Solution Manual for Microbiology Fundamentals: A Clinical Approach, 4th Edition Marjorie Kel

Solution Manual for Microbiology Fundamentals: A

Clinical Approach, 4th Edition Marjorie Kelly Cowan
Heidi Smith

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 Chapter 8
Microbial Genetics and Genetic Engineering

Nucleic acids contain the blueprints of life in the form of genes (a discrete section of
nucleic acids coding for a unique function), with cellular organisms using DNA and
viruses using either RNA or DNA. One key type of gene in prokaryotes are operons: a
collection of genes in bacteria that code for products with a coordinated function. The
total amount of DNA in an organism is termed its genome. The genotype of an organism
is comprised of the genome. This is in contrast to the phenotype, which is the
expression of the genotype (the physical manifestation of the genotype). Not all genes
are expressed all the time, which explains why the phenotype can be different from the
genotype. Bacterial DNA consists of a few thousand genes in one circular chromosome.
Eukaryotic genomes range from thousands to tens of thousands of genes. In addition to
genomic DNA, bacterial cells can contain plasmids, which are small, self-replicating
circles of DNA that are not usually essential for the cell’s survival.

DNA copies itself just before cellular division by the process of semiconservative
replication, meaning that each new set of DNA molecules contains one strand of original
DNA and one new strand. In a separate set of processes, information in DNA is
converted to RNA by the processes of transcription, and RNA is converted to protein by
translation. This second set of processes are known as the Central Dogma of Molecular
Biology. Regulation, transcription and translation are all controlled through gene
regulation. In bacteria, this regulation is usually controlled by operons.

Genetic recombination occurs in eukaryotes through sexual reproduction and through

horizontal gene transfer. In bacteria, recombination occurs only through horizontal gene
transfer. The three main types of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria are transformation,
conjugation, and transduction. Transposons are genes that can relocate from one part
of the genome to another, causing rearrangement of genetic material.

Changes in the genetic code can occur by two means: mutation and recombination.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of the organism’s genome and can
be either spontaneous or induced by exposure to some external mutagenic agent. All
cells have enzymes that repair damaged DNA. When the degree of damage exceeds
the ability of the enzymes to make repairs, mutations occur. These mutations can be
either beneficial or detrimental to an organism depending on the size and location of the
mutation.

Genetic engineering utilizes a wide range of methods that physically manipulate DNA
for purposes of visualization, sequencing, hybridizing, and identifying specific
sequences. The tools of genetic engineering include restriction endonucleases,
gel electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
technique amplifies small amounts of DNA into much larger quantities for further
analysis. Cloning is the process by which genes are removed from the original host and
duplicated for transfer into a cloning host by means of cloning vectors.
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Pre-Class Activities Associated with Chapter 8

Below are suggested activities to assign before covering the material of Chapter 8 in
class. The activities are designed to provide opportunities for students to engage with
the topics prior to class. Some activities also have students preparing materials that will
enable students to teach one another in class.

1. Remove the labels on figure 8.1 and have students create a summary for each
image.

2. Provide a list of microorganisms and have students research the size of the
genome in each. Create a chart demonstrating the results.

3. Have students create a model of DNA and teach peers about the structure of
DNA.

4. Remove descriptions form Table 8.2 and have students provide their own for
each step of the process.

5. Have students research the Hershey-Chase experiment and prepare a short

presentation to help peers understand it and the implications of the results.

6. Provide students with a sequence of DNA. Have students transcribe and

translate the DNA sequence.

7. Draw a eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell, then overlay the processes of replication,
transcription and translation to show the location differences of these across cell
type.

8. Have students create a sequence of DNA that leads to the formation of 6 amino
acids. Ask students to show common types of mutations and how these
mutations affect the end product.

9. Have students create a list of how eukaryotic and bacterial transcription and
translation differ.

10. Have students create a visual aid or model to explain the lac operon.

11. Divide students into groups and assign a mode of horizontal gene transfer to
each group. Have each group prepare a presentation on their mode and present
to the class.

12. Divide students into groups and assign one of the figures within the chapter to
each group. Have each group prepare a presentation to describe these figures.

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 13. In groups, students outline (in a basic manner) a process associated with genetic
recombination. Ideas include the use of restriction endonucleases, PCR, gel
electrophoresis, DNA sequencing, cloning etc.

14. Remove labels from Table 8.10 and have students explain the process in their
own words.

Activities Associated with Learning Objectives for Chapter 8

Section 8.1 Student Learning Objectives—Introduction to Genetics

and Genes
1. Define the terms genome and gene.
2. Differentiate between genotype and phenotype.
3. Draw a segment of DNA, labeling all important chemical groups within the molecule.
4. Summarize the steps of bacterial DNA replication, and identify the enzymes used in the
process.
5. Compare and contrast the synthesis of leading and lagging strands during DNA
replication.

Lecture Suggestions and Guidelines for Section 8.1

1. Students need to understand the basic structure of genetic material. Compare
the genomes of different microorganisms, and help the students understand the
differences between genes, chromosomes, genome, etc.
2. Students should understand how genetic material is packaged in different
microorganisms.
3. DNA structure and replication should be discussed in relation to eukaryotes and
bacteria.

