Nesrine-Edexcel IGCSE Physics DoubleScience Revision Notes

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics Edexcel 
1. Forces & Motion
CONTENTS
1.1 Movement & Position
1.1.1 Distance-Time Graphs
1.1.2 Speed
1.1.3 Core Practical: Investigating Motion
1.1.4 Acceleration
1.1.5 Velocity-Time Graphs
1.1.6 Area under a Velocity-Time Graph
1.1.7 Calculating Uniform Acceleration
1.2 Forces, Movement & Changing Shape
1.2.1 Types of Forces
1.2.2 Scalar & Vectors
1.2.3 Resultant Forces
1.2.4 Unbalanced Forces
1.2.5 Weight
1.2.6 Stopping Distance
1.2.7 Terminal Velocity
1.2.8 Core Practical: Investigating Force & Extension
1.2.9 Hooke's Law
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1.1 Movement & Position YOUR NOTES


1.1.1 Distance-Time Graphs
Distance-Time Graphs
A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object moving in a straight
line (from a starting position) varies over time:
This graph shows a moving object moving further away from its origin
Constant Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

Distance-time graphs also show the following information:
If the object is moving at a constant speed
How large or small the speed is
A straight line represents constant speed
The slope of the straight line represents the magnitude of the speed:
A very steep slope means the object is moving at a large speed
A shallow slope means the object is moving at a small speed
A flat, horizontal line means the object is stationary (not moving)
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
This graph shows how the slope of a line is used to interpret the speed of moving
objects. Both of these objects are moving with a constant speed, because the lines
are straight.
Changing Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

Objects might be moving at a changing speed
This is represented by a curve
In this case, the slope of the line will be changing
If the slope is increasing, the speed is increasing (accelerating)
If the slope is decreasing, the speed is decreasing (decelerating)
The image below shows two different objects moving with changing speeds
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
Changing speeds are represented by changing slopes. The red line represents an
object slowing down and the green line represents an object speeding up.
Gradient of a Distance-Time Graph

The speed of a moving object can be calculated from the gradient of the line on a
distance-time graph:
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The speed of an object can be found by calculating the gradient of a distance-time YOUR NOTES
graph

The rise is the change in y (distance) values
The run is the change in x (time) values
 Worked Example
A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The train
is travelling at a constant speed.
Calculate the speed of the train.
Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph and label the magnitude of
the rise and run
The image below shows a large gradient triangle drawn with dashed lines
The rise and run magnitude is labelled, using the units as stated on each axes
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
Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units
The distance travelled (rise) = 8 km = 8000 m

The time taken (run) = 6 mins = 360 s
Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time graph
The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a moving

object:
Step 4: Substitute values in to calculate the speed
speed = gradient = 8000 ÷ 360

speed = 22.2 m/s
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Ose decides to take a stroll to the park. He finds a bench in a quiet spot and

takes a seat, picking up where he left off reading his book on Black
Holes.After some time reading, Ose realises he lost track of time and runs
home.A distance-time graph for his trip is drawn below:
a) How long does Ose spend reading his book?There are three sections
labelled on the graph: A, B and C.b) Which section represents Ose running
home?
c) What is the total distance travelled by Ose?
Part (a)
Ose spends 40 minutes reading his book
The flat section of the line (section B) represents an object which is stationary
- so section B represents Ose sitting on the bench reading
This section lasts for 40 minutes - as shown in the graph below
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
Part (b)
Section C represents
Ose running home
The slope of the line
in section C is steeper than the slope in section A
This means Ose was moving with a larger speed (running) in section C
Part (c)
The total distance travelled by Ose is 0.6 km
The total distance travelled by an object is given by the final point on the line
- in this case, the line ends at 0.6 km on the distance axis. This is shown in
the image below:
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
 Exam Tip
Use the entire line, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners
tend to award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used - so
remember to draw these directly on the graph itself!
Remember to check the units of variables measured on each axis. These
may not always be in standard units - in our example, the unit of
distance was km and the unit of time was minutes. Double-check which
units to use in your answer.
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1.1.2 Speed YOUR NOTES


Calculating Average Speed
The speed of an object is the distance it travels every second
Speed is a scalar quantity
This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)
A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas a particularly excited
bumble bee can have average speeds of up to 4.5 m/s
The equation for calculating the average speed of a moving object is:
The formula for average speed can be rearranged with the help of the formula
triangle below:
How to Use Formula Triangles

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Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to rearrange physics equations YOUR NOTES
To use them: 
1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the
equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make sure to
keep the order of which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!
In the example below, to calculate speed, cover-up 'speed' and only distance and
time are left
This means it is equal to distance (on the top) ÷ time (on the bottom)
 Worked Example
Planes fly at typical speeds of around 250 m/s.Calculate the distance
travelled by a plane moving at this average speed for 2 hours.
Step 1: List the known quantities
Average speed = 250 m/s

Time taken = 2 hours
Step 2: Write the relevant equation
Step 3: Rearrange for the distance moved
distance moved = average speed × time taken

Step 4: Convert any units
The time given in the question is not in standard units

Convert 2 hours into seconds:
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2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s YOUR NOTES

Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken 
distance moved = 250 × 7200 = 1 800 000 m
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1.1.3 Core Practical: Investigating Motion YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 1: Investigating Motion
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the motion of some everyday objects,
such as:
A paper cone
A tennis ball
This is just one method of carrying out this experiment - some methods involve
the use of light gates to measure speed and acceleration, e.g. for a toy car moving
down a slope
Variables:
Independent variable = Distance, d
Dependent variable = Time, t
Control variables:
Use the same object (paper cone, tennis ball etc.) for each measurement
Equipment List
Resolution of measuring equipment:

Ruler = 1 mm
Stop clock = 0.01 s
Method
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
Investigating the motion of a falling paper cone
1. Measure out a height of 1.0 m using the tape measure or metre ruler
2. Drop the object (paper cone or tennis ball) from this height, which is the distance
travelled by the object
3. Use the stop clock to measure how long the object takes to travel this distance
4. Record the distance travelled and time taken
5. Repeat steps 2-3 three times, calculating an average time taken for the object to
fall a certain distance
6. Repeat steps 1-4 for heights of 1.2 m, 1.4 m, 1.6 m, and 1.8 m
An example table of results might look like this:
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
Analysis of Results
The average speed of the falling object can be calculated using the equation:
Where:
Average speed is measured in metres per second (m/s)
Distance moved is measured in metres (m)
Time taken is measured in seconds (s)
Therefore, calculate the average speed at each distance by dividing the distance by
the average time taken
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Make sure the measurements on the tape measure or metre rule are taken at eye
level to avoid parallax error
Consider using an electronic sensor, such as light gates, to obtain highly accurate
measurements of time
Once the object is released, the timer starts and stops automatically as it
reaches the sensor on the ground
Random Errors:
Ensure the experiment is done in a space with no draught or breeze, as this could
affect the motion of the falling object
Using a ball bearing and an electronic data logger, like a trap door, is a good way
to remove the error due to human reaction time for this experiment
Safety Considerations
Place a mat or a soft material below any falling object to cushion its fall
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1.1.4 Acceleration YOUR NOTES


Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity
In other words, it describes how much an object's velocity changes every
second
The equation below is used to calculate the average acceleration of an object:
Where:
a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
Δv = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)
t = time taken in seconds (s)
The change in velocity is found by the difference between the initial and final
velocity, as written below:
change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity
Δv = v − u
Where:
v = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
u = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)
The equation for acceleration can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle
as shown:
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
Speeding Up & Slowing Down

An object that speeds up is accelerating
An object that slows down is decelerating
The acceleration of an object can be positive or negative, depending on whether
the object is speeding up or slowing down
If an object is speeding up, its acceleration is positive
If an object is slowing down, its acceleration is negative (sometimes called
deceleration)
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
A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)
 Worked Example
A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line.The
velocity of the train decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.
(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.
(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer
shows the train is slowing down.
Part (a)
Initial velocity = 50 m/s

Final velocity = 42 m/s
change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity
change in velocity = 42 − 50 = −8 m/s

Part (b)
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Change in velocity, Δv = − 8 m/s YOUR NOTES

Time taken, t = 30 s 
Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time
a = −8 ÷ 30 = −0.27 m/s
Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration
The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down
 Exam Tip
Remember the units for acceleration are metres per second squared,
m/s2In other words, acceleration measures how much the velocity (in m/s)
changes every second, m/s/s.
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1.1.5 Velocity-Time Graphs YOUR NOTES


Velocity-Time Graphs
A velocity-time graph shows how the velocity of a moving object varies with time
The red line represents an object with increasing velocity
The green line represents an object with decreasing velocity
Increasing and decreasing velocity represented on a velocity-time graph
Acceleration on a Velocity-Time Graph

Velocity-time graphs also show the following information:
If the object is moving with a constant acceleration/deceleration
The magnitude of the acceleration/deceleration
A straight line represents constant acceleration
The slope of the line represents the magnitude of acceleration
A steep slope means large acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's
speed changes very quickly
A gentle slope means small acceleration (or deceleration) - i.e. the object's
speed changes very gradually
A flat line means the acceleration is zero - i.e. the object is moving with a
constant velocity
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
This image shows how to interpret the slope of a velocity-time graph
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Gradient of a Velocity-Time Graph YOUR NOTES

The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity- 
time graph
How to find the gradient of a velocity-time graph
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 Tora is training for a cycling tournament.

The velocity-time graph below shows her motion as she cycles along a flat,
straight road.
(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the velocity-time graph is Tora’s

acceleration the largest?
(b) Calculate Tora’s acceleration between 5 and 10 seconds.
Part (a)
Step 1: Recall that the slope of a velocity-time graph represents the magnitude
of acceleration
The slope of a velocity-time graph indicates the magnitude of acceleration

Therefore, the only sections of the graph where Tora is accelerating is section
B and section D
Sections A, C, and E are flat – in other words, Tora is moving at a constant
velocity (i.e. not accelerating)
Step 2: Identify the section with the steepest slope
Section D of the graph has the steepest slope

Hence, the largest acceleration is shown in section D
Part (b)
Step 1: Recall that the gradient of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration
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Calculating the gradient of a slope on a velocity-time graph gives the YOUR NOTES
acceleration for that time period 
Step 2: Draw a large gradient triangle at the appropriate section of the graph
A gradient triangle is drawn for the time period between 5 and 10 seconds
below:
Step 3: Calculate the size of the gradient and state this as the acceleration
The acceleration is given by the gradient, which can be calculated using:

acceleration = gradient = 5 ÷ 5 = 1 m/s2
Therefore, Tora accelerated at 1 m/s2 between 5 and 10 seconds
 Exam Tip
Use the entire slope, where possible, to calculate the gradient. Examiners
tend to award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used - so
remember to draw 'rise' and 'run' lines directly on the graph itself!
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1.1.6 Area under a Velocity-Time Graph YOUR NOTES


Area under a Velocity-Time Graph
The area under a velocity-time graph represents the displacement (or distance
travelled ) by an object
The displacement, or distance travelled, is represented by the area beneath the graph
If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (i.e. the object is accelerating or
decelerating ), then the area can be determined by using the following formula:
Area = ½ × Base × Height
If the area beneath the graph forms a rectangle (i.e. the object is moving at a
constant velocity), then the area can be determined by using the following
formula:
Area = Base × Height
Determining Distance from a Velocity-Time Graph

