎𝑅 =
𝑟
and
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
2𝜋(0.6 𝑚)
𝑣=
0.5 𝑠
𝑣 = 7.54 𝑚/𝑠
Thus
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑇 =
𝑟
(0.15 𝑘𝑔)(7.54 𝑚/𝑠)2
𝐹𝑇 =
0.6 𝑚
𝑭𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟏 𝑵

Example 5.7 Revolving ball (vertical circle)

A 0.150 − 𝑘𝑔 ball on the end of a 1.10 − 𝑚 long cord (negligible mass) is swung in a
vertical circle. (a) Determine the minimum speed the ball must have at the top of its
arc so that the ball continue moving in a circle. (b) Calculate the tension in the cord
at the bottom of the arc, assuming the ball is moving at twice the speed of part (a).

APPROACH

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The ball moves in a vertical circle and is not undergoing uniform circular motion.
The radius is assumed constant, but the speed 𝑣 changes because of gravity. The free-
body diagram is shown in Figure 3.6 for both
positions 1 and 2.

Figure 3.6. Example 3.4, Free-body diagrams for

position 1 and 2.

SOLUTION
We apply Newton’s second law, for the vertical
direction, choosing downward as positive since the
acceleration is downward (toward the center):
(Σ𝐹)𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑅
𝑣1 2
𝐹𝑇1 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚
𝑟
(a) From this equation, see that the tension force 𝐹𝑇1 at point 1 will get larger if 𝑣1
(ball’s speed at the top of the circle) is made larger. The cord will remain taut as long
as there is tension in it. But if the tension disappears (because 𝑣1 is too small) the
cord can go limp, and the ball will fall out of its circular path. Thus, the minimum
speed will occur if 𝐹𝑇1 = 0
𝑣1 2
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚
𝑟
𝑣1 2
𝑔=
𝑟
𝑣1 = √𝑔𝑟
𝑣1 = √(9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 )(1.1𝑚)
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟖𝒎/𝒔
This is the minimum speed at the top of the circle if the ball is to continue moving in
a circular path.
(b) when the ball is at the bottom of the circle, the cord exerts its tension force 𝐹𝑇2
upward, whereas the force of gravity, 𝑚𝑔⃗, still acts downward. Apply Newton’s
second law, choosing upward as positive since the acceleration is upward (toward
the center):
(Σ𝐹)𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑅
𝑣2 2
𝐹𝑇2 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚
𝑟
The speed 𝑣2 is given as twice that in part (a), 𝑣2 = 6.56𝑚/𝑠. Solve for 𝐹𝑇2
𝑣2 2
𝐹𝑇2 = 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
𝑚 2
(6.56 𝑠 )
𝐹𝑇2 = (0.15 𝑘𝑔) + (0.15 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
1.1 𝑚
𝑭𝑻𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 𝑵

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5.3 NONUNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

An example of circular dynamics occurs when an automobile rounds a curve. In such

situation, the passenger may feel that he is thrust outward toward the right side of the
door. But there is no mysterious centrifugal force pulling on you. What is happening is
that you tend to move in a straight line, whereas the car has begun to follow a curved
path. To make you go in a curved path, the seat of the door of the car exerts a force on
you (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7. The road exerts an inward force (friction against the tires) on a
car to make it move in a circle
Example 5.8 Skidding on a curve

A 1000 − 𝑘𝑔 car rounds a curve on a flat road of radius 50 𝑚 at a speed of 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

