2021-02-17

EXPANSIVE SOILS
Lecture – Expansive Soils
Tezera Firew Azmatch, Ph.D.,P.Eng.
Addis Ababa University
Institute of Science and Technology
Department of Civil Engineering

Expansive Soils
 Expansive soil is a term generally applied to any soil or rock material that has a
potential for shrinking or swelling under changing moisture conditions. Its
problem in civil engineering structures was first identified in the later part of
1930’s. Since then so many countries reported the problem. These countries
are: Argentina, Australia, Burma, Canada, Cuba, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Israel,
Iran, Kenya, Mexico, Morocco, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Spain, Turkey, U.S.A,
Venezuela, and a number of other countries.

 Expansive soils owe their expansive character mainly to the constituent clay
mineral.
 The most important clay mineral, which is the cause for expansive nature is
montmorillonite. Montmorillonite has an octahedral sheet sandwiched
between two silica sheets.
 When this mineral is exposed to moisture, water is absorbed between
interlayering lattice structures and exert an upward pressure. This upward
pressure, known as swelling pressure, causes most of the damages associated
with expansive soils.

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Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering 3

Distribution of expansive soil in Ethiopia

Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 From Field Observations: It is evident that expansive soil deposits can be
recognized in the field through visual inspections. The method is simple and
easy to use.
 Some of the important field identification method that indicate the
potential for expansiveness of a soil are the following:
 A shiny surface is easily obtained when a partially dry piece of the soil
is polished with a smooth object such as the top of a finger nail
 The wet samples of the soil is sticky and it will be relatively difficult to
clean the soil from the hands
 The appearance of cracking in nearby structures
 They usually have a color of black and gray
 From Laboratory Test results: There are three different methods of classifying
potentially expansive soils:
1. Mineralogical Identification
2. Indirect Methods
3. Direct Measurement

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Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 Mineralogical Identification: The various methods of mineralogical
identification are important in a research laboratory in exploring the basic
properties of clays, but are impractical and uneconomical for practicing
engineers.

 The Indirect Methods: The indirect methods, such as the index property and
activity method are valuable tools in evaluating the swelling property. None of
the indirect methods should be used independently.

 Direct Measurement: The direct measurement offers the most useful data for a
practicing engineer. The tests are simple to perform and do not require any
costly and exotic laboratory equipment. However, testing should be performed
on a number of soil samples rather than a few to avoid erroneous conclusions.
 The most satisfactory and convenient method of determining the swelling
potential and the swelling pressure of an expansive clay is by direct
measurement. Direct measurement of expansive soils can be achieved by
use of the conventional one-dimensional consolidometer.

Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils – Laboratory Tests
 Zero Swell Test

This test is conducted by applying a small incremental load of 6.9kpa (1psi)

on a compacted specimen. Water is then added to the sample. As expansion
starts, pressure is added in small increment to prevent swelling. This is
continued until the specimen cease to swell. The total load required to
prevent swelling divided by the area of the sample defines the swelling
pressure.

 Swell-Consolidation Test

In this test the sample under a 6.9kpa applied load is wetted and allowed to
fully swell. At this point a standard consolidation test is conducted by
applying incremental loads starting with 25kpa and ending with 1600kpa.
The pressure required to revert the specimen to its initial void ratio (height)
is used to define the swelling pressure.

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Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils - Laboratory Tests
 Restrained Swell Test
 This test consists of successively increasing the load on the specimen allowing
it to attain equilibrium deformation at each pressure level. At a prescribed
applied pressure, the sample is inundated and permitted to fully swell. The
process is repeated with various inundation pressures on identical samples.
Here the swell potential is calculated as the ratio of maximum expansion to the
sample initial height. The pressure resulting in no expansion defines the
swelling pressure. (Mckeen, 1976)

Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 Double-Oedometer Test

 The test involves a pair of nominally identical specimens. The first is loaded in
the as-compacted state by incremental vertical pressure with equilibrium
deformation recorded at each pressure level. The second specimen is fully
inundated with no seating load and the maximum swell is recorded. The
difference between the percent changes in specimen height at each stress level
is used to define specimen height at each stress level is used to define the swell
potential. Furthermore, the stress at which the percent settlement of the first
specimen equals the percent swell of the second specimen i.e. difference equals
zero, is used as a measure of swell pressure.