Enclosed areas under velocity-time graphs represent total displacement (or total
distance travelled )
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
Three enclosed areas (two triangles and one rectangle) under this velocity-time
graph represents the total distance travelled
If an object moves with constant acceleration, its velocity-time graph will

comprise of straight lines
In this case, calculate the distance travelled by working out the area of
enclosed rectangles and triangles as in the image above
 Worked Example
The velocity-time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for 160
seconds.
Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey.
Step 1: Recall that the area under a velocity-time graph represents the distance
travelled
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In order to calculate the total distance travelled, the total area underneath the YOUR NOTES
line must be determined 
Step 2: Identify each enclosed area
In this example, there are five enclosed areas under the line
These can be labelled as areas 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, as shown in the image below:
Step 3: Calculate the area of each enclosed shape under the line
Area 1 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 40 × 17.5 = 350 m

Area 2 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 30 × 17.5 = 525 m
Area 3 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 20 × 7.5 = 75 m
Area 4 = area of a rectangle = base × height = 20 × 17.5 = 350 m
Area 5 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 70 × 25 = 875 m
Step 4: Calculate the total distance travelled by finding the total area under the
line
Add up each of the five areas enclosed:

total distance = 350 + 525 + 75 + 350 + 875
total distance = 2175 m
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1.1.7 Calculating Uniform Acceleration YOUR NOTES


Calculating Uniform Acceleration
The following equation of motion applies to objects moving with uniform
(constant) acceleration:
(final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + 2 × acceleration × distance moved

v2 = u2 + 2as
Where:
s = distance moved in metres (m)
u = initial speed in metres per second (m/s)
v = final speed in metres per second (m/s)
a = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
This equation is used to calculate quantities such as initial or final speed,
acceleration, or distance moved in cases where the time taken is not known
 Worked Example
A car accelerates steadily from rest at a rate of 2.5 m/s2 up to a speed of 16
m/s.Calculate how far the car moves during this period of acceleration.
Step 1: Identify and write down the equation to use
The question says that the car 'accelerates steadily' - so the equation for
uniform acceleration can be used:
v2 = u2 + 2 × a × s
Initial speed, u = 0 m/s (the car starts from rest)

Final speed, v = 16 m/s
Acceleration, a = 2.5 m/s2
Distance moved, s = ? (this needs to be calculated)
Step 3: Substitute known quantities into the equation and simplify where
possible
162 = 02 + (2 × 2.5 × s)
This can be simplified to:
256 = 5 × s
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to work out the distance moved
s = 256 ÷ 5
s = 51.2 m
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 Exam Tip
Writing out your list of known quantities, and labelling the quantity you 
need to calculate, is really good exam technique. It helps you determine the
correct equation to use, and sometimes examiners award credit for showing
this working.
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1.2 Forces, Movement & Changing Shape YOUR NOTES


1.2.1 Types of Forces
Effects of Forces
Forces can affect bodies in a variety of ways:
Changes in speed: forces can cause bodies to speed up or slow down
Changes in direction: forces can cause bodies to change their direction of
travel
Changes in shape: forces can cause bodies to stretch, compress, or deform
The effects of different forces on objects
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Types of Forces YOUR NOTES

There are many types of force. Some examples include: 
Gravitational (or weight) - the force between any two objects with mass (like
the Earth and the Moon)
Electrostatic - the force between any two objects with charge (like a proton
and an electron)
Thrust - the force pushing a vehicle (like the push from rocket engines on the
shuttle)
Upthrust - the upward force on any object in a fluid (like a boat on the surface
of a river)
Air resistance (or drag ) - the force of friction between objects falling through
the air (like a skydiver in freefall)
Compression - forces that squeeze an object (like squeezing a spring)
Tension - forces that stretch an object (like two teams in a tug-of-war)
Reaction force - the force between any two objects in contact (like the
upwards force from a table on a book)
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
Several types of forces acting on different objects
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 Exam Tip
The force of gravity on an object is called its weight. Remember not to refer 
to this force as simply 'gravity', as this term can mean several different
things and examiners will probably mark it as wrong.Similarly, when
referring to air resistance, avoid using terms like 'wind resistance' (there is
no such thing!) or 'air pressure', which is a different concept. Drag is an
acceptable alternative to the force of air resistance.
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1.2.2 Scalar & Vectors YOUR NOTES


Scalar & Vector Quantities
All quantities can be one of two types:
A scalar
A vector
Scalars
Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
For example, mass is a scalar quantity since it is a quantity that has no
direction to it
Vectors
Vectors have both a magnitude and a direction
Velocity is a vector quantity since it is described with both a magnitude and a
direction
When describing the velocity of a car it is necessary to mention both its speed
and the direction in which it is travelling
For example, 60 km per hour in a Westerly direction
Distance is a value describing only how long an object is or how far it is between
two points - this means it is a scalar quantity
Displacement on the other hand also describes the direction in which the distance
is measured - this means it is a vector quantity
For example, 100 km in a Northern direction
Examples of Scalars & Vectors
The table below lists some common examples of scalar and vector quantities:
Scalars & Vectors Table
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
Some vectors and scalars are similar to each other

For example, the scalar quantity distance corresponds to the vector quantity
displacement
Corresponding vectors and their scalar counterparts are aligned in the table where
applicable
 Worked Example
Blu is in charge of training junior astronauts. For one of his sessions, he
would like to explain the difference between mass and weight.Suggest how
Blu should explain the difference between mass and weight, using
definitions of scalars and vectors in your answer.
Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity
Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude

Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
Step 2: Identify which quantity has magnitude only
Mass is a quantity with magnitude only

So mass is a scalar quantity
Blu might explain to his junior astronauts that their mass will not change
if they travel to outer space
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Step 3: Identify which quantity has magnitude and direction YOUR NOTES
Weight is a quantity with magnitude and direction (it is a force) 
So weight is a vector quantity
Blu might explain that to his junior astronauts that their weight - the force
on them due to gravity - will vary depending on their distance from the
centre of the Earth
Forces as Vectors
Force is a vector quantity because it describes both magnitude and direction
The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the force
The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the force
A free body diagram of an object with two forces acting on it
Not all forces are directed perfectly horizontally or vertically and thus need to have
an angle described
It is useful to describe an angle with respect to the vertical or the horizontal
A force of magnitude 100 N directed 40° to the horizontal
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1.2.3 Resultant Forces YOUR NOTES


Calculating Resultant Force
A resultant force is a single force that describes all of the forces operating on a
body
When many forces are applied to an object they can be combined (added) to
produce one final force which describes the combined action of all of the forces
This single resultant force determines:
The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
The magnitude of the final force experienced by the object
The resultant force is sometimes called the net force
Resultant forces can be calculated by adding or subtracting all of the forces acting
on the object
Forces working in opposite directions are subtracted from each other
Forces working in the same direction are added together
If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will be no
resultant force – the forces are said to be balanced
Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects
Imagine the forces on the boxes as two people pushing on either side
In the first scenario, the two people are evenly matched - the box doesn't
move
In the second scenario, the two people are pushing on the same side of the
box, it moves to the right with their combined strength
In the third scenario, the two people are pushing against each other and are
not evenly matched, so there is a resultant force to the left
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 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force in the diagram

below.
Step 1: Add up all of the forces directed to the right
4 N + 8 N = 12 N
Step 2: Subtract the forces on the right from the forces on the left
14 N – 12 N = 2 N
Step 3: Evaluate the direction of the resultant force
The force to the left is greater than the force to the right therefore the
resultant force is directed to the left
Step 4: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The resultant force is 2 N to the left
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Friction YOUR NOTES

Friction is defined as: 
The force which opposes the motion of an object
Frictional forces always act in the opposite direction to the object's motion
Friction emerges when two (or more) surfaces rub against each other:
At a molecular level, both surfaces contain imperfections - i.e. they are not
perfectly smooth
These imperfections tend to push against each other
The image below show the force of friction acting on a downhill sledder:
Friction is a force which opposes an objects motion, acting in the opposite direction
to it
 Exam Tip
When calculating resultant forces, always remember to provide units for
your answer and to state whether the force is to the left, to the right, or
maybe up or downAlways provide your final answer as a description of the
magnitude and the direction, for example:
Resultant Force = 4 N to the right
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1.2.4 Unbalanced Forces YOUR NOTES


Unbalanced Forces
Forces can combine to produce
Balanced forces
Unbalanced forces
Balanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they
cancel each other out and no resultant force acts on the body
For example, the weight of a book on a desk is balanced by the normal force
of the desk
As a result, no resultant force is experienced by the book, the book and the
table are equal and balanced
A book resting on a table is an example of balanced forces
Unbalanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they do
not cancel out completely and there is a resultant force on the object
For example, imagine two people playing a game of tug-of-war, working
against each other on opposite sides of the rope
If person A pulls with 80 N to the left and person B pulls with 100 N to the
right, these forces do not cancel each other out completely
Since person B pulled with more force than person A the forces will be
unbalanced and the rope will experience a resultant force of 20 N to the right
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YOUR NOTES

A tug-of-war is an example of when forces can become unbalanced
Unbalanced Forces, Mass & Acceleration

When forces combine on an object in such a way that they do not cancel out, there
is a resultant force on the object
This resultant force causes the object to accelerate (i.e. change its velocity)
The object might speed up
The object might slow down
The object might change direction
The relationship between resultant force, mass and acceleration is given by the
equation:
F=m×a
Where:
F = resultant force, measured in Newtons (N)
m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration, measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)
 Worked Example
A car salesman says that his best car has a mass of 900 kg and can
accelerate from 0 to 27 m/s in 3 seconds.Calculate:
a) The acceleration of the car in the first 3 seconds.
b) The force required to produce this acceleration.
Part (a)
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Initial velocity = 0 m/s YOUR NOTES

Final velocity = 27 m/s 
Time, t = 3 s
Step 2: Calculate the change in velocity
change in velocity = Δv = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = 27 − 0 = 27 m/s
Step 3: State the equation for acceleration
Step 4: Calculate the acceleration
a = 27 ÷ 3 = 9 m/s2
Part (b)
Mass of the car, m = 900 kg

Acceleration, a = 9 m/s2
Step 2: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so Newton's

second law is required:
F = ma
Step 3: Calculate the force required to accelerate the car
F = 900 × 9 = 8100 N
 Worked Example
A passenger of mass 70 kg travels in a car at a speed of 20 m/s.The vehicle
is involved in a collision, which brings the car (and the passenger) to a halt
in 0.1 seconds.Calculate:
a) The deceleration of the car (and the passenger).
b) The decelerating force on the passenger.
Part (a)
Initial velocity, u = 20 m/s

Final velocity, v = 0 m/s
Time, t = 0.1 s
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Step 2: Calculate the change in velocity of the car (and the passenger) YOUR NOTES
change in velocity = Δv = final velocity − initial velocity = v − u 
Δv = 0 − 20
Δv = −20 m/s
Step 3: Calculate the deceleration of the car (and the passenger) using the
equation:
Step 4: Calculate the deceleration
a = −20 ÷ 0.1
a = −200 m/s2
Part (b)
Mass of the passenger, m = 70 kg

Acceleration (deceleration, in this case), a = −200 m/s2
Step 2: State the relationship between resultant force, mass and acceleration
This question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so the

appropriate equation for this case is:
F=m×a
Step 3: Calculate the decelerating force
F = 70 × −200
F = −14 000 N
 Exam Tip
Remember that resultant force is a vector quantityExaminers may ask you to
comment on why its value is negative - this happens when the resultant
force acts in the opposite direction to the object's motionIn the worked
example above, the resultant force opposes the passenger's motion,
slowing them down (decelerating them) to a halt, this is why it has a minus
symbol.
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1.2.5 Weight YOUR NOTES


Weight
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction
Planets have strong gravitational fields

Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit
Some of the phenomena associated with gravitational attraction and the weight force
Weight, mass and gravitational field strength are related using the equation:
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This can also be written as: YOUR NOTES

W=m×g 
g is known as the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational field strength