In-Class Activities for Section 8.1

1. Using a model or visual image of DNA, discuss components of DNA.
2. Have students create a flowchart for DNA replication, labeling the enzymes
involved.
3. Create a hands-on process to demonstrate leading and lagging strands.
4. Create a chart showing location of genetic material and size of genetic material in
various microorganisms. Try to compare several bacteria, viruses, and eukaryotic
organisms to give students a perspective.
5. Create a chapter key to use as a reference for important vocabulary terms.
6. As a group, have students act out the replication process of DNA, with key
enzyme roles assigned to students.

Additional Research Issues for Section 8.1

1. Research the role that genetic information plays in infectious disease
determination. Examples to explore include COVID-19, SARS, West Nile virus,
and Ebola.

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 2. Research how the understanding of genetics plays a role in determining the
origination of food-poisoning outbreaks.

Critical Thinking Issues for Section 8.1

1. How is the conversation of the genetic code between organisms both a help and
a hindrance when it comes to dealing with microbial diseases?

Section 8.2 Student Learning Objectives—Transcription and

Translation
6. Provide an overview of the relationship among DNA, RNA, and proteins.
7. Identify important structural and functional differences between RNA and DNA.
8. Draw a picture of the process of transcription.
9. List the three types of RNA directly involved in translation.
10. Define the terms codon and anticodon, and list three start and stop codons.
11. Identify the locations of the promoter, the start codon, and the A and P sites during
translation.
12. Indicate how eukaryotic transcription and translation differ from these processes in
bacteria.

Lecture Suggestions and Guidelines for Section 8.2

1. Provide students with a simple overview of the terminology associated with
transcription and translation. Demonstrate how the genetic code in nucleotides is
“translated” into the language of amino acids.
2. Emphasize the difference in RNA and DNA especially in regard to base pairing.
3. The different forms of RNA should be discussed so students understand the
function of these forms.
4. Translation should be looked at as a process of moving from one language
(nucleotides) to another (amino acids), and the process of building a protein.

In-Class Activities for Section 8.2

1. The tables and figures in Section 8.2 provide excellent visual aids for
understanding transcription and translation. Making copies of these items (with or
without labels in place) and having students explain the images can be an
excellent way to begin discussion of the material.
2. Videos and animations showing transcription and translation can help students
see these processes “in action.”
3. Creating models of structures such as ribosomes, RNA, and amino acids can
help students get a “hands-on” feel for the processes.
4. Beginning with a sequence of DNA, have the class translate it to amino acids.
5. Have students draw the process of transcription and translation from memory
and have peers review the figures to identify missing components.

Additional Research Issues for Section 8.2

1. Research how differences in bacterial and eukaryotic transcription/translation are
used to create selectively toxic medications.

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Critical Thinking Issues for Section 8.2
1. How does the information in Sections 8.1 and 8.2 relate to viruses?

Section 8.3 Student Learning Objectives—Genetic Regulation of

Protein Synthesis
13. Define the term operon, and explain one advantage it provides to a bacterial cell.
14. Highlight the main points of lac operon operation.

Lecture Suggestions and Guidelines for Section 8.3

1. Discussion of the lac operon provides an opportunity to link information from
Chapter 7 (enzyme regulation) with the material in Chapter 8.
2. Students should understand that operons are present in bacteria and archaea.
3. Students can find operons confusing. Providing examples beyond the lac operon
can help students understand the functions of the operons more.

In-Class Activities for Section 8.3

1. Create a model or visual aid for the lac operon.
2. Find a video or animation showing the function of this operon.
3. Find other operons to discuss and have students teach peers about the function
of these operons.
4. Compare gene regulation between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Additional Research Issues for Section 8.3

1. Research the role of phase variation in diseases. Are there any means available
to counteract this process?
2. The textbook discussed the lac operon. Can you find any other operons common
in bacteria?

Critical Thinking Issues for Section 8.3

1. Explain why bacteria and archaea have operons, but eukaryotic cells do not.

Section 8.4 Student Learning Objectives—DNA Recombination Events

15. Explain the defining characteristics of a recombinant organism.
16. Describe three forms of horizontal gene transfer used in bacteria.

Lecture Suggestions and Guidelines for Section 8.4

1. It is important for students to understand the processes involved in genetic
transfer in bacteria because of its implications for human diseases, which will be
discussed in future chapters.
2. Compare and contrast the different forms of horizontal gene transfer.

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 3. Explain how recombinant organisms are made in the laboratory and compare
these to naturally occurring recombinant organisms.

In-Class Activities for Section 8.4

1. Have students draw the different forms of horizontal transfer.
2. Provide examples of diseases in which horizontal transfer has occurred in the
infectious bacteria.
3. Watch a video or animation that explains horizontal gene transfer.
4. Have students “be” bacteria with plasmids. Demonstrate how resistance genes
may make their way through a population of bacteria by having students
demonstrate conjugation.