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Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 Among the techniques used to determine the swelling pressure. A swell-
consolidation test on one-dimensional oedometer is used. And the following
test procedure was adopted for the test.
 A core sample with the size of consolidometr ring is extruded from large
size sampling tube. If there is any excess material, it should be trimmed
gently with a knife or wire saw. The excess material may be used to
calculate the moisture content and the specific gravity.
 Measure the weight of the soil and the ring, and put the sample in the
odometer.
 Initial dial reading under the load of 7kpa is taken and then the sample is
allowed to absorb water and is put aside to fully expand and reach
equilibrium.
 Pressure is then applied increasingly at intervals until the sample reaches its
initial volume (zero volume change).
 The swelling pressure is defined as the pressure that returns the sample to its
initial volume.

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Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 The dry density can also be calculated from the relation

Schematically the test procedure is

shown in Fig. 1

Fig 1 Type of swell test data [Mckeen, 1976]

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Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 As observed in Fig 1, specimen may be
loaded to in-situ overburden pressure, (1
to 2).
 Then it is subjected to a change in
moisture condition and maintained at
constant volume until equilibrium is
reached (3). This pressure is called the
swell pressure (no-volume-change state).
 The pressure is then released to a small
arbitrary selected load or to a specific Fig 1 Type of swell test data [Mckeen, 1976]

design load, (3 to 4).

 Another test procedure loads the soil to
the overburden pressure (2), allows it to
swell under constant load to (5), and
loads the sample to the original void ratio
(6). With this kind of test procedure,
swell may be calculated as follows:

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Expansive Soils: Identification and Classification of

Expansive Soils
 the curve (1 to 7) illustrates a test in
which a soil is loaded to the initial
overburden pressure, (7), unloaded to
final overburden pressure, (2), and
permitted access to water; then the
swell is determined (analysis of cut
sections).
 In each situation, events follow a
specific sequence. The closer these
duplicate in-situ conditions, the better Fig 1 Type of swell test data [Mckeen, 1976]

the prediction of soil behavior.

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Expansive Soils: Physical Properties of Expansive Soils -

Moisture Content
 Irrespective of high swelling potential, if the moisture content the clay
remains unchanged, there will be no volume change; structures founded on
clays with constant moisture content will not be subject to movement
caused by heaving.
 When the moisture content of the clay is changed, volume expansion, both
in the vertical and horizontal direction, will take place. Complete saturation
is not necessary to accomplish swelling. Slight changes of moisture content,
in the magnitudes of only 1 to 2 %t, are sufficient to cause detrimental
swelling.
 The initial moisture content of the expansive soils controls the amount of
swelling.

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Expansive Soils: Physical Properties of Expansive Soils -

Moisture Content
 Very dry soils with natural moisture content below 15% usually indicate
danger. Such clays will easily absorb moisture to as high as 35% with
resultant damaging expansion to structures.
 Conversely, clays with moisture contents above 30% indicate that most of
the expansion has already taken place and further expansion will be small.
However, moist clays may desiccate due to the lowering of the water table
or other changes in physical conditions and upon subsequent wetting will
again exhibit swelling potential.

 Note: high initial moisture content….implies…..low swelling potential or

rather low change in volume…which subsequently yield lower swelling
pressure in the case where the swelling pressure is defined as that value
which is used to return the already expanded soil to its initial volume.

 It does not matter whether the moisture content is high or low, as long as it
can be maintained constant throughout the year.

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Expansive Soils: Physical Properties of Expansive Soils -

Dry Density
 Directly related to initial moisture content, the dry density of the clay is
another index of expansion. Soils with dry densities in excess of 17 kN/m3
generally exhibit high swelling potential. Remarks made by excavators
complaining that the soils are as hard as a rock are indication that soils
inevitably will present expansion problems.