On Earth, this is equal to 9.81 m/s2 (or N/kg)
The weight that an object experiences depends on:
The object's mass
The mass of the planet attracting it
Mass (measured in kilograms, kg ) is related to the amount of matter in an object
Weight (measured in newtons, N ) is the force of gravity on a mass
The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional
The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called
gravity, g, for short)
 Worked Example
NASA's Artemis mission aims to send the first woman astronaut to the
Moon.Isabelle hopes to one day become an astronaut. She has a mass of 40
kg.Comment on the difference between Isabelle's weight on Earth, and her
weight on the Moon. Take the Earth's gravitational field strength as 10
N/kg, and the Moon's gravitational field strength as 2 N/kg.
Step 1: State the equation linking weight and mass
The equation linking weight and mass is:

W=m×g
Step 2: List the known values
The question instructs us to take the Earth's gravitational field strength as 10

N/kg
The question also instructs us to take the Moon's gravitational field strength as
2 N/kg
Mass, m = 40 kg
Step 3: Calculate Isabelle's weight on Earth
Substituting the values of mass and Earth's gravitational field strength into the
equation gives:
W = 40 × 10 = 400 N
Step 4: Calculate Isabelle's weight on the Moon
Substituting the values of mass and the Moon's gravitational field strength into
the equation gives:
W = 40 × 2 = 80 N
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Step 5: Comment on the two values of weight YOUR NOTES

Isabelle's weight is greater on Earth than on the Moon 
This is because the Earth has a larger gravitational field strength than the
Moon, so Isabelle's weight force (the force of gravity pulling down on her) is
larger on Earth than on the Moon
 Exam Tip
It is a common misconception that mass and weight are the same, but they
are in fact very different
Since weight is a force - it is a vector quantity
Since mass is an amount - it is a scalar quantity
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1.2.6 Stopping Distance YOUR NOTES


Stopping Distance
The stopping distance of a car is defined as:
The total distance travelled during the time it takes for a car to stop in
response to some emergency
It can be written as an equation involving two distances:

Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Where:
Thinking distance = the distance travelled in the time it takes the driver to
react (reaction time) in metres (m)
Braking distance = the distance travelled under the braking force in metres
(m)
Stopping distance = the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance, in
metres (m)
For a given braking force, the greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the
stopping distance
 Worked Example
At a speed of 20 m/s, a particular vehicle had a stopping distance of 40
metres. The car travelled 14 metres whilst the driver was reacting to the
incident in front of him. What was the braking distance?
A 54 m
B 34 m
C 26 m
D 6m
ANSWER: C
Step 1: Identify the different variables
Stopping distance = 40 m
Thinking distance = 14 m
Step 2: Rearrange the formula for stopping distance
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance

Braking distance = Stopping distance – Thinking distance
Step 3: Calculate and identify the correct braking distance
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Braking distance = 40 – 14 = 26 metres YOUR NOTES

Therefore, the answer is C 
Factors affecting Stopping Distance

There are various factors which can affect a vehicle's stopping distance. These are:
Vehicle speed - the greater the speed, the greater the vehicle's braking
distance will be (because the brakes will need to do more work to bring the
vehicle to a stop)
Vehicle mass - a heavy vehicle, such as a lorry, takes longer to stop
Road conditions - wet or icy roads make it harder to decelerate
Driver reaction time - a driver's thinking distance depends on their reaction
time. Being tired, or intoxicated (i.e. alcohol, or drugs) can increase reaction
time
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1.2.7 Terminal Velocity YOUR NOTES


Terminal Velocity
Falling objects experience two forces:
Weight (due to gravity)
Air resistance (due to friction)
The force of air resistance increases with speed. This is illustrated in the image
below:
Debbie initially accelerates downwards due to her weight. The upwards air resistance
increases as she falls until it eventually grows big enough to balance the weight
force
Initially, the upwards air resistance is very small because the skydiver isn't falling
very quickly
Therefore, there are unbalanced forces on the skydiver initially
As the skydiver speeds up, air resistance increases, eventually growing large
enough to balance the downwards weight force
Once air resistance equals weight, the forces are balanced
This means there is no longer any resultant force
Therefore, the skydiver's acceleration is zero - they now travel at a constant speed
This speed is called their terminal velocity
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 A small object falls out of an aircraft.Choose words from the list to

complete the sentences below:
Friction Gravity Air pressure
Accelerates Falls at a steady speed Slows down
(a) The weight of an object is the force of __________ which acts on it.
(b) When something falls, initially it ____________.
(c) The faster it falls, the larger the force of ______________ which acts
on it.
(d) Eventually it ______________ when the force of friction equals the
force of gravity acting on it.
Part (a)
The weight of an object is the force of gravity which acts on it.

The weight force is due to the Earth's gravitational pull on the object, so
weight is due to gravity
Part (b)
When something falls, initially it accelerates.

The resultant force on the object is very large initially, so it accelerates
This is because there is a large unbalanced force downwards (its weight) - the
upward force of air resistance is very small to begin with
Part (c)
The faster it falls, the larger the force of friction which acts on it.
The force of air resistance is due to friction between the object's motion and
collisions with air particles
Air particles try to slow the object down, so air itself produces a frictional
force, called air resistance (sometimes called drag )
Part (d)
Eventually it falls at a steady speed when the force of friction equals the force of
gravity acting on it.
When the upwards air resistance grows enough to balance the downwards
weight force, the resultant force on the object is zero
This means the object isn't accelerating - rather, it is moving at a
steady (terminal) speed
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The force of gravity on an object is called its weight. If you are asked to 
name this force, use this word: don't call it 'gravity', as this term could also
mean gravitational field strength, and so might be marked wrong.
Additionally, remember to identify air resistance as the upwards force on a
falling object. This force gets larger as the object speeds up, but the weight
of the object stays constant. Don't confuse 'air resistance' with 'air pressure'
- these are two different concepts!
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1.2.8 Core Practical: Investigating Force & Extension YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 2: Investigating Force & Extension
Equipment List

Ruler = 1 mm
Experiment 1: Investigating Springs & Rubber Bands
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between force and
extension for a spring and a rubber band:
Variables:
Independent variable = Force, F
Dependent variable = Extension, e
Method
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YOUR NOTES

Investigating force-extension apparatus for a spring (and rubber band)
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, initially without any masses
hanging from the spring / rubber band
2. Align the marker to a value on the ruler, record this initial length of the spring /
rubber band
3. Add the 100 g mass hanger onto the spring / rubber band
4. Record the mass (in kg) and position (in cm) from the ruler now that the spring /
rubber band has extended
5. Add another 100 g to the mass hanger
6. Record the new mass and position from the ruler now that the spring / rubber
band has extended further
7. Repeat this process until all masses have been added
8. Remove the masses and repeat the entire process again, until it has been carried
out a total of three times, and an average length (for each mass attached) is
calculated
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YOUR NOTES

Experiment 2: Investigating Metal Wires

The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between force and
extension for a metal wire
Variables:
Independent variable = Force, F
Dependent variable = Extension, e
Method
Investigating force-extension apparatus for a metal (e.g. copper) wire
1. Set up the apparatus so the wire is taut. No masses should be attached just yet
2. Measure the original length of the wire using a metre ruler and mark a reference
point with tape preferably near the beginning of the scale eg. at 1 cm
3. Record the initial reading on the ruler of the reference point
4. Add a 100 g mass onto the mass hanger
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5. Read and record the new reading of the tape marker from the meter ruler now that YOUR NOTES
the metal wire has extended 
6. Repeat this process until all masses have been added
7. Remove the masses and repeat the entire process again, until it has been carried
out a total of three times, and an average length (for each mass attached) is
calculated
Analysis of Results
The force, F added to the spring / rubber band / metal wire is the weight of the
mass
The weight is calculated using the equation:
W=m×g
Where:
W = weight in newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength on Earth in newtons per kg (N/kg)
Therefore, multiply each mass by gravitational field strength, g, to calculate the
force, F
The force can be calculated by multiplying the mass (in kg) by 10 N/kg
The extension e of the spring / rubber band is calculated using the equation:
e = average length – original length
The final length is the length of the spring / rubber band recorded from the ruler
after the masses were added
The extension e of the metal wire is calculated using the equation:
e = new marker reading − reference point reading
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The original length is the length of the spring / rubber band / metal wire when YOUR NOTES
there were no masses attached 
1. Plot a graph of the force against extension for the spring / rubber band / metal
wire
2. Draw a line or curve of best fit
3. If the graph has a linear region (is a straight line), then the force is proportional to
the extension
Systematic Errors:
Make sure the measurements on the ruler are taken at eye level to avoid parallax
error
Random Errors:
The accuracy of such an experiment is improved with the use of a pointer (a
fiducial marker)
Fiducial marker to measure the extension more accurately
Wait a few seconds for the spring / rubber band / metal wire to fully extend when
a mass is added, before taking the reading for its new length
Make sure to check whether the spring has not gone past its limit of
proportionality otherwise, it has been stretched too far
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Safety Considerations YOUR NOTES

Wear goggles during this experiment in case the spring snaps 
Stand up while carrying out the experiment making sure no feet are directly under
the masses
Place a mat or a soft material below the masses to prevent any damage in case
they fall
Use a G clamp to secure the clamp stand to the desk so that the clamp and masses
do not fall over
As well as this, place each mass carefully on the hanger and do not pull the
spring too hard that it breaks or pulls the apparatus over
 Exam Tip
Remember - for the spring and rubber band, the extension measures how
much the object has stretched by and can be found by subtracting the
original length from each of the subsequent lengths.For the metal wire,
each extension is measured by finding the difference between the new
marker point and the original reference point.A common mistake is to
calculate the increase in length by each time instead of the total extension –
if each of your extensions is roughly the same then you might have made
this mistake!
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1.2.9 Hooke's Law YOUR NOTES


Hooke's Law
The relationship between the extension of an elastic object and the applied force
is defined by Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law states that:
The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force
applied, up to the limit of proportionality
Directly proportional means that as more force is applied, the greater the
extension (and vice versa)
The limit of proportionality is where if more force is added, the object may extend
but will not return to its original shape when the force is removed (it will be
inelastically deformed)
This limit varies according to the material
Hooke's Law states that a force applied to a spring will cause it to extend by an
amount proportional to the force
The Force-Extension Graph

Hooke’s law is the linear relationship between force and extension
This is represented by a straight line on a force-extension graph
Any material beyond its limit of proportionality will have a non-linear relationship
between force and extension
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YOUR NOTES

Hooke's Law is associated with the linear region of a force-extension graph
Elastic Behaviour
When some objects, such as springs or rubber bands, are stretched they will return
to their original shape and length once the forces are removed
Other materials, such as plastic, remain permanently deformed (stretched)
A change of shape is called a deformation and can either be:
Elastic
Inelastic
Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation occurs:
When objects return to their original shape when the stretching force is
removed
Examples of materials that undergo elastic deformation are:

Rubber bands
Fabrics
Steel springs
Inelastic Deformation
Inelastic deformation occurs:
When objects remain stretched and do not return completely to their
original shape even when the stretching force is removed
Examples of materials that undergo inelastic deformation are:

Plastic
Clay
Glass
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YOUR NOTES
2. Electricity
CONTENTS
2.1 Current, Potential Difference & Resistance
2.1.1 Charge & Current
2.1.2 Voltage & Energy
2.1.3 Resistance
2.2 Components in Series & Parallel Circuits
2.2.1 Current in Series & Parallel
2.2.2 Voltage in Series & Parallel
2.2.3 Resistors in Series
2.2.4 IV Graphs
2.2.5 Electrical Components
2.3 Electrical Power & Mains Electricity
2.3.1 Electrical Power & Fuses
2.3.2 Calculating Energy Transfers
2.3.3 Electrical Safety
2.3.4 Electricity & Heat
2.3.5 AC & DC
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2.1 Current, Potential Difference & Resistance YOUR NOTES


2.1.1 Charge & Current
Current
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow charge
In other words, the size of an electric current is the amount of charge passing
through a component per second
Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell
Charge flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal
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Charge YOUR NOTES

The wires in an electric circuit are made of metal, because metal is a good 
conductor of electric current
In the wires, the current is a flow of negatively charged electrons
In metal wires, the current is a flow of negatively charged electrons. This image
shows the electrons flowing through a lattice of metal ions
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Calculating Electric Charge YOUR NOTES

The charge, current and time are related by the equation: 
Where:
Q = charge measured in Coulombs (C)
I = current measure in amps (A)
t = time measured in seconds (s)
This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle:
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 When will 8 mA of current pass through an electrical circuit?