Additional Research Issues for Section 8.4

1. Are there any possible means of reducing horizontal transfer in bacteria,
especially in regards to human disease?
2. Find examples to support this statement: “New diseases are usually the result of
genetic changes in existing organisms.”

Critical Thinking Issues for Section 8.4

1. Explain the significant impact horizontal gene transfer in bacteria has had on
human health. Provide examples to support your thoughts.

Section 8.5 Student Learning Objectives—Mutations: Changes in the

Genetic Code
17. Define the term mutation, and discuss one positive and one negative example of it in
microorganisms.
18. Differentiate among frameshift, nonsense, silent, and missense mutations.
19. Explain the influence of single-nucleotide polymorphisms on an organism.

Lecture Suggestions and Guidelines for Section 8.5

1. Students should understand mutations can be both positive and negative.
2. Emphasis should be placed on understanding the vocabulary associated with
mutations—frameshift, nonsense, etc.

In-Class Activities for Section 8.5

1. Provide a DNA sequence to the class. Hand out variations of the sequence with
various types of mutations to each student. Ask the class what amino acids their
sequence produced and to identify the mutation type and its effect vs. the
original.
2. Bring in examples of how mutations have affected microbe-human interactions.
3. Discuss mutation rates in common microorganisms. HIV may be one example to
use.
4. Write a short sentence and have students apply each type of frameshift to the
sentence, demonstrating how each mutation can change the genetic code.

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written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
Additional Research Issues for Section 8.5
1. Research the role mutations have played in drug resistance.
2. Research how mutations play a role in the host/viral “arms race.”

Critical Thinking Issues for Section 8.5

1. Do you think the use of medications has had any impact on the mutation rate of
infectious agents? Explain your answer.
2. How does a microorganism’s mutation ability impact microbial control methods?

Section 8.6 Student Learning Objectives—Studying DNA in the

Laboratory and Genetic Engineering
20. Explain the importance of restriction endonucleases to genetic engineering.
21. List the steps in the polymerase chain reaction.
22. Describe how you can clone a gene into a bacterium.
23. Differentiate between DNA profiling and DNA sequencing.
24. Provide a definition of synthetic biology.
25. Name two genetic techniques that are designed to treat human diseases.

Lecture Suggestions and Guidelines for Section 8.6

1. Students should be familiar with the basic terminology of genetic engineering,
restriction endonucleases, PCR, etc.
2. Students should be able to explain recombinant DNA technology in their own
words.
3. Insulin is probably one of the best-known examples of using lab techniques for
human benefit. Using this example may help students understand how these lab
techniques work.
4. Students may be anxious to discuss the concept of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs). Preparing for an open discussion may be valuable.

In-Class Activities for Section 8.6

1. Have students attempt to hypothetically “create” a genetically engineered
product, using a flowchart to show the steps they would use. Have them give
reasons as to why they chose that product to create.
2. Bring in a list of some common restriction endonucleases.
3. If possible, bring in examples of genetic engineering equipment, or have students
tour a laboratory using this equipment.
4. Discuss the value of the technique demonstrated in figure 8.17.
5. As a class, discuss Table 8.9 and 8.10 and have students summarize these
techniques in their own words.
6. Have each student find an additional example of a GMO and prepare a short
presentation to introduce that GMO to peers.
7. Have students prepare a poster on a genetic technique, and arrange a short
poster gallery walk to learn about the techniques from their peers.

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Solution Manual for Microbiology Fundamentals: A Clinical Approach, 4th Edition Marjorie Kel

Additional Research Issues for Section 8.6

1. Create a list of genetically engineered products. What would the options be if
genetically engineered products were not available?

Critical Thinking Issues for Section 8.6

1. Explore the pros and cons of genetic engineering as it relates to human health.
2. Create a message for the general public about GMOs. What information do you
feel needs to be conveyed?

SmartGrid Bloom’s Level 5 & 6 Activities for Chapter 8

1. Activity for Question #3 & #15: Even though this is a new edition, molecular
biology technology is rapidly progressing. Research new techniques that are not
addressed in the text such as CRISPR and Metagenomics and prepare a poster
to teach your peers about the cutting-edge techniques.
2. Activity for Question #6: Compare the structures of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
What are their differences? What is driving these differences? What would
happen if all the RNAs had similar structures?
3. Activity for Question #9: This chapter and Chapter 7 highlight many processes
that occur in the cell. What are the commonalities between all these processes?
Can these commonalities be used to summarize all of biology?
4. Activity for Question #12: Create a gene sequence and apply a mutation to the
gene sequence. Trade with a partner and identify what type of mutation was
applied. Keep trading until all mutations have been identified.
5. Activity for Question #18: GMOs are quite controversial. Research the
arguments for and against these and prepare your own opinion. Then respond to
each argument using peer reviewed data to either defend or contradict the points
being made.
6. Activity for Question #21: Using the information from Activity #1 and the
chapter, identify what techniques could be used in an experiment to determine
what type of transduction is being utilized by a phage.

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