 The dry density of the clays is also reflected by the standard penetration
resistance test results. Clays with penetration resistance in excess of 15
usually possess some swelling potential. In highly expansive clay areas,
penetration resistances as high as 30 are not uncommon.

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Expansive Soils: Physical Properties of Expansive Soils -

Index Properties
 The following table is a guide for estimating the probable volume changes of
expansive soils. Chen (1988)

Laboratory and Field Data Probable Swelling Degree of

% passing Liquid SPT N Expansion percent Pressure Expansion
#200 sieve Limit Blows/0.3 total volume (kN/m2)
(%) m change

> 95 > 60 > 30 > 10 > 950 Very high

60 – 95 40 – 60 20 – 30 3 – 10 240 – 950 High
30 – 60 30 – 40 10 – 20 1-5 140 – 240 Medium
< 30 < 30 < 30 <1 50 Low
The simplified classification of the expansive properties can be conveniently used by engineers as a guide for
the choice of type of foundation on expansive soils. For example, for soils with a low degree of expansion,
spread footing type foundation can usually be used if sufficient reinforcement is provided in the foundation
walls to compensate for slight movements. For soils of medium degree of expansion, individual footings or
pads can be used where the dead load of the structure can be concentrated to an intensity of 150 kN/m2 to
250 kN/m2. For soils of high-to-very-high degree of expansion, special consideration should be given as to the
foundation type. Piers with sufficient dead load pressure and enough anchorage should be used.

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Expansive Soils: Classification Schemes

 Soils rated CL or CH by USCS, and A6 or A7 by AASHTO, may be considered
potentially expansive.
 Classification Using Engineering Index Properties: The use of Atterberg
limits to predict the swell potential is definitely the most popular approach.
Many of the procedures also include clay content.

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Expansive Soils: Classification Schemes

 ……

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Expansive Soils: Classification Schemes

 ……

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Expansive Soils: Classification Schemes

 Note: the results presented by Chen (1988), Table 2.4, were based on tests
on undisturbed samples, which were allowed to swell from natural
moisture content to saturation.

 Snethen et al. (1977) evaluated seventeen of the published criteria for

predicting potential swell. The results of their evaluation showed that the
liquid limit and plasticity index are the best indicators of potential swell
along with natural conditions and environment.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils

 The swelling potential of an expansive clay can be minimized or completely
eliminated by one of the following methods:

1. Flood the in-place soil to achieve swelling prior to construction

2. Decrease the density of the soil by compaction control
3. Replace the swelling soils with non swelling soils
4. Change the properties of expansive soils by chemical injection
5. Isolate the soil so that there will be no moisture change

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils -

Prewetting
 The pre-wetting theory is based on the assumption that if the soil is allowed
to swell by wetting prior to construction and if the high soil moisture is
maintained, the soil volume will remain essentially constant, achieving a no-
heave state and therefore structural damage will not occur.
 Pre-wetting has been successfully used for stabilizing soil beneath floor
slabs, pavement or canal linings. However, its application for building
foundations is still questionable and risky.

 Disadvantages:
 From construction standpoint, the time required for prewetting can be critical.
 It is highly questionable if uniform moisture content can be maintained in
prewetted areas. As a result, it can be critical even after a prolonged period of
prewetting.
 Experiments indicate that ponding water can effectively penetrate the soil to a
depth of 1.20 m within a reasonable time. Such depth is insufficient to provide
a balanced moisture zone for the construction of important structures.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils -

Compaction Control
 Expansive clays expand very little when compacted at low densities and
high moisture but expand greatly when compacted at high densities and low
moistures. Hence the process of recompacting swelling clays at moisture
contents slightly above their natural moisture content and at a low density
is an excellent approach.

 The main advantage of using this approach is that the swelling potential can
be reduced without the adverse effects caused by introducing excessive
moisture into the soil.