A When 1 J of energy is used by 1 C of charge

B When a charge of 4 C passes in 500 s
C When a charge of 8 C passes in 100 s
D When a charge of 1 C passes in 8 s
ANSWER: B
Step 1: Write out the equation relating current, charge and time
Q = It
This can be rearranged to make current I the subject of the equation:
Step 2: Rule out any obviously incorrect options
Option A does not mention time, so can be ruled out

Step 3: Try the rest of the options by applying the equation to determine the
correct answer
Consider option B:
I = 4 / 500 = 8 × 10–3 = 8 mA
Consider option C:
I = 8 / 100 = 80 × 10–3 = 80 mA
Consider option D:
I = 1 / 8 = 125 × 10–3 = 125 mA
Therefore, the correct answer is B
 Exam Tip
Electric currents in everyday circuits tend to be quite small, so it's really
common for examiners to throw in a unit prefix like 'm' next to quantities of
current, e.g. 10 mA (10 milliamperes).Make sure that you are on the lookout
for these prefixes and that you can convert them into standard units, so 10
mA = 10 × 10-3 A
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2.1.2 Voltage & Energy YOUR NOTES


Voltage
The terminals of a cell make one end of the circuit positive and the other negative
This sets up a potential difference across the circuit
This is sometimes known as the voltage
Potential difference is defined as:
The amount of energy transferred per unit of charge passing through the
terminals
This means that one volt (the unit of potential difference) is equivalent to one joule
(the unit of energy) per coulomb (the unit of charge):
1V=1J/C
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Calculating Voltage YOUR NOTES

The equation linking the energy transferred, voltage and charge is given below: 
Where:
V = potential difference, measured in volts (V)
E = energy transferred, measured in joules (J)
Q = charge moved, measured in coulombs (C)
This can be rearranged using the formula triangle below:
 Worked Example
The normal operating voltage for a lamp is 6 V.Calculate how much energy
is transferred in the lamp when 4200 C of charge flows through it.
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Step 1: List the known quantities YOUR NOTES

Voltage, V = 6 V 
Charge, Q = 4200 C
Step 2: State the equation linking potential difference, energy and charge
The equation linking potential difference, energy and charge is:

E=V×Q
Step 3: Substitute the known values and calculate the energy transferred
E = 6 × 4200
E = 25 200 J
Therefore, 25 200 J of energy is transferred in the lamp
 Exam Tip
Don't be confused by the symbol for potential difference (the symbol V)
being the same as its unit (the volt, V). Learn the equation and remember
especially that one volt is equivalent to 'a joule per coulomb'.
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2.1.3 Resistance YOUR NOTES


Calculating Current, Resistance & Potential Difference
Resistance is defined as the opposition to current:
The higher the resistance of a circuit, the lower the current
This means that good conductors have a low resistance and insulators have a
high resistance
The symbol for resistance is R

It is measured in Ohms (Ω)
Ω is the Greek capital letter ‘Omega’
An Ohm is defined as one volt per ampere (1 V / A)
The resistance of a circuit can be increased by adding resistors (or variable
resistors) to it
Every electrical component has a resistance, even wires
In exam questions, the resistance of the wires and batteries are assumed to be
negligible
High resistance means there is a lower current and vice versa
The current I through a component depends on both the resistance R of the

component and the potential difference V across the component
The greater the resistance R of the component, the lower the current I for a
given potential difference V across the component
The lower the resistance R of the component, the greater the current I for a
given potential difference V across the component
The current, resistance and potential difference of a component in a circuit are
calculated using the equation:
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YOUR NOTES

This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle:
Voltage, current, resistance formula triangle
 Worked Example
Calculate the voltage across a resistor of resistance 10 Ω if there is a
current of 0.3 A through it.
Resistance, R = 10 Ω
Current, I = 0.3 A
Step 2: Write the equation relating resistance, potential difference and current
V = IR
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Step 3: Substitute in the values YOUR NOTES

V = 0.3 × 10 = 3 V 
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2.2 Components in Series & Parallel Circuits YOUR NOTES


2.2.1 Current in Series & Parallel
Current in Series Circuits
In a circuit that is a closed-loop, such as a series circuit, the current is the same
value at any point
This is because the number of electrons per second that passes through one
part of the circuit is the same number that passes through any other part
This means that all components in a closed-loop have the same current
The current is the same at each point in a closed-loop
The amount of current flowing around a series circuit depends on two things:
The voltage of the power source
The number (and type) of components in the circuit
Increasing the voltage of the power source drives more current around the circuit
So, decreasing the voltage of the power source reduces the current
Increasing the number of components in the circuit increases the total resistance
Hence less current flows through the circuit
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YOUR NOTES

Current will increase if the voltage of the power supply increases, and decreases if
the number of components increases (because there will be more resistance)
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Current in Parallel Circuits YOUR NOTES

At a junction in a parallel circuit (where two or more wires meet) the current is 
conserved
This means the amount of current flowing into the junction is equal to the
amount of current flowing out of it
This is because charge is conserved
Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more
current in some branches than in others
The current in each branch will only be identical if the resistance of the
components along each branch are identical
Current behaves in this way because it is the flow of electrons:
Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or destroyed
This means the total number of electrons (and hence current) going around a
circuit must remain the same
When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will go one way
and the rest will go the other
Current is split at a junction into individual branches
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 In the circuit below, ammeter A0 shows a reading of 10 A, and ammeter A1

shows a reading of 6 A.
What is the reading on ammeter A2?
Step 1: Recall that at a junction, the current is conserved
This means that the total amount of current flowing into a junction is equal to
the total amount flowing out
Step 2: Consider the first junction in the circuit where current splits
The diagram below shows the first junction in the circuit
Step 3: Calculate the missing amount of current
Since 10 A flows in to the junction (the total current from the battery), 10 A
must flow out of the junction
The question says that 6 A flows through ammeter A1 so the remaining current
flowing through ammeter A2 must be:
10 A − 6 A = 4 A
Therefore, 4 A flows through ammeter A2
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The direction of current flow is super important when considering junctions 
in a circuit.You should remember that current flows from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal of a cell / battery. This will help determine
the direction current is flowing 'in' to a junction and which way the current
then flows 'out'.
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2.2.2 Voltage in Series & Parallel YOUR NOTES


Voltage in Series & Parallel
In a series circuit:
The current is the same at all points ie. through each component
The total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the
components
Lamps connected in a series circuit
In the above circuit:

The current from the power supply is the same as the current in both lamps I
= I1 = I2
If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12 ÷ 2 =
6 V across each lamp
In a parallel circuit:
The total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through
the separate components
The potential difference across each component is the same
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YOUR NOTES

Lamps connected in a parallel circuit
In the above circuit:

Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal
the current from the power supply I = I1 + I2
If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12 V
across each lamp
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Advantages & Disadvantages YOUR NOTES

Series Circuits 
A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components connected in a
loop
The advantages of a series circuit are:
All of the components can be controlled by a single switch
Fewer wires are required
The disadvantages of a series circuit are:
The components cannot be controlled separately
If one component breaks, they will all stop working as well
In the series circuit above, only one switch is needed to control all of the lamps. This
can be seen as an advantage or as a disadvantage
Parallel Circuits
A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached across different
branches of the circuit
The advantages of a parallel circuit are:
The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
If one component breaks, then the others will continue to function
The disadvantages of a parallel circuit are:
Many more wires involved so much more complicated to set up
All components have the same voltage as the supply, so harder to control if
components need to have different voltages
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YOUR NOTES

In the parallel circuit above, the lamps are connected in parallel and can be switched
on and off by their own switch
 Exam Tip
You may have noticed that for a parallel circuit, all of the components can
be controlled by a single switch - like a series circuit. Nevertheless, the
exam board still considers this an advantage of series circuitsNote that the
current does not always split equally in a parallel circuit – often there will be
more current in some branches than in others. The current in each branch
will only be identical if the resistance of the components along each branch
are identical. However, the voltage across two components connected in
parallel is always the same
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2.2.3 Resistors in Series YOUR NOTES


Resistors in Series
When two or more resistors are connected in series, the total (or combined)
resistance is equal to the sum of their individual resistances
For example, for three resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3, the total resistance can
be calculated using:
Where R is the total resistance, in Ohms (Ω)

Increasing the number of resistors increases the overall resistance, as the charge
now has more resistors to pass through
The total voltage is also the sum of the voltages across each of the individual
resistors
In a series
circuit, the voltage of the power supply is shared between all
components
Three resistors connected in series. The total voltage is the sum of the individual
voltages, and the total resistance is the sum of the three individual resistances
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 The combined resistance R in the following series circuit is 60 Ω.What is the

resistance value of R2?
A 100 Ω B 30 Ω C 20 Ω D 40 Ω
ANSWER: C
Step 1: Write down the equation for the combined resistance in series
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Step 2: Substitute the values for total resistance R and the other resistors
60 Ω = 30 Ω + R2 + 10 Ω
Step 3: Rearrange for R2
R2 = 60 Ω – 30 Ω – 10 Ω = 20 Ω
 Worked Example
Dennis sets up a series circuit as shown below.
The cell supplies a current of 2 A to the circuit, and the fixed resistor has a
resistance of 4 Ω.
(a) How much current flows through the fixed resistor?
(b) What is the reading on the voltmeter?
Part (a)
Step 1: Recall that current is conserved in a series circuit
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Since current is conserved in a series circuit, it is the same size if measured YOUR NOTES
anywhere in the series loop 
This means that since the cell supplies 2 A to the circuit, the current is 2 A
everywhere
Therefore, 2 A flows through the fixed resistor
Part (b)
Current I = 2 A
Resistance R = 4 Ω
Step 2: State the equation linking potential difference, resistance and current
The equation linking potential difference, resistance and current is:

V = IR
Step 3: Substitute the known values into the equation and calculate the potential
difference
V=2×4=8V
Therefore, the voltmeter reads 8 V across the fixed resistor
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2.2.4 IV Graphs YOUR NOTES


IV Graphs
As the potential difference across a component is increased, the current also
increases
This is because potential difference and current are proportional
The precise relationship between voltage and current is different for different
components and can be shown on an IV graph, including in:
Fixed resistors & wires
Filament lamps
Diodes
Fixed Resistors & Wires
The current through a fixed resistor or a wire increases as the potential difference
(or voltage) across it increases
In other words, current is directly proportional to the potential difference for a
fixed resistor (or a wire)
This relationship is true because the resistance of the fixed resistor (or wire)
stays constant
An IV graph shows that the line is straight and goes through the origin, as shown
in the image below:
IV graph for a fixed resistor. The current is directly proportional to the potential
difference (voltage) as the graph is a straight line through the origin
Filament Lamps
For a filament lamp, current and voltage are not directly proportional
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This is because the resistance of the filament lamp increases as the YOUR NOTES
temperature of the filament increases

