1.

Common Methods of Data Transmission

After the data is transformed into a series of bits, it must be converted into signals that can be sent
across the network media to its destination. Media refers to the physical medium on which the
signals are transmitted. Examples of media are copper wire, fiber-optic cable, and electromagnetic
waves through the air. A signal consists of electrical or optical patterns that are transmitted from
one connected device to another. These patterns represent the digital bits (i.e. the data) and travel
across the media from source to destination as either a series of pulses of electricity, pulses of
light, or radio waves. Signals may be converted many times before ultimately reaching the
destination, as corresponding media changes between source and destination.

There are three common methods of signal transmission used in networks:

 Electrical signals - Transmission is achieved by representing data as electrical pulses on

copper wire.
 Optical signals - Transmission is achieved by converting the electrical signals into light
pulses.
 Wireless signals - Transmission is achieved by using infrared, microwave, or radio waves
through the air.

In most homes and small businesses, network signals are transmitted across copper wires (cables)
or Wi-Fi enabled wireless connections. Larger networks employ fiber-optic cables in order to
reliably carry signals for longer distances.

1.1. Bandwidth
Streaming a movie or playing a multiplayer game requires reliable, fast connections. To support
these “high bandwidth” applications, networks have to be capable of transmitting and receiving bits
at a very high rate.

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. The rate of data transfer is
usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throughput.

Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of
data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically
measured in the number of bits that (theoretically) can be sent across the media in a second.
Common bandwidth measurements are as follows:

 Thousands of bits per second (Kbps)

 Millions of bits per second (Mbps)
 Billions of bits per second (Gbps)

Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics all play a role in
determining available bandwidth.

The table shows the commonly used units of measure for bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps
Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps
Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps
Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps
1.2. Throughput
Like bandwidth, throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given
period of time. However, due to a number of factors, throughput does not usually match the
specified bandwidth. Many factors influence throughput including:

 The amount of data being sent and received over the connection
 The types of data being transmitted
 The latency created by the number of network devices encountered between source and
destination

Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to
another.

Throughput measurements do not take into account the validity or usefulness of the bits being
transmitted and received. Many messages received through the network are not destined for
specific user applications. An example would be network control messages that regulate traffic and
correct errors.

In an internetwork or network with multiple segments, throughput cannot be faster than the slowest
link of the path from sending device to the receiving device. Even if all or most of the segments
have high bandwidth, it will only take one segment in the path with lower bandwidth to create a
slowdown of the throughput of the entire network.

There are many online speed tests that can reveal the throughput of an internet connection.