(14 𝑚/𝑠). Will the car follow the curve, or will it skid? Assume:
(a) the pavement is dry and the coefficient of static friction is 𝜇𝑆=0.60;
(b) The pavement is icy and 𝜇𝑆=0.25.
APPROACH
The forces on the car are gravity 𝑚𝑔 downward, the normal force 𝐹𝑁 exerted upward
by the road, and a horizontal friction force due to the road (Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.8. Forces on a car

rounding a curve on a flat
road

SOLUTION
In the vertical direction there is no acceleration. Newton’s second law states that the
normal force 𝐹𝑁 on the car is equal to the weight 𝑚𝑔 since the road is flat:
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐹𝑁 = (1000 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝐹𝑁 = 9810 𝑁
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In the horizontal direction the only force is friction, and must compare it to the force
needed to produce the centripetal acceleration to see if it is sufficient. The net
horizontal force required to keep the car moving in a circle around the curve is
𝑣2
(Σ𝐹)𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑅 = 𝑚
𝑟
(14 𝑚/𝑠)2
(Σ𝐹)𝑅 = (1000 𝑘𝑔)
50 𝑚
(Σ𝐹)𝑅 = 3920 𝑁
Now, compute the maximum total static friction force (the sum of the friction forces
acting on each of the four tires) to see if it can be large enough to provide a safe
centripetal acceleration.
For (a), 𝜇𝑠 = 0.6, the maximum friction force attainable is
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.6(9810 𝑁)
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5886 𝑁
Since a force of only 3920 N is needed, and that is, how much will be exerted by the
road as a static friction force, the car can follow the curve.
But in (b), 𝜇𝑠 = 0.25, the maximum static friction force possible is
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝐹𝑁
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.25(9810 𝑁)
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2453 𝑁
The car will skid because the ground cannot exert sufficient force (3920 𝑁 is
needed) to keep it moving in a curve of radius 50 𝑚 at a speed of 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.
The banking of curves can reduce the chance of skidding. The normal force exerted
by a banked road, acting perpendicular to the road, will have a component toward
the center of the circle (Figure 3.9), thus reducing the reliance on friction. For a given
banking angle 𝜃, there will be one speed for which no friction at all is required. This
will be the case when the horizontal component of the normal force toward the
center of the curve, 𝐹𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, is just equal to the force required to give a vehicle its
centripetal acceleration – that is, when
𝑣2
𝐹𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚
𝑟
The banking angle of a road, 𝜃, is chosen so that this condition holds for a particular
speed, called the “design speed.”

Figure 3.9. Normal force on a car rounding a

banked curve, resolved into its horizontal and
vertical components.

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5.4 MOTION IN THE PRESENCE OF VELOCITY-DEPENDENT RESISTIVE
FORCES

Earlier, we described the friction force between a moving object and the surface along
which it moves. So far, we have ignored any interaction between the object and the
medium through which it moves. Let us now consider the effect of a medium such as a
liquid or gas. The medium exerts a resistive force 𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ on the object moving through it.
You feel this force if you ride in a car at high speed with your hand out the window; the
force you feel pushing your hand backward is the resistive force of the air rushing past
the car. The magnitude of this force depends on the relative speed between the object
and the medium, and the direction of 𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗ on the object is always opposite the direction
of the object’s motion relative to the medium. Some examples are the air resistance
associated with moving vehicles (sometimes called air drag), the force of the wind on
the sails of a sailboat, and the viscous forces that act on objects sinking through a
liquid.

Generally, the magnitude of the resistive force increases with increasing speed. The
resistive force can have a complicated speed dependence. In the following discussions,
we consider two simplification models that allow us to analyze these situations. The
first model assumes that the resistive force is proportional to the velocity, which is
approximately the case for objects that fall through a liquid with low speed and for very
small objects, such as dust particles, that move through air. The second model treats
situations for which we assume that the magnitude of the resistive force is proportional
to the square of the speed of the object. Large objects, such as a skydiver moving
through air in free-fall, experience such a force.

Model 1: Resistive Force Proportional to Object Velocity

At low speeds, the resistive force acting on an object that is moving through a viscous
medium is effectively modeled as being proportional to the object’s velocity. The
mathematical representation of the resistive force can be expressed as

Where 𝑣⃗ is the velocity of the object relative to the medium and 𝑏 is a constant that
depends on the properties of the medium and on the shape and dimensions of the
object. The negative sign represents that the resistive force is opposite the velocity of
the object relative to the medium.