The IV graph for a filament lamp shows the current increasing at a proportionally
slower rate than the potential difference
IV graph for a filament lamp
This is because:
As the current increases, the temperature of the filament in the lamp
increases
The higher temperature causes the atoms in the metal lattice of the filament to
vibrate more
This causes an increase in resistance as it becomes more difficult for free
electrons (the current) to pass through
Resistance opposes the current, causing the current to increase at a slower
rate
Where the graph is a straight line, the resistance is constant
The resistance increases as the graph curves
Reversing the potential difference reverses the current and makes no difference to
the shape of the curve
Diodes
A diode allows current to flow in one direction only
This is called forward bias
In the reverse direction, the diode has very high resistance, and therefore no
current flows
This is called reverse bias
The IV graph for a diode is slightly different:
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When the current is in the direction of the arrowhead symbol, this is forward YOUR NOTES
bias

This is shown by the sharp increase in potential difference and current on
the right side of the graph
When the diode is switched around, this is reverse bias
This is shown by a zero reading of current or potential difference on the
left side of the graph
IV graph for a semiconductor diode
Investigating IV Graphs Experimentally

In order to investigate the relationship between current and voltage different
components, the following equipment is required:
An ammeter - to measure the current through the component
A voltmeter - to measure the voltage across the component
A variable resistor - to vary the current through the circuit
Power source - to provide a source of potential difference (voltage)
Wires - to connect the components together in a circuit
The image below shows the circuits set up to obtain IV graphs for a filament lamp
and a diode
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YOUR NOTES

These circuits enable the investigation of current and voltage for a filament lamp or
diode to be investigated
The current is the independent variable

The variable resistor is used to change the current flowing through the
filament lamp / diode
The voltage is the dependent variable
The voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across the filament lamp / diode
Recording measurements of current and voltage as the current increases enables
an IV graph to be plotted for each component
Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current
The higher the resistance of a circuit the lower the current
Resistors come in two types:
Fixed resistors
Variable resistors
Fixed resistors have a resistance that remains constant

Variable resistors can change the resistance by changing the length of wire that
makes up the circuit
A longer length of wire has more resistance than a shorter length of wire
Fixed and variable resistor circuit symbols
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2.2.5 Electrical Components YOUR NOTES


Thermistors & LDRs
Thermistors
A thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor
It is represented by the following circuit symbol:
Thermistor circuit symbol
The resistance of a thermistor changes depending on its temperature

As the temperature increases the resistance of a thermistor decreases and
vice versa
The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on temperature
LDRs
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) represented by the following circuit symbol:
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YOUR NOTES

LDR circuit symbol
The resistance of an LDR changes depending on the light intensity on it

As the light intensity increases the resistance of an LDR decreases and vice
versa
The resistance of an LDR is dependent on the amount of light intensity on it
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Lamps & LEDs YOUR NOTES

Lamps illuminate (light up) when a current flows in a circuit 
LEDs are types of diodes
This means they only allow current to pass in one direction through them and
will only light if the current passes in that direction
LEDs also illuminate when a current flows in a circuit (provided the LED is placed in
the correct direction)
Since both electrical components have a visual response to current, they can be
used to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit
LEDs can be used to indicate the presence of a current, because they illuminate when
current flows through them. The same is true for lamps
 Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the various symbols mentioned on this page. Many of
them are very similar with small differences denoting what they do:
Two arrows pointing towards a symbol mean that it is light-dependent
Two arrows pointing away mean that it is light-emitting
Symbols are sometimes drawn with circles around them (e.g. the LDR). These
circles are often optional (although not in the case of meters and bulbs).
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2.3 Electrical Power & Mains Electricity YOUR NOTES


2.3.1 Electrical Power & Fuses
Electrical Power
Power is defined as
The rate of energy transfer or the amount of energy transferred per second
The power of a device depends on:

The voltage (potential difference) of the device
The current of the device
The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:
The unit of power is the Watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:
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
Power, current, voltage formula triangle
 Worked Example
Calculate the potential difference through a 48 W electric motor with a
current of 4 A.
Power, P = 48 W
Current, I = 4 A
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation
P = IV
Step 3: Rearrange for potential difference, V
Step 4: Substitute in the values
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Remember: Power is just energy per second. Think of it this way will help
you to remember the relationship between power and energyYou can
remember the unit by the phrase: “Watt is the unit of power?”
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Selecting Fuses YOUR NOTES

A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance 
if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)
The circuit symbol for a fuse - take care not to confuse this with a resistor
Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire
If the current in the wire becomes too large:
The wire heats up and melts
This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
This makes sure that more current doesn't keep flowing through the circuit and
causing more damage to the equipment, or, causing a fire
Fuses come in a variety of sizes, typically 3 A, 5 A and 13 A
In order to select the right fuse for the job, the current through an appliance
needs to be known
If the power of the appliance is known (along with mains voltage), the current can
be calculated using the equation:
Where:
I = current in amps (A)
P = power in watts (W)
V = voltage in volts (V)
The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current
needed by the appliance, without being too high
Because of this, the rule of thumb is to always choose the next size up
If the fuse current rating is low, it will break the circuit even when an acceptable
current is flowing through
If the fuse current rating is too high, it will not be breaking the circuit in enough
time before damage occurs
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 
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2.3.2 Calculating Energy Transfers YOUR NOTES


Calculating Energy Transfers
Work is done when charge flows through a circuit
Work done is equal to the energy transferred
The amount of energy transferred by electrical work in a component (or appliance)
depends upon:
The current, I
The potential difference, V
The amount of time the component is used for, t
When charge flows through a resistor, for example, the energy transferred is what
makes the resistor hot
The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:
E=P×t
Where:
E = energy transferred in joules (J)
P = power in watts (W)
t = time in seconds (s)
Since P = IV, this equation can also be written as:
E=I×V×t
Where:
I = current in amperes (A)
V = potential difference in volts (V)
When charge flows around a circuit for a given time, the energy supplied by the
battery is equal to the energy transferred to all the components in the circuit
 Worked Example
Calculate the energy transferred in 1 minute when a current of 0.7 A passes
through a potential difference of 4 V.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Time, t = 1 minute = 60 s
Current, I = 0.7 A
Potential difference, V = 4 V
E=I×V×t
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E = 0.7 × 4 × 60 = 168 J YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
'Energy transferred' and 'work done' are often used interchangeably in
equations, don't panic, they mean the same thing!Always remember that the
time t in the above equations must always be converted into seconds
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2.3.3 Electrical Safety YOUR NOTES


Electrical Safety
Mains electricity is potentially lethal
Potential differences as small as 50 V can pose a serious hazard to individuals
Signs, like the above, warn of the risk of electrocution
Common hazards include:

Damaged Insulation – if someone touches an exposed piece of wire, they
could be subjected to a lethal shock
Overheating of cables – passing too much current through too small a wire
(or leaving a long length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire
overheating. This could cause a fire or melt the insulations, exposing live
wires
Damp conditions – if moisture comes into contact with live wires, the
moisture could conduct electricity either causing a short circuit within a device
(which could cause a fire) or posing an electrocution risk
In order to protect the user or the device, there are several safety features built
into domestic appliances, including:
Double insulation
Earthing
Fuses
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Circuit breakers YOUR NOTES

Insulation & Double Insulation 
The conducting part of a wire is usually made of copper or some other metal
If this comes into contact with a person, this poses a risk of electrocution
For this reason, wires are covered with an insulating material, such as rubber
The conducting part of a wire is covered in an insulating material for safety
Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk of them becoming
electrified
Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have two layers of
insulation:
Insulation around the wires themselves
A non-metallic case that acts as a second layer of insulation
Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire or have been designed so
that the earth wire cannot touch the metal casing
Earthing
Many electrical appliances have metal cases
This poses a potential safety hazard:
If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case
would become electrified and anyone who touched it would risk being
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electrocuted YOUR NOTES

The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk 
A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains powered appliance: live, neutral
and earth
If this happens:
The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
It causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live wire
The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe
Fuses & Circuit Breakers

Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices designed to cut off the flow of
electricity to an appliance if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a
surge)
The circuit symbol for a fuse (not to be confused with a resistor)
Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder containing a thin metal wire

If the current in the wire becomes too large:
The wire heats up and melts
This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
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A circuit breaker consists of an automatic electromagnet switch that breaks the YOUR NOTES
circuit if the current exceeds a certain value 
The main circuit breaker can quickly shut off electricity to the whole house. The
branch circuit breakers can shut off electricity to specific areas of the house
This has a major advantage over a fuse because:

It doesn't melt and break, hence it can be reset and used again
It works much faster
For these reasons, circuit breakers are used in mains electricity in homes
Sometimes they are misleadingly named "Fuse boxes"
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2.3.4 Electricity & Heat YOUR NOTES


Electricity & Heat
When electricity passes through a component, such as a resistor, some of the
electrical energy is turned into heat therefore increasing its temperature
This is because energy is transferred as a result of collisions between:
Electrons flowing in the conductor, and
The lattice of atoms within the metal conductor
Electricity, in metals, is caused by a flow of electrons
This is called the current
Metals are made up of a lattice of ions
As the electrons pass through the metal lattice they collide with ions
The ions resist the flow of the electrons
As electrons flow through the metal, they collide with ions, making them vibrate
more
When the electrons collide, they lose some energy by giving it to the ions, which
start to vibrate more
As a result of this, the metal heats up
This heating effect is utilised in many appliances, including:
Electric heaters
Electric ovens
Electric hob
Toasters
Kettles
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YOUR NOTES

The heating effect of current can be used for many applications such as electric hobs
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2.3.5 AC & DC YOUR NOTES


AC & DC
Direct Current
A direct current (d.c.) is defined as
A current that is steady, constantly flowing in the same direction in a circuit,
from positive to negative
The potential difference across a cell in a d.c. circuit travels in one direction only
This means the current is only positive or only negative
A d.c. power supply has a fixed positive terminal and a fixed negative terminal
Electric cells, or batteries, produce direct current (d.c.)
Circuits powered by cells or batteries use a d.c. supply
Alternating Current
An alternating current (a.c.) is defined as
A current that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth
around a circuit
An a.c. power supply has two identical terminals that switches between positive
and negative
The current is therefore defined as positive or negative, depending on which
direction it is flowing at that time
The frequency of an alternating current is the number of times the current
changes direction back and forth each second
In the UK, mains electricity is an alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz and
a potential difference of around 230 V
On an oscilloscope, direct current and alternating current are represented in the
following way:
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YOUR NOTES

Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and
direct current
Comparing AC & DC
The following table summarises the differences between d.c. and a.c.
Direct Current vs. Alternating Current Table
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
If you are asked to explain the difference between alternating and direct 
current, sketching and labelling the graphs shown above can earn you full
marks.All the circuits you have studied so far are d.c. circuits. Don't be put
off by an exam question if you are asked to calculate the current, potential
difference or resistance in a d.c. series circuits, you don't have to do
anything different from what you have already learned!
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3. Waves
CONTENTS
3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3.1.1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion
3.1.3 The Wave Equation
3.1.4 The Doppler Effect
3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves
3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves
3.2 Reflection & Refraction
3.2.1 Light & Sound Waves
3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction
3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction
3.2.4 Snell's Law
3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law
3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection
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3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum YOUR NOTES


3.1.1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Waves can exist as one of two types:
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are defined as:
Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the
direction of energy transfer
For a transverse wave:

The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
Transverse waves can move in a liquid or solid, but not a gas
Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in a vacuum
The point on the wave that is:
The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
The lowest below the rest position is called the trough
Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down
Examples of transverse waves are:

Ripples on the surface of water
Vibrations in a guitar string
S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)
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Longitudinal Waves YOUR NOTES

Longitudinal waves are defined as: 
Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of
energy transfer
For a longitudinal wave:

The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
They can move in solids, liquids and gases
They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)
The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
Close together, called compressions
Spaced apart, called rarefactions
Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly

backwards and forwards
Examples of longitudinal waves are:

Sound waves
P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas
Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is
moving parallel to the direction of energy transfer
Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions
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YOUR NOTES

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and

compressions
Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal)
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YOUR NOTES

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs
The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the
table:
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Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
The diagram below shows a loudspeaker generating sound waves, which
travel to the right as indicated. Sound waves are longitudinal.A dust mote
floats in the air just next to the loudspeaker, labelled D.
Draw arrows on the diagram to indicate how the dust mote D would vibrate
as sound waves pass it.
Step 1: Recall the definition of longitudinal waves
Points along longitudinal waves vibrate parallel to the direction of energy

transfer
This means the dust mote vibrates in a line parallel to the direction of the
sound waves drawn
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Step 2: Draw arrows at the point labelled D to show it vibrating in parallel to the YOUR NOTES
direction of the sound waves

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Waves & Energy YOUR NOTES

Waves transfer energy and information 
Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth
In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter

Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy and
information and not matter
Waves transfer energy and information, but not matter. This toy duck bobs up and
down as water waves pass underneath
The type of wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave

This is because the duck is moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave
The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave
All waves transfer energy, but they do not transfer the particles of the medium
This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels
with it, the points on the wave just vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
Objects floating on water, like the toy duck, simply bob up and down when waves
pass under them, demonstrating that there is no movement of matter in the
direction of the wave, only energy
 Exam Tip
Exam questions may ask you to describe waves and this is most easily done
by drawing a diagram of the wave and then describing the parts of the wave
- a good, clearly labelled diagram can earn you full marks!You may also be
asked to give further examples of transverse or longitudinal waves - so
memorise the lists given here!
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3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion YOUR NOTES


Describing Wave Motion
When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to
know, including:
Amplitude
Wavelength
Frequency
Time Period
Wavefront
Amplitude
Amplitude is defined as:
The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave
It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)

Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed
position
Wavelength
Wavelength is defined as
The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next
wave.
In a transverse wave:
The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
In a longitudinal wave
The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the
centre of the next
The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram
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Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave YOUR NOTES

Frequency 
Frequency is defined as:
The number of waves passing a point in a second
Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Time Period
The time period (or sometimes just 'period') of a wave is defined as:
The time taken for a single wave to pass a point
The time period is given the symbol T and is measured in seconds (s)
Wavefront
Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used
to represent a single wave
The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called
a ray
The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with a short
wavelength
When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long
wavelength
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YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts
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3.1.3 The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES


The Wave Equation
All waves obey the wave equation, which is used to calculate the wave speed:
Where:
v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
λ = wavelength in metres (m)
The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this
formula triangle:
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Frequency & Time Period YOUR NOTES

The equation which relates the frequency of a wave to its time period is: 
Where:
T = time period, measured in seconds (s)
f = frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz)
 Worked Example
Visible light has a frequency of about 6 × 1014 Hz.How long does it take for
one complete cycle of visible light to enter our eyes?
Frequency, f = 6 × 1014 Hz
Step 2: State the relationship between frequency and time period
This question involves quantities of time and frequency, so the equation which
relates time period and frequency of a wave is:
Step 3: Substitute the known values in to the equation and calculate the time
period
T = 1 ÷ (6 × 1014) = 1.67 × 10-15 s

Therefore, it takes 1.67 × 10-15 s (to 2 decimal places) for one wave of visible
light to pass our eyes
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Calculations in Different Contexts YOUR NOTES

The wave equation can be applied and rearranged to calculate properties of 
waves, such as:
wave speed
frequency
time period
The wave equation applies to all types of wave, including sound waves and
electromagnetic waves
 Worked Example
A certain sound wave moves at about 330 m/s and has a time period of
0.0001 seconds.Calculate:
a) The frequency of the sound wave
b) The wavelength of the sound wave
Part (a)
Time period, T = 0.0001 s

Step 2: Write out the equation relating time period and frequency
Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer
f = 1 ÷ T = 1 ÷ 0.0001
Frequency, f = 10 000 Hz = 1 × 104 Hz
Part (b)
Wave speed, v = 330 m/s

Frequency, f = 1 × 104 Hz
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation
v=f×λ
Step 3: Rearrange the equation to calculate the wavelength
λ=v÷f
Step 4: Use the frequency you calculated in part (a) and put the values into the
equation
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λ = 330 ÷ 1 × 104 YOUR NOTES

Wavelength, λ = 0.033 m 
 Worked Example
A local radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 200 kHz.The wavelength
of these radio waves is 1500 m.Calculate the speed of these radio waves
and state an appropriate unit.
Frequency, f = 200 kHz = 200 000 Hz

Wavelength, λ = 1500 m
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation
This question requires wave speed, so state the equation linking wave speed,
wavelength and frequency:
v=f×λ
Step 3: Substitute the known values to calculate the wave speed
v = 200 000 × 1500 = 300 000 000 = 3 × 108

Step 4: State the unit with the answer
The units for speed are m/s

Therefore, the speed of these radio waves is 3 × 108 m/s
 Exam Tip
When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
For example, use λ for wavelength, not L or W
If you can’t remember the correct letters, then just state the word equations
Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in
m/s, but if the wavelength is given in cm you might have to give the speed
in cm/s
Likewise, watch out for frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz
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3.1.4 The Doppler Effect YOUR NOTES


The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is defined as:
The apparent change in wavelength and frequency of a wave emitted by a
moving source
This effect can be observed in a variety of scenarios whenever sources of waves

move:
The frequency of the sound waves emitted by ambulance or police sirens goes
from a high pitch to a low pitch as the vehicle whizzes past
Galaxies in outer space emit electromagnetic radiation - light waves - which
appear to be redder than normal because because the stars are moving away
from us
Explaining the Doppler Effect
Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out
symmetrically
This stationary police car emits sound from the siren and the waves spread out
symmetrically
If the object emitting waves begins to move, the waves can get squashed together
at one end of the object, and stretched at the other end
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YOUR NOTES

To an observer in front of the moving car, the wavelength appears to be smaller

because they squash together. To an observer behind the moving car, the waves
appear to stretch out
The waves at the front of the moving vehicle appear to be squashed together:
This means the wavelength decreases (and the frequency of the waves
increases)
The waves behind the moving vehicle appear to be stretched out:

This means the wavelength increases (and the frequency of the waves
decreases)
 Exam Tip
Remember that the Doppler Effect is an apparent change in wavelength and
frequency and that this only happens because a wave emitter is moving
away from or towards an observer.Because the speed of the waves emitted
stays constant, if the wavelength of the wave appears to decrease, this must
mean the frequency appears to increase, and vice versa.
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3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves YOUR NOTES


Properties of EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves are defined as:
Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an
absorber
All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:

They are all transverse
They can all travel through a vacuum
They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
There are 7 types of electromagnetic waves, which all together form a continuous
spectrum
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The EM Spectrum YOUR NOTES

The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the 
wavelengths or frequencies
This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest
frequency) to shortest wavelength (highest frequency)
Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic
spectrum
The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
Radiation with higher energy is:
Highly ionising
Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
Radiation with lower energy is:
Useful for communications
Less harmful to humans
Visible Light
Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans
Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
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In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are YOUR NOTES
able to perceive beyond visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths 
of light
Each colour within the visible light spectrum corresponds to a narrow band of
wavelength and frequency
The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy)
The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the
shortest
Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, this means that:

An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency (towards the red end of
the spectrum)
A decrease in wavelength is an increase in frequency (towards the violet end
of the spectrum)
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
See if you can make up a mnemonic to help you remember the EM 
spectrum!One possibility is:
Raging Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns
To remember the colours of the visible spectrum you could remember

either:
The name “Roy G. Biv”
Or the saying “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain”
You could even combine both to have a mega mnemonic:

Raging Martians Invaded Roy G. Biv Using X-ray Guns!
The electromagnetic spectrum is usually given in order of decreasing

wavelength and increasing frequency i.e. from radio waves to gamma
waves
Remember:
Radios are big (long wavelength)
Gamma rays are emitted from atoms which are very small (short
wavelength)
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3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves YOUR NOTES


Applications of EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves have a variety of uses and applications
The main ones are summarised in the table below:
Applications of EM Waves Table
A summary of the uses and dangers of different EM waves are summarised in the
diagram below:
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YOUR NOTES

Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum
Radio Waves & Microwaves

These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses
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Their main uses concern wireless communication – in fact many things that YOUR NOTES
people often assume use radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, 
radar, mobile phones, satellite communications…)
At very high intensities microwaves can also be used to heat things
This is what happens in a microwave oven
Infrared
Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras
(thermal imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in
medicine
Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the
spectrum and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are
used to illuminate an area without being seen, which is then detected using the
camera
Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an
infrared receiver on a device such as a TV
Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so
most fibre optic communication systems use infrared
Visible
Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye
can see
The human eye can detect wavelengths from 750 nanometres (red light) up to 380
nanometres (violet light)
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of
protecting itself against the ultraviolet
When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it
as visible light (making them glow)
This process is known as fluorescence. Fluorescence can be used to secretly
mark things using special ink – in fact most bank notes have invisible
fluorescent markings on them
Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light
X-rays
The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine
X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues, but are absorbed by the denser
parts of the body, such as bones
When exposed to x-rays the bones can a shadow which can be seen using a
special x-ray detector or using photographic film
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
If these gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very
effective at killing it
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Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria YOUR NOTES

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3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves YOUR NOTES


Dangers of EM Waves
As the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, so does the energy
Beyond the visible part of the spectrum, the energy becomes large enough to
ionise atoms
As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the
frequency
The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation
Although the intensity of a wave also plays a very important role
Ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays can all ionise atoms
In general, electromagnetic waves become more dangerous the shorter their

wavelength
For example, radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays
can cause cancer and are regarded as extremely dangerous
Because of ionisation, ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have
hazardous effects on human body tissue
The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose
They can damage cells and cause mutations, making them cancerous
The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised in the table
below:
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Dangers of EM Waves Table YOUR NOTES


Microwaves
Certain frequencies of microwaves are absorbed by water molecules
Since humans contain a lot of water, there is a risk of internal heating from
microwaves
This might worry some people, but microwaves used in everyday circumstances
are proven to be safe
Microwaves used for communications (including mobile phones) emit very
small amounts of energy which are not known to cause any harm
Microwave ovens, on the other hand, emit very large amounts of energy,
however, that energy is prevented from escaping the oven by the metal walls
and metal grid in the glass door
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is similar to visible light, except it is invisible to the human eye and
carries a much higher energy
If eyes are exposed to high levels of UV it can cause severe eye damage
Good quality sunglasses will absorb ultraviolet, preventing it from entering the
eyes
Ultraviolet is ionising meaning it can kill cells or cause them to malfunction,
resulting in premature ageing, and diseases such as skin cancer
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Sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light, preventing it from damaging the skin YOUR NOTES
X-rays & Gamma Rays 
X-rays and gamma rays are the most ionising types of EM waves
They are able to penetrate the body and cause internal damage
They can cause the mutation of genes and cause cancer
Fortunately, the level of X-rays used in medicine is kept to minimum levels at
which the risk is very low
Doctors, however, will leave the room when taking X-rays in order to avoid
unnecessary exposure to them
People working with gamma rays have to take several precautions to minimise
their exposure and are routinely tested to check their radiation dose levels
For example, radiation badges are worn by medical professionals such as
radiographers to measure the amount of radiation exposure in their body
Radiation badges are used by people working closely with radiation to monitor
exposure
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3.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES


3.2.1 Light & Sound Waves
Light
Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum which means it is a
transverse wave
This means the direction the light particles vibrate is perpendicular to the
direction of the energy transfer
Light waves are transverse: the particles vibrate in a perpendicular direction to the
energy transfer
Light can undergo:

Reflection
Refraction
All waves in the electromagnetic spectrum can be reflected and refracted
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Sound YOUR NOTES

Sound waves are vibrations of air molecules 
When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid those vibrations can be
transferred to the solid
For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate
If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
This means the direction the light particles vibrate is parallel to the direction
of the energy transfer
Hence, it consists of:
Compressions - regions of higher density
Rarefactions - regions of lower density
Sound waves are longitudinal: the particles vibrate in the same direction as the
energy transfer
Sound can also undergo:

Reflection
Refraction
The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo
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3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES


Reflection & Refraction
All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected and refracted
Reflection occurs when:
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead stays in the original medium
An identical image of the tree is seen in the water due to reflection
Refraction occurs when:

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and
undergoes a change in direction
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YOUR NOTES

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities
The Law of Reflection

Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to
the boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of
incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The angles are the same, so the law of reflection can be written:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
Angle of incidence and angle of reflection
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Ray Diagrams YOUR NOTES

Reflection Ray Diagrams 
Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to
the boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of
incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The law of reflection states that these angles are the same
Ray diagram of reflection of a wave at a mirror
When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is
travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively and
measured from the normal
Refraction Ray Diagrams
Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent
media
At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction
The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal
This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually
represented by a straight dashed or dotted line
The change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two
media:
From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the
normal
From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the
normal
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When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all YOUR NOTES

How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a
rectangular block
The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in
different substances
When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence
they bend towards the normal
The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the
frequency of waves does not change
Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low
frequency, whilst blue has a high frequency)
When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of
water), therefore, the frequency does not change
 Worked Example
Two parallel rays of light entering and passing through prism A and prism
C.
Draw a third parallel ray entering and passing through prism B.
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Step 1: Draw a parallel ray on the left YOUR NOTES


Step 2: Draw the refracted ray at the first surface
As the ray enters the block it bends towards the normal since it is going into
a denser material
In this case, the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence
Step 3: Draw the refracted ray at the second surface
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YOUR NOTES

As the ray leaves the block it bends away from the normal
In this case, the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence
 Exam Tip
When drawing ray diagrams for reflection:
1. A simple straight line with an arrow is enough to represent the wave
You do not need to draw the wavefronts unless asked to do so!
2. Take care to draw the angle correctly
If it is slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious
difference between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection then you will probably lose a mark!
Practice drawing refraction diagrams as much as you can! It's very important
to remember which way the light bends when it crosses a boundary:
As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
Remember: Enters Towards
When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line
Remember: Leaves Away
Don't forget to draw the arrows for the direction of the light rays and make
sure they are drawn with a ruler and a sharp pointed pencil
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3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 4: Investigating Refraction
To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks
and triangular prisms
Variables
Independent variable = shape of the block
Dependent variable = direction of refraction
Control variables:
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Method
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YOUR NOTES

Apparatus to investigate refraction
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the
rectangular perspex block using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the
block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the
points are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking
the block at a different angle
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular)
Analysis of Results
Compare the different refraction patterns for each block
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YOUR NOTES

Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks
i and r are always measured from the normal

For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central
line:
i>r
For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the
central line:
i<r
When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not
refract, it passes straight through the block:
i=r
If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern,
as shown below:
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YOUR NOTES

How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
Random Errors:
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
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3.2.4 Snell's Law YOUR NOTES


Snell's Law
When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends
towards the normal
How much the light bends depends on the density of the material
Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block
If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i
(bends towards the normal)
If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i
(bends away from the normal)
The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's
Law:
Where:
n = the refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator
This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:
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YOUR NOTES

Snell's law formula triangle
The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the
material (which is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):
The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for
different materials
Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is
about 2.4 for diamond
Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is
about 1.5 for glass
Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units
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 A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle

of 15° with the normal before entering the block.Calculate the angle it
makes with the normal after it enters the glass block.
Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53

Angle of incidence, i = 15°
Step 2: Write the equation for Snell's Law
Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)
Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function
r = sin–1 (0.1692) = 9.7 = 10°
 Exam Tip
Important: (sin i / sin r) is not the same as (i / r). Incorrectly cancelling the
sin terms is a very common mistake!When calculating the value of i or r start
by calculating the value of sin i or sin r.You can then use the inverse sin
function (sin–1 on most calculators by pressing 'shift' then 'sine') to find the
angle.One way to remember which way around i and r are in the fraction is
remembering that 'i' comes before 'r' in the alphabet, and therefore is on the
top of the fraction (whilst r is on the bottom).
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3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 5: Investigating Snell's Law
To investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block
Variables
Independent variable = angle of incidence, i
Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r
Control variables:
Use of the same perspex block
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Method
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YOUR NOTES

Apparatus set-up to investigate Snell's Law
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block
using a pencil
2. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block
3. Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence to be studied and mark these
lines on the paper
4. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block at the
first angle to be investigated
5. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the
block
6. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
7. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a rays
striking the block at the next angle
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YOUR NOTES

Analysis of Results
If the angles have been measured correctly, the paper should end up looking like
this:
The angles of incidence and refraction are related by Snell's Law:
Where:
n = refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
Plot a graph of sin i on the y-axis against sin r on the x-axis
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The refractive index is equal to the gradient of the graph YOUR NOTES
An example graph might look like this: 

Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
[popover id="QzmzrDGuwfpwthVl" label="Random Errors:]
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
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3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection YOUR NOTES


Total Internal Reflection
Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one,
instead of being refracted, all of the light is reflected
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection
Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:
The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident
material is denser than the second material
Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

The angle of incidence > the critical angle
The incident material is denser than the second material
Critical angle and total internal reflection
Total internal reflection is utilised in:

Optical fibres eg. endoscopes
Prisms eg. periscopes
Optical Fibres
Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they
can be used for
Communications
Endoscopes
Decorative lamps
Safety reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads
Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits
the edge of the fibre
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YOUR NOTES

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications
Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body
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YOUR NOTES

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Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body YOUR NOTES
Prisms 
Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:
Periscopes
Binoculars
Telescopes
Cameras
A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects
It consists of two right-angled prisms
Reflection of light through a periscope
The light totally internally reflects in both prisms
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Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total
internal reflectionRemember: total internal reflection occurs when going
from a denser material to less dense material and ALL of the light is
reflectedIf asked to give an example of a use of total internal reflection, first
state the name of the object that causes the reflection (e.g. a right-angled
prism) and then name the device in which it is used (e.g. a periscope)
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Critical Angle YOUR NOTES

As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until 
it gets closer to 90°
When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the
boundary
At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c
As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and
lead to total internal reflection of the light
When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is
now reflected
This is total internal reflection
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 A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at a

vertical face of the cube.The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39°
and the angle of refraction is 25° as shown in the diagram.The light ray is
totally internally reflected for the first time at X.
Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and
calculate the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.
Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary
When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary
At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle
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The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time” YOUR NOTES
meaning that this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs 
Therefore, 65° is the critical angle
 Exam Tip
If you are asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle in an exam,
you can be sure to gain full marks by drawing and labelling the same
diagram above (showing the three semi-circular blocks)
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Calculating Critical Angle YOUR NOTES

The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n 
The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:
This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:
This equation shows that:

The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be
totally internally reflected
 Worked Example
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers
shape the stones so that light is reflected inside.Compare the critical angles
of opal and diamond and explain which stone would appear to sparkle
more.
The refractive index of opal is about 1.5
The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4
Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5

Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4
Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co)
sin(co) = 1 ÷ 1.5 = 0.6667

co = sin–1 (0.6667) = 41.8 = 42°
Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd)
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sin(cd) = 1 ÷ 2.4 = 0.4167 YOUR NOTES

cd = sin–1 (0.4167) = 24.6 = 25° 
Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light is larger
than the critical angle (i>c)
In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between 42°
and 90°
The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co>cd)
This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over a
larger range of angles (25° to 90°)
Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will
appear to sparkle more than the opal
 Exam Tip
When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:
First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c)
Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c
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YOUR NOTES
4. Energy Resources & Energy Transfers
CONTENTS
4.1 Energy Stores & Transfers
4.1.1 Energy Stores & Transfers
4.1.2 Conservation of Energy
4.1.3 Efficiency
4.1.4 Conduction, Convection & Radiation
4.1.5 Core Practical: Investigating Thermal Energy
4.1.6 Reducing Energy Loss
4.2 Work, Power & Energy Resources
4.2.1 Work Done
4.2.2 Gravitational Potential Energy
4.2.3 Kinetic Energy
4.2.4 Work, GPE & KE
4.2.5 Power
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4.1 Energy Stores & Transfers YOUR NOTES


4.1.1 Energy Stores & Transfers
Energy Stores & Transfers
Energy can be stored in different ways, and there are changes in the way it is
stored when a system changes
There are many different ways that energy can be stored, these are shown in the
table below:
Types of Energy Stores Table
A system can change between stores through different energy transfer

mechanisms
Examples of these are:
Mechanical
Electrical
Heating
Radiation
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These are described in the table below: YOUR NOTES

Types of Energy Transfers Table 
An example of a thermal energy transfer is a hot coffee heating up cold hands
Thermal energy is transferred from the hot coffee to the mug and to the cold hands
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 Describe the energy transfers in the following scenarios:

a) A falling object
b) A battery powering a torch
c) A mass on a spring
Part (a)
For a falling object:
Energy is transferred from the gravitational store to the kinetic store of the object via
a mechanical transfer pathway
Part (b)
For a battery powering a torch:
Energy is transferred from the chemical store of the battery to the thermal store of the
surroundings via a radiation transfer pathway
Part (c)
For a mass on a spring:
Energy is transferred from the elastic store to the kinetic store of the system via a
mechanical transfer pathway
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4.1.2 Conservation of Energy YOUR NOTES


Conservation of Energy
The principle of conservation of energy states that:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transferred from one
store to another
This means the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant but
can change where, and how, it is stored
Energy can therefore not necessarily be 'lost', but just transferred into wasted
energy (often heat)
Conservation of energy applies to all energy systems
Example 1: A Television
The energy changes in televisions are:
electrical energy ➝ light energy + sound energy + thermal energy
Light and sound energy are useful energy transfers whereas thermal energy (from
the heating up of wires) is wasted
Useful and wasted energy conversions for a television
Example 2: Heaters
The energy changes in an electrical heater:
electrical energy ➝ thermal energy + sound energy + light energy
In a gas cooker, the energy transfers are similar but the initial source of energy is
different:
chemical energy ➝ thermal energy + sound energy + light energy
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In both these cases, thermal energy is useful, whereas sound and light are not YOUR NOTES

Useful and wasted energy conversions in an electric heater and gas cooker
Example 3: Rollercoasters
A rollercoaster increases its speed as it travels down a steep section of track and
gains kinetic energy (KE)
When the rollercoaster travels up a steep section of track, this kinetic energy is
transferred into gravitational potential energy (GPE)
These energy changes happen several times during a rollercoaster ride as the track
goes up and down and around
As the rollercoaster in the diagram travels from A to D, the energy changes that
take place are:
GPE ➝ KE ➝ GPE ➝ KE
Some energy is transferred to the surroundings as heat and sound energy too
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At point A: YOUR NOTES

The rollercoaster is raised above the ground, therefore it has GPE 
As it travels down the track, GPE is converted to KE and the roller coaster
speeds up
At point B:
KE is converted to GPE as the rollercoaster rises up the loop
At point C:
This GPE is converted back into KE as the rollercoaster travels back down the
loop
At point D:
The flat track means the rollercoaster only has KE
Example 4: Trampoline
When jumping on a trampoline the energy changes are:
elastic potential energy ➝ kinetic energy ➝ gravitational potential energy
Some energy is transferred to the surroundings as heat and sound energy too
Energy conversions for someone jumping on a trampoline
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4.1.3 Efficiency YOUR NOTES