 Even though the required depth of compaction depends on the potential

expansiveness of the soil and on the magnitude of the structural load, it may
in general be adequate to compact to a depth of 1.5 to 2.0 m.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Soil

Replacement
 A simple and easy solution for slabs and footings founded on expansive soils is
to replace the foundation soil with non-swelling soils.
 The pertinent requirements concerning soil replacement are the type of
replacement material, the depth of replacement, and the extent of replacement.
 Type of Material: The first requirement for the replacement soil is that it be
non-expansive. All granular soils ranging from GW to SC in the USCS may fulfill
the non-expansive soil requirement. However, for clean granular soils such as
GW and SP, surface water can travel freely through the soil and cause wetting of
the lower swelling soils. In the other extreme, SC material with high percentage
of plastic clay sometimes will exhibit swelling potential. The following criteria
have been used with a certain degree of success:

A great deal of emphasis has been given to the possibility of

blending granular soils with the on-site swelling soils, thus
reducing the amount of imported fill required. Theoretically
such a method is reasonable; but in practice it is difficult to
incorporate granular soils with stiff, dry expansive clay.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Soil

Replacement
 Depth of Replacement

 The depth of selected fill should never be less than 1.0 m and preferably 1.2 m.
This thickness refers to the thickness of selected fill beneath the bottom of the
footings or bottom of floor slabs.

 The thickness of imported fill can be reduced if a combination of the soil

recompaction and soil replacement methods is used. The degree of
compaction of the selected fill depends upon the type of supporting structure.
For supporting slabs, 90 % of Standard density should be adequate. For
supporting footings, a degree of compaction of 95 % to 100 % should be
achieved.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Soil

Replacement
 Extent of Replacement

 Experience indicates that if the subsoil consists of more than about 1.5 m of
granular soils (SC-SP), underlain by highly expansive soil, there is no danger
of foundation movement when the structure is placed on the granular soils.
It is concluded that either seepage water has never reached the expansive
soils, or the heaving of the lower expansive soils is so uniform that
structural movement is not noticeable.

 This is not true in the case of man-made fill. For economic reasons, the
extent of the selected fill must be limited to a maximum of 3.0 m beyond the
building line. Therefore, the possibility of edge wetting exists. Hence an
artificially selected fill cushion is less effective than a natural granular soil
blanket.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Soil

Replacement
 Extent of Replacement

Figure 4 Suggested extent of fill replacement

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Soil

Replacement
 The following are the evaluations of soil replacement method:

 It is possible to compact the replaced non-expansive soil to a high

degree of compaction, thus enabling the material to support either
heavily loaded slabs or footings.
 The cost of soil replacement is relatively inexpensive when compared
to chemically treating the soil. The construction can be carried out
without delay as is encountered in the prewetting method.
 The granular soil cushion also serves as an effective barrier against the
rise of ground water or perched water

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Horizontal Moisture Barriers

 The purpose of the horizontal moisture barriers is to prevent excessive

intake of surface moisture. Horizontal moisture barriers can be installed
around a building in the form of:

 Membranes
 Concrete Aprons
 Asphalt Membranes

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Horizontal Moisture Barriers

Figure 4.5 Impervious membrane along exterior walls

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Horizontal Moisture Barriers

Figure 4.6 Typical sprayed asphalt membrane applications to minimize subgrade moisture variations from
surface infiltrations

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Vertical Moisture Barriers: Vertical moisture barriers are used around the
perimeter of a building to cut off the source of water that may enter the
underslab soils.
 Vertical moisture barriers should be installed to a depth equal to or greater
than the depth of seasonal moisture change. It is also a requirement that they
be placed two to three feet from the perimeter of the foundation to permit
machine excavation of the trench for the membrane.
 Theoretically, vertical moisture barriers have a distinct advantage over horizontal
moisture barriers. However, in view of the high cost involved in the installation of
a vertical moisture barrier, especially where great depth is required, it is doubtful
that such an installation is of sufficient merit to warrant the expense.
 When properly constructed, backfill serves the same purpose, as do vertical
moisture barriers.
 This is especially true in basement buildings where properly compacted backfill
can prevent surface water from entering the foundation soils. By using impervious
clay compacted to 85 % or more of Standard Proctor Density at optimum moisture
content, the backfill acts as a very effective moisture barrier. Such barriers are
more effective than membranes.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Vertical Moisture Barriers:

Figure 4.7 Path of moisture migration blocked by vertical barrier

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Subsurface Drainage: The purposes of a subsurface drainage system are:

1. Intercept the gravity flow of free water

2. Lower the ground water or perched water, and
3. Arrest the capillary moisture movement and movement of moisture in
the vapor state.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Intercepting Drains: Intercepting drains are effective in minimizing the
wetting of the foundation soils where the wetting is due to the gravity flow of
free water in a subsurface pervious layer such as a layer of gravel or fissured
clay. To ensure the interception of free water, the drain must be completely
filled with gravel and the trench should be deep enough to reach the water-
bearing layer.

Figure 4.8 Typical function of an intercepting drain

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Perched water can enter basements and cause considerable damage. The
installation of a subsurface drainage system around the perimeter of the lower
level of a structure can protect against infiltration from perched water. To be
effective, an intercepting drain should be installed at least 0.60 m below the
floor and should lead to a suitable outlet where water can be removed by
gravity or by a sump pump.

Figure 4.8 Typical function of an intercepting drain

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Peripheral Drains: The purpose of a peripheral subsurface drainage system is
to prevent free water from entering the lower floor of the building. In order to
achieve this purpose, it is necessary that the drain be installed with adequate
depth, capacity and proper outlet.
 The peripheral drain is effective in minimizing general wetting of the
foundation soils which occurs not only because of gravitational flow of free
water, but also because of moisture migration.
 Experience indicates that to be fully effective, the peripheral drain should be
placed at least 30 cm below the floor level, preferably 60 cm.
 It should be note that for a peripheral drain to be effective in preventing
moisture movement it must be designed as a capillary break; and additionally,
the vapor pressure in the drain should be at a lower value than the vapor
pressure in the foundation soils. The gravel used to fill the subdrain trench
should have a gradation between ¾ and 2 inches in size with percent of fines
less than 5.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Peripheral Drains: Subdrain Installed Inside the Basement [Fig. 4.9]

 This type of installation is mainly used for the purpose of controlling the rise
of the water table. In the area where a perched water condition prevails or
where there is a potential risk of the rise of the ground water, a subdrain
system as shown in Fig. 4.9 probably is the most effective. This system is not
limited in disposing off surface water that may seep into the backfill.
 By placing the drain inside the basement, it can be effectively connected with
the underslab gravel, thus providing an effective drawdown of the water table.
The drain should be installed deep enough so as to ensure the interception of
the water table.
 The main disadvantage of such a system is that it is necessary to provide a
trench around the inside perimeter of the basement. Such an excavation may
have to be accomplished by hand, which increases the cost of the drain system
considerably. However, if the contractor is aware of such a necessity, he can
provide the trench during the excavation for the basement.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Subdrain Installed Inside the Basement [Fig. 4.9]

Figure 4.9 Typical subdrain detail located

inside of basement

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Subdrain Installed Outside of the Basement [Fig. 4.10]

 It has the advantage of controlling the rise of the water table, seepage of
surface water, as well as controlling hydrostatic pressure exerted on the
backfill. However, where rise of ground water or development of a perched
water condition is critical, such a system is not as effective as that of a
subdrain installed inside the basement. This is because the drain system is not
directly connected with the underslab gravel. Connection of the drain system
with the underslab gravel can be accomplished to some extent by means of the
void space beneath the grade beam, but careful construction is required. It is
even more difficult to connect to the underslab gravel if continuous wall
footings are used as the foundation.
 A properly installed subdrain system with the depth of the drain placed at
least 1.0 m below the top of the floor slab can substantially decrease the
potential floor heaving; and if floor heaving does take place, the movement
will be uniform.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils - Moisture

Control
 Subdrain Installed Outside of the Basement [Fig. 4.10]