Consider a sphere of mass m released from rest in a liquid, as in Active Figure 5.16a.
We assume that the only forces acting on the sphere are the resistive force 𝑅⃗⃗ and the
weight 𝑚⃗⃗⃗𝑔 , and we describe its motion using Newton’s second law.2 Considering the
vertical motion and choosing the downward direction to be positive, we have

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Dividing this equation by the mass 𝒎 gives

Equation 5.5 is called a 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; it include both the speed 𝑣 and the
derivative of the speed. The methods of solving such an equation may not be familiar
to you as yet. Note, however, that if we define 𝑡 = 0 when 𝑣 = 0, the resistive force is
zero at this time and the acceleration 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 is simply 𝑔. As 𝑡 increases, the speed
increases, the resistive force increases, and the acceleration decreases. Therefore, this
situation is one in which neither the velocity nor the acceleration of the particle is
constant.

The acceleration becomes zero when the increasing resistive force eventually balances
the weight. At this point, the object reaches its 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝑣𝑇 and from then on
it continues to move with zero acceleration. The motion diagram in Active Figure 5.16b
shows the sphere accelerating over the early part of its motion and then reaching
terminal speed later on. After the object reaches terminal speed, its motion is that of a
particle under constant velocity. The terminal speed can be obtained from Equation
𝑑𝑣
5.5 by setting 𝑎 = = 0, which gives
𝑑𝑡

The expression for v that satisfies Equation 5.5 with 𝑣 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0 is

where 𝑣𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔/𝑏, 𝜏 = 𝑚/𝑏, and 𝑒 = 2.718 28 is the base of the natural logarithm.
This expression for 𝑣 can be verified by substituting it back into Equation 5.5. (Try
it!) This function is plotted in Active Figure 5.16c.

The mathematical representation of the motion (Eq. 5.6) indicates that the terminal
speed is never reached because the exponential function is never exactly equal to zero.
For all practical purposes, however, when the exponential function is very small at
large values of 𝑡, the speed of the particle can be approximated as being constant and
equal to the terminal speed.
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We cannot compare different objects by means of the time interval required to reach
terminal speed because, as we have just discussed, this time interval is infinite for all
objects! We need some means to compare these exponential behaviors for different
objects. We do so with a parameter called the time constant. The time constant 𝜏 =
𝑚/𝑏 that appears in Equation 5.6 is the time interval required for the factor in
parentheses in Equation 5.6 to become equal to 1 2 e21 5 0.632. Therefore, the time
constant represents the time interval required for the object to reach 63.2% of its
terminal speed (Active Fig. 5.16c).

Example 5.9 Sphere Falling in Oil

A small sphere of mass 2.00 g is released from rest in a large vessel filled with oil,
where it experiences a resistive force proportional to its speed. The sphere reaches a
terminal speed of 5.00 cm/s. Determine the time constant 𝜏 and the time at which
the sphere reaches 90.0% of its terminal speed.

SOLUTION
Conceptualize With the help of Active Figure 5.16, imagine dropping the sphere
into the oil and watching it sink to the bottom of the vessel. If you have some thick
shampoo in a clear container, drop a marble in it and observe the motion of the
marble.

Categorize We model the sphere as a particle under a net force, with one of the
forces being a resistive force that depends on the speed of the sphere.

Model 2: Resistive Force Proportional to Object Speed Squared

For large objects moving at high speeds through air, such as airplanes, skydivers, and
baseballs, the magnitude of the resistive force is modeled as being proportional to the
square of the speed:

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where 𝜌 is the density of air, A is the cross-sectional area of the moving object measured
in a plane perpendicular to its velocity, and D is a dimensionless empirical quantity
called the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient has a value of about 0.5 for spherical
objects moving through air but can be as high as 2 for irregularly shaped objects.

Consider an airplane in flight that experiences

such a resistive force. Equation 5.7 shows that
the force is proportional to the density of air and
hence decreases with decreasing air density.
Because air density decreases with increasing
altitude, the resistive force on a jet airplane
flying at a given speed will decrease with
increasing altitude. Therefore, airplanes tend to
fly at very high altitudes to take advantage of
this reduced resistive force, which allows them
to fly faster for a given engine thrust. Of course,
this higher speed increases the resistive force, in
proportion to the square of the speed, so a
balance is struck between fuel economy and
higher speed.

Now let us analyze the motion of a falling object

subject to an upward air resistive force whose
magnitude is given by Equation 5.7. Suppose an
object of mass m is released from rest, as in
Figure 5.17, from the position 𝑦 = 0. The object
experiences two external forces: the downward
gravitational force 𝑚⃗⃗⃗𝑔 and the upward resistive
force 𝑅⃗⃗. Hence, using Newton’s second law,

Solving for 𝑎, we find that the object has a downward acceleration of magnitude

Because 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡, Equation 5.9 is another differential equation that provides us

with the speed as a function of time.

Again, we can calculate the terminal speed 𝑣𝑇 because when the gravitational force
is balanced by the resistive force, the net force is zero and therefore the acceleration
is zero. Setting 𝑎 = 0 in Equation 5.9 gives

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Table 5.2 lists the terminal speeds for several objects falling through air, all computed
on the assumption that the drag coefficient is 0.5.

5.5 THE FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE

The Gravitational Force

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. This force acts along the line joining the two particles.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every particle in the Universe attracts
every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the
masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
The magnitude of the gravitational force can be written as
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
where:
𝐹= gravitational force
𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 =masses of the two particles
𝑟=distance between the particles
𝐺= universal gravitational constant
𝑚2
𝐺 = 6.67 𝑥 10−11 𝑁.
𝑘𝑔2

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The Electromagnetic Force

The electromagnetic force is the force that binds atoms and molecules in compound to
form ordinary matter. It is much stronger than the gravitational force. The force that
causes a rubbed comb to attract bits of paper and the force that a magnet exerts on an
iron nail are electromagnetic forces. Essentially all forces a work in our macroscopic
world, apart from the gravitational force, are manifestations of the electromagnetic
force. For example, friction forces, contact forces, tension forces, and forces in
elongated springs are consequences of electromagnetic forces between charged
particles in proximity

Coulomb’s law expresses the magnitude of the electrostatic force 𝐹𝑒 between two
charged particles separated by a distance 𝑟:

where 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the charges on the two particles, measured in units called coulombs
(C), and 𝑘𝑒 (5 8.99 3109 N · m2/C2) is the Coulomb constant.

The electrostatic force is attractive if the two charges have opposite signs and is
repulsive if the two charges have the same sign, as indicated in Figure 5.20.

The smallest amount of isolated charge found in nature (so far) is the charge on an
electron or proton. This fundamental unit of charge is given the symbol e and has the
magnitude 𝑒 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐶. An electron has charge −𝑒, whereas a proton has
charge +𝑒. Theories developed in the latter half of the 20th century propose that
protons and neutrons are made up of smaller particles called quarks, which have
2 1
charges of either 3 𝑒 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑒. Although experimental evidence has been found for such
particles inside nuclear matter, free quarks have never been detected.

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The Strong Force

An atom, as we currently model it, consists of an extremely dense positively charged

nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons, with the electrons
attracted to the nucleus by the electric force. All nuclei except those of hydrogen are
combinations of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons (collectively called
nucleons), yet why does the repulsive electrostatic force between the protons no cause
nuclei to break apart? Clearly, there must be an attractive force that counteracts the
strong electrostatic repulsive force and is responsible for the stability of nuclei. This
force that binds the nucleons to form a nucleus is called the nuclear force. It is one
manifestation of the strong force, which is the force between quarks, which we will
discuss in Chapter 31. Unlike the gravitational and electromagnetic forces, which
depend on distance in an inverse-square fashion, the nuclear force is extremely short
range; its strength decreases very rapidly outside the nucleus and is negligible for
separations greater than approximately 10−14 𝑚.