Figure 4.10 Typical subdrain detail located

outside of basemen

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils -

Chemical Stabilization
 By chemical stabilization is meant the process of mixing additives like lime,
cement, and organic and inorganic chemicals to expansive soils, so as to
retard their potential expansiveness.
 Examples of chemicals used to stabilize expansive soils include:
 Lime
 Cement
 Fly Ash

 Lime Stabilization: The addition of lime to expansive clays will reduce the
plasticity of the soil and, hence, its swelling potential. It is often used
successfully in the construction of highways and airports. Treatment of
under slab soils with lime deserves more attention. This is especially true in
the case of large warehouses or school buildings where floor covers a large
area and a structural floor slab is not feasible due to the high cost. With the
present day limited knowledge of lime stabilization, footing foundation
should not be placed on treated expansive soils

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Expansive Soils: Lime Treatment of Expansive Soils

There may be as many as five mechanisms associated with the addition of lime to
clayey materials:
(i) Water absorption: Quicklime undergoes hydration using added water or soil
moisture, releasing heat in the process.
(ii) Cation exchange: Calcium ions from the lime are replaced by exchangeable
cations from the soil constituents, including potassium and magnesium. The amount
of exchange is a function of the soil's cation exchange capacity.
(iii) Flocculation and aggregation: Soil particles flocculate and aggregate due to
cation exchange and increased electrolyte activity in the pore water. In effect, the
grain size distribution is modified.
(iv) Carbonation: Added lime reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form weak
carbonated cements.
(v) Pozzolanic reaction: This is the dominant reaction in lime stabilization of soil. The
strength of the resulting material is largely a function of the dissolution of clay
minerals in the alkaline environment created by the lime and the recombination of
clay-derived silicon and aluminium with lime-derived calcium to form hydrated
cement minerals.

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Expansive Soils: Lime Treatment of Expansive Soils

 The mechanism of clay modification by calcium-rich stabilizers involves
dissociation of higher calcium content into calcium ions that react with both silica
and alumina leading to the ion exchange, flocculation, and pozzolanic reactions.
 This process is expressed in equations (2)–(5). Also, the California bearing ratio
(CBR) is increased, and the formation of two main components takes place,
calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) gel, represented by chemical formula [5Ca2SiO4:
6H2O], and calcium aluminate hydrate (C-AH) gel, with chemical formula
[Ca5Si5Al (OH)O17·5H2O].
 As shown in equations (4) and (5), it is due to this pozzolanic reaction that soil
durability is largely improved

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Expansive Soils: Lime Treatment of Expansive Soils

 The effect of lime additions on viscosity, plastic limit and flocculation/aggregation
in montmorillonite dispersions was studied by Ho & Handy (1963) and the effect
on the grain size distributions of soils e.g. by Caprez (1984) and Croce & Russo
(2003). These properties are related to cation exchange and mainly influence the
engineering properties of fresh clay-lime mixtures in the short-term, before the
mixtures start to harden.
 In contrast, the pozzolanic reaction is a slow process. It is the major process
responsible for strength development in pozzolan-lime composites and for
improved strength of modern composite cements. Due to this solidifying action,
the reaction of clay minerals and lime is subdivided into the periods before and
after substantial solidification occurred:
 The first period is characterized by a fast cation exchange contribution with its
influence on the rheological and swelling engineering properties.
 The second period is characterized by a slow dissolution/precipitation
(pozzolanic) reaction with its longer term influence on engineering properties
e.g. porosity, permeability and strength.

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Expansive Soils: Lime Treatment of Expansive Soils

 There is a certain amount of lime necessary in order to reduce the plasticity index
to a minimum. This is mainly caused by an increase to the maximum plastic limit
and a change of the liquid limit. This dosage is termed the lime fixation point or
defined as the minimal lime content.
 Lime additions equal to the lime fixation point will generally contribute to the
improvement in soil workability, but may not result in sufficient strength.
 Addition of more lime generates no improvement in workability, but mainly
contributes to a long-term strength increase through the cementing action of the
pozzolanic reaction.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils -

Chemical Stabilization
 In-Place Mixing: In-place mixing can be accomplished by mixing limes with
existing material excavated from the subgrade. Lime can also be
incorporated into the borrow material either at the borrow site or at the
construction site.
 Design lime contents generally are based on an analysis of the effect of
varying lime percentage on selected engineering properties of the soil-lime
mixture.
 Different design lime content for the same soil may be established depending
on the objectives of the lime treatment and mixture design procedure
utilized. The amount of lime required to stabilize the expansive soils ranges
from 2 to 8 percent by weight.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils -

Chemical Stabilization
 Pressure Injection: The method consists of pressure injecting lime-water
slurry into the soil through closely spaced drill holes. This method of
treatment has been used as a remedial process, where damaging
movements of the soils have occurred and also as a preconstruction process
to stabilize soils of known expansive qualities or residences, commercial
buildings and parking areas.
 It is the conclusion from both laboratory and field experience that lime
migration in expansive soils is extremely slow (this is because expansive
soils are generally stiff and practically impervious). The rate of migration
can probably be increased by introducing large quantities of water to carry
the lime slurry. However, there is potential danger of triggering an excessive
amount of swelling in the deep-seated soils.

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils -

Chemical Stabilization
 Cement Stabilization: The action of cement on clay minerals is to reduce the
liquid limit, plasticity index, and potential volume change, and to increase
the shrinkage limit and shear strength.

 Even though cement stabilization has been mainly used in the highway
construction; it appears to have also a great potential for use to
stabilize the underslab soils in structures.

 Tests indicated that the effect of cement and of lime is about the same
introducing soil expansion; but the cement reduced the shrinkage of
air-dried specimens about 25 to 50 percent more than did the lime.

 The mixing and dispersing methods for cement are nearly identical to
those for lime. The difficulties of uniformly introducing Portland
cement into very fine grained soils are generally greater than with lime
because it is less soluble.

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Expansive Soils: Lime Treatment of Expansive Soils

Please watch this videos on Clay Mineralogy:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqCQDpjdKKE&feature=youtu.be

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AuLLF6McVA

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Expansive Soils: Treatment of Expansive Soils

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Expansive Soils
 To develop at least a conceptual understanding of expansive soils, it is
important to take into consideration microscale and macroscale factors.
Microscale factors include mineralogy, pore fluid chemistry, and soil structure.
These microscale factors influence macroscale physical factors such as
plasticity, density, and water content to dictate the engineering behavior of a
soil.
 The microscale aspects of expansive soil consider the mineral composition of
the clay particles, and the manner in which they react with the chemistry of the
soil water.

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Expansive Soils
 Clay Minerals: The three most important groups of clay minerals are
Montmorillonite, Illite, and Kaolinite. Montmorillonite is the clay mineral that is
mostly present in expansive soil. When these minerals are exposed to moisture,
water is absorbed between the inter-layering lattice structures and exerts an
upward pressure, which is the cause for most damages associated with
expansive soil.
 Parent material: The parent materials that give rise to expansive soil are
classified into two. The first group comprises the basic igneous rocks, which
are low in silica, generally about 45% to 25% and rich in metallic base such as
pyroxenes, amphiboles, biotitic and olivine. Such rocks include the gabbros,
basalts and volcanic glass. The second group includes sedimentary rock that
contains montmorillonite as a constituent. These include shales and claystone,
and limestone and marls rich in magnesium.

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Expansive Soils
 Weathering and climate: The weathering process by which clay is formed
includes physical, biological and chemical process. The most important
weathering process responsible for the formation of montmorillonite is the
chemical weathering, which include hydrolysis, hydration, oxidation,
carbonation and solution, of parent rock mineral which generally consists of
ferromagnesium mineral, calcic feldspars, volcanic glass, volcanic rocks and
volcanic ash. The formation is aided in alkaline environment, presence of
magnesium ion and lack of leaching. Such condition is favorable in semi-arid
regions with relatively low rain fall or seasonal moderate rainfall particularly
where evaporation exceed precipitation. Under these conditions enough water
is available for the alteration process but the accumulated cations will not be
removed by rainwater.

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