The Weak Force

The weak force is a short-range force that tends to produce instability in certain nuclei.
It was first observed in naturally occurring radioactive substances and was later found
to play a key role in most radioactive decay reactions. The weak force is about 1034
times stronger than the gravitational force and about 103 times weaker than the
electromagnetic force.

The Current View of Fundamental Forces

For years, physicists have searched for a simplification scheme that would reduce the
number of fundamental forces needed to describe physical phenomena. In 1967,
physicists predicted that the electromagnetic force and the weak force, originally
thought to be independent of each other and both fundamental, are in fact
manifestations of one force, now called the electroweak force.

We also now know that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles; current
models of protons and neutrons theorize that they are composed of simpler particles
called quarks, as mentioned previously. The quark model has led to a modification of
our understanding of the nuclear force. Scientists now define the strong force as the
force that binds the quarks to one another in a nucleon (proton or neutron). This force
is also referred to as a color force, in reference to a property of quarks called “color,”.
The previously defined nuclear force, the force that acts between nucleons, is now
interpreted as a secondary effect of the strong force between the quarks.

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 D. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES

Instructions: Answer the following conceptual questions. Kindly write your answer
in the Answer Box provided after each question. Please write your answer neat and
clearly.

Quiz 5.1
A car is moving forward slowly and is speeding up. A student claims that “the car exerts a
force on itself” or that “the car’s engine exerts a force on the car.” (a) Argue that this idea
cannot be accurate and that friction exerted by the road is the propulsive force on the car.
Make your evidence and reasoning as persuasive as possible. (b) Is it static or kinetic friction?
Suggestions: Consider a road covered with light gravel. Consider a sharp print of the tire
tread on an asphalt road, obtained by coating the tread with dust.

Answer

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 Quiz 5.2
Your hands are wet, and the restroom towel dispenser is empty. What do you do to
get drops of water off your hands? How does the motion of the drops exemplify one
of Newton’s laws? Which one?

Answer

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 Quiz 5.3
A pail of water can be whirled in a vertical path such that no water is spilled. Why
does the water stay in the pail, even when the pail is above your head?

Answer

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 E. Evaluation/Post-test

Instructions: Solve the following problems. Show your solution in the Answer Sheet
provided. Please write your answer neat and clearly.

Section 5.1 Forces of Friction

1. To determine the coefficients of friction between rubber and various surfaces,
a student uses a rubber eraser and an incline. In one experiment, the eraser
begins to slip down the incline when the angle of inclination is 36.0° and then
moves down the incline with constant speed when the angle is reduced to 30.0°.
From these data, determine the coefficients of static and kinetic friction for this
experiment.
2. A 9.00-kg hanging object is connected by a light,
inextensible cord over a light, frictionless pulley to
a 5.00-kg block that is sliding on a flat table. Taking
the coefficient of kinetic friction as 0.200, find the
tension in the string.

Section 5.2 Extending the Particle in Uniform Circular Motion Model

1. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, an electron moves in a circular path
around a proton. The speed of the electron is approximately 2.20 𝑥 106 m/s.
Find (a) the force acting on the electron as it revolves in a circular orbit of radius
0.530 × 10−10 m and (b) the centripetal acceleration of the electron.
2. Whenever two Apollo astronauts were on the surface of the Moon, a third
astronaut orbited the Moon. Assume the orbit to be circular and 100 km above
the surface of the Moon, where the acceleration due to gravity is 1.52 𝑚/𝑠 2 . The
radius of the Moon is 1.70 𝑥 106 m. Determine (a) the astronaut’s orbital speed
and (b) the period of the orbit.

Section 5.3 Nonuniform Circular Motion

1. Disturbed by speeding cars outside his workplace, Nobel laureate Arthur Holly
Compton designed a speed bump (called the “Holly hump”) and had it
installed. Suppose a 1 800 − 𝑘𝑔 car passes over a hump in a roadway that
follows the arc of a circle of radius 20.4 m as shown. (a) If the car travels at 30.0
km/h, what force does the road exert on the car as the car passes the highest
point of the hump? (b) What If? What is the maximum speed the car can have
without losing contact with the road as it passes this highest point?
2. An engineer (𝑚 = 85.0 𝑘𝑔) tries to cross a river by swinging from a vine. The
vine is 10.0 m long, and his speed at the bottom of the swing is 8.00 m/s. The
engineer doesn’t know that the vine has a breaking strength of 1 000 N. Does
he make it across the river without falling in?

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Section 5.4 Motion in the Presence of Velocity-Dependent Resistive Forces
1. A small piece of Styrofoam packing material is dropped from a height of 2.00
m above the ground. Until it reaches terminal speed, the magnitude of its
acceleration is given by 𝑎 = 𝑔 − 𝐵𝑣. After falling 0.500 m, the Styrofoam
effectively reaches terminal speed and then takes 5.00 s more to reach the
ground. (a) What is the value of the constant 𝐵? (b) What is the acceleration at
𝑡 = 0? (c) What is the acceleration when the speed is 0.150 m/s?

Section 5.5 The Fundamental Forces of Nature

1. In a thundercloud, there may be electric charges of +40.0 𝐶 near the top of the
cloud and 240.0 C near the bottom of the cloud. These charges are separated
by 2.00 km. What is the electric force on the top charge?
2. Two identical isolated particles, each of mass 2.00 kg, are separated by a
distance of 30.0 cm. What is the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted
by one particle on the other?
3. Find the order of magnitude of the gravitational force that you exert on another
person 2 m away. In your solution, state the quantities you measure or estimate
and their values.

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Answer Sheet

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Answer Sheet

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Answer Sheet

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Answer Sheet

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Answer Sheet

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 References

Alinea, Allan L. Laboratory Manual in General Physics 1 with Supplementary

Reading. 2006.
Bueche, Frederick et.al. College Physics. 2012.
Catchillar, Gerry C. Laboratory Manual on Heat, Electricity and Magnetism.
2002.
Catchillar, Gerry C. College Physics Laboratory Manual. 2004.
Giancoli, Douglas C. Physics Principles with Applications. 5th Edition. 2000.
Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Giancoli, Douglas C. Physics Principles with Applications. 6th Edition. 2005.
Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Santos, Gil Nonanto C. et.al. i-Physics (investigatory Physics). 2006.
Serway, Raymond A., and Jewett, John W. Physics for Engineers. 6th Edition.
2004. Thompson Brooks/Cole.
Serway, Raymond A., and Jewett, John W. Physics for Engineers. 8th Edition.
2009. Thompson Brooks/Cole.
Young, Hugh D., and Freedman, Roger A. University Physics with Modern
Physics. 13th Edition. 2012. Pearson Education, Inc., San Francisco, CA.
Young, Hugh D., and Freedman, Roger A. University Physics with Modern
Physics. 11th Edition. 2004. Pearson Education, Inc., San Francisco, CA.

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 Congratulations for completing this module!

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Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:

Instructor’s Information:
Name: JINKY P. TABASA
Contact No.: +639482853328
Email Address: jinky.tabasa@wpu.edu.ph

Data Privacy Notice

For this module, we collect name, program, year and section, contact number,
email address, Facebook and messenger account when you submit your printed
module for purposes of coordination and communication.
All personal information collected will be stored in a secure location and only
authorized staff will have access to them.

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 Vision 2020
WPU: the leading knowledge center for sustainable
development of West Philippines and beyond.

Mission
WPU commits to develop quality human resource and green
technologies for a dynamic economy and sustainable
development through relevant instruction,
research and extension services.

Core Values (3CT)

Culture of Excellence
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

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