Efficiency
The efficiency of a system is a measure of how well energy is transferred in a
system
Efficiency is defined as:
The ratio of the useful energy transferred by the device to the total energy
supplied to the device
If a system has high efficiency, this means most of the energy transferred is useful
If a system has low efficiency, this means most of the energy transferred is wasted
Determining which type of energy is useful or wasted depends on the system
When electrical energy is converted to light in a lightbulb, the light energy
is useful and the heat energy produced is wasted
When electrical energy is converted to heat for a heater, the heat energy
is useful and the sound energy produced is wasted
Remember that conversation of energy still applies, so the total energy supplied
goes to both the useful and wasted energy transferred
Efficiency is represented as a percentage, and can be calculated using the
equation:
The energy can be of any form e.g. gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy
 Worked Example
The blades of a fan are turned by an electric motor. In one second, the
motor gets 300 J of electrical energy from the mains supply. 85 J of the
energy is wasted as heat and sound.Calculate the efficiency of the motor.
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Efficiency can be in a ratio (between 0 and 1) or percentage format (between
0 and 100%)If the question asks for efficiency as a ratio, give your answer as
a fraction or decimal.If the answer is required as a percentage, remember to
multiply the ratio by 100 to convert it: if the ratio = 0.25, percentage = 0.25
× 100 = 25 %Remember that efficiency has no units (only %)
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Sankey Diagrams YOUR NOTES

Diagrams are used to represent energy transfers 
These are sometimes called Sankey diagrams
The arrow in a Sankey diagram represents the transfer of energy:
The end of the arrow pointing to the right represents the energy that ends up
in the desired store (the useful energy output)
The end that points down represents the wasted energy
The width of each arrow is proportional to the amount of energy going to each
store
As a result of the conversation of energy:
Total energy in = Useful energy out + Wasted energy
Total energy in, wasted energy and useful energy out shown on a Sankey diagram
A Sankey diagram for a modern efficient light bulb will look very different from that
for an old filament light bulb
A more efficient light bulb has less wasted energy
This is shown by the smaller arrow downwards representing the heat energy
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YOUR NOTES

Sankey diagram for modern vs. old filament light bulb
 Worked Example
An electric motor is used to lift a weight. The diagram represents the
energy transfers in the motor.
How much energy is wasted?
Step 1: State the conservation of energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be moved from one store to
another
This means that:
Total energy in = Useful energy out + Wasted energy
Step 2: Rearrange the equation for the wasted energy
Wasted energy = Total energy in – Useful energy out

Step 3: Substitute the values from the diagram
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500 – 120 = 380 J YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Drawing good Sankey diagrams takes practice.
Start by planning your diagram:
How wide are you going to make the input arrow?
How wide will the useful energy out arrow need to be?
How wide must the wasted arrow be?
Next, start drawing the diagram one step at a time:
Draw the left hand side of the arrow, along with the line going
across the top
Next add the useful energy out arrow, making sure it is the correct
width
Now carefully mark the start and end of the wasted arrow – make
sure your marks are the correct distance apart
Finally join the markings together, finishing the wasted energy
arrow
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4.1.4 Conduction, Convection & Radiation YOUR NOTES


Conduction
Thermal energy transfers from hotter areas to cooler areas by the processes of:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Objects will always lose heat until they are in thermal equilibrium (same
temperature) with their surroundings
For example, a mug of hot tea will cool down until it reaches room
temperature
Conduction is the main method of thermal energy transfer in solids
Metals are extremely good at conducting heat
Non-metals are poor at conducting heat whilst liquids and gases are extremely
poor
Poor conductors are called insulators
Materials containing small pockets of trapped air are especially good at
insulating, as air is a gas and hence a poor conductor
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YOUR NOTES

Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other
When a substance is heated, the atoms start to move around (vibrate) more
As they do so they bump into each other, transferring energy from atom to
atom
Metals are especially good at conducting heat as the delocalised electrons can
collide with the atoms, helping to transfer the vibrations through the material and
hence transfer heat better
 Exam Tip
If a question mentions thermal energy transfers and metals, the answer will
probably have something to do with conduction!
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Convection YOUR NOTES

Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases 
Convection cannot occur in solids
When a fluid (a liquid or a gas) is heated:
The molecules push each other apart, making the fluid expand
This makes the hot fluid less dense than the surroundings
The hot fluid rises, and the cooler (surrounding) fluid moves in to take its
place
Eventually, the hot fluid cools, contracts and sinks back down again
The resulting motion is called a convection current
A convection current caused by the heat transfer from the fire
 Exam Tip
If a question refers to thermal energy transfers and a liquid or gas (that isn’t
trapped) then make sure your answer mentions that convection currents will
probably form!
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Thermal Radiation YOUR NOTES

All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit a spectrum of thermal 
radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves
Thermal radiation is heat transfer by infrared (part of the electromagnetic
spectrum)
The hotter object, the more infrared radiation it radiates in a given time
The infrared emitted from a hot object can be detected using a special camera
The colour of an object affects how well it emits and absorbs thermal radiation
Black objects are the best at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation
Shiny objects are the worst at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation
The table below summarises the absorbing and emitting abilities of different
colours:
Absorbing and Emitting of Difference Colours Table
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
If a question refers to the colour of something (black, white or shiny) then 
the answer will probably have something to do with thermal radiation!If the
question involves a vacuum (empty space) then mention radiation as it is
the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum as conduction and
convection require particles to transfer heat!
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4.1.5 Core Practical: Investigating Thermal Energy YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 8: Investigating Thermal Energy
Equipment List
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YOUR NOTES


Thermometer = 1°C
Stopwatch = 0.01 s
Experiment 1: Investigating Conduction
The aim of the experiment is to investigate the rate of conduction in four different
metals
Variables:
Independent variable = Type of metal

Dependent variable = Rate of conduction
Control variables:
Size and thickness of metal strips
Amount of wax used
Identical ball bearings
Method
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YOUR NOTES

The above apparatus consists of 4 different metal strips of equal width and length
arrange around an insulated circle
1. Attach ball bearings to the ends of each metal strip at an equal distance from the
centre, using a small amount of wax
2. The strips should then be turned upside down and the centre heated gently using a
bunsen burner so that each of the strips is heated at the central point where they
meet
3. When the heat is conducted along to the ball bearing, the wax will melt and the
ball bearing will drop
4. Time how long this takes for each of the strips and record in a table
5. Repeat the experiment and calculate an average of each time
Analysis of Results
Order the metals according to their conductivity
The first ball bearing to fall will be from the rod that is the best conductor
This is because materials with high thermal conductivity heat up faster than
materials with low thermal conductivity
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YOUR NOTES

Examples of materials with high and low thermal conductivity
The results should show the conductivity ranked from highest to lowest is:
Copper (fastest time for ball bearing to fall)
Aluminium
Brass
Iron (slowest time for ball bearing to fall)
Experiment 2: Investigating Convection
Aims of the Experiment
The aim of the experiment is to investigate the rate of convection of potassium
permanganate crystals in two different temperatures of water
Variables:
Independent variable = Temperature of water

Dependent variable = Rate of convection
Control variables:
Amount of water in beaker
Size of bunsen burner flame
Size of potassium permanganate crystal
Method
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YOUR NOTES

Apparatus used to investigate potassium permanganate crystals undergoing

convection in water
1. Fill the beaker with cold water (not too full) and place it on top of a tripod and
heatproof mat
2. Pick up the crystal using forceps and drop it into the centre of the beaker – do this
carefully to ensure the crystal does not dissolve prematurely
3. Heat the beaker using the Bunsen burner and record observations
4. Repeat experiment with hot water and record observations
Analysis of Results
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Heat is initially transferred through the glass wall of the beaker by conduction YOUR NOTES
The water in the region of the Bunsen flame is heated and expands, becomes less 
dense and rises
This causes the dissolved purple crystal to flow up with the water
Meanwhile, when the water at the top of the beaker cools, it becomes denser again
and falls
The process continues which leads to a convection current where heat is
transferred through the liquid
The dissolved purple crystal follows this current which is what is observed
during this experiment
It should be observed that the convection current is faster in hot water
This is because the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of
the water molecules
Therefore, in hot water, the molecules of potassium permanganate move around
the beaker faster
Experiment 3: Investigating Radiation
Aims of the Experiment
The aim of the experiment is to investigate how the amount of infrared radiation
absorbed or radiated by a surface depends on the nature of that surfaceVariables:
Independent variable = Colour
Dependent variable = Temperature
Control variables:
Identical flasks (except for their colour)
Same amounts of hot water
Same starting temperature of the water
Same time interval
Method
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YOUR NOTES

Different coloured beakers for investigating infrared radiation apparatus
1. Set up the four identical flasks painted black, grey, white and silver
2. Fill the flasks with hot water, ensuring the measurements start from the same
initial temperature
3. Note the starting temperature, then measure the temperatures at regular intervals
e.g. every 30 seconds for 10 minutes
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YOUR NOTES

Analysis of Results
All warm objects emit thermal radiation in the form of infrared waves
The intensity (and wavelength) of the emitted radiation depends on:
The temperature of the body (hotter objects emit more thermal radiation)
The surface area of the body (a larger surface area allows more radiation to be
emitted)
The colour of the surface
Most of the heat lost from the beakers will be due to conduction and convection
This will be the same for each beaker, as colour does not affect heat loss in
this way
Any difference in heat loss between the beakers must, therefore, be due to infrared
(thermal) radiation
To compare the rate of heat loss of each flask, plot a graph of temperature on the
y-axis against time on the x-axis and draw curves of best fit
The expected results are shown on the graph below:
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YOUR NOTES

Example graph and table of the expected results for the different coloured beakers
Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:
For experiment 1:
Allow the rods to cool to room temperature before heating so that they all
begin at the same temperature
For experiment 3:
Make sure the starting temperature of the water is the same for each material
since this will cool very quickly
It is best to do this experiment in pairs to coordinate starting the stopwatch
and immersing the thermometer
Use a data logger connected to a digital thermometer to get more accurate
readings
Random Errors:
For experiment 1:
Avoid handling the rods and the wax too much before heating
For experiment 3:
Make sure the hole for the thermometer isn’t too big, otherwise the heat will
escape through the hole
Take repeated readings for each coloured flask
Read the values on the thermometer at eye level, to avoid parallax error
Safety goggles should be worn when using a Bunsen burner
Ensure the safety (orange) flame is on when the Bunsen burner is not heating
anything
Potassium permanganate in its solid form is an oxidiser, harmful if swallowed and
harmful to aquatic life
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Keep water away from all electrical equipment YOUR NOTES

Make sure not to touch the hot water directly 
Run any burns immediately under cold running water for at least 5 minutes
Do not overfill the kettle
Make sure all the equipment is in the middle of the desk, and not at the end to
avoid knocking over the beakers
Carry out the experiments only whilst standing, in order to react quickly to any
spills or burns
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4.1.6 Reducing Energy Loss YOUR NOTES


Reducing Energy Loss
Energy loss can be reduced by doing one of two things:
By reducing the amount of unwanted (wasted) energy that is produced
By preventing the energy from dissipating (if, for example, it has been
produced deliberately)
Insulation
In many situations, the heat that is produced is wanted. For example:
When heating a home
When boiling a kettle
If this heat can be prevented from dissipating, then less thermal energy will be
needed to replace the heat that has been lost
This can be achieved by surrounding the appliance with insulation
The effectiveness of insulation depends upon:
How well the insulation conducts heat
How thick the insulation is
Insulating the loft of a house lowers its rate of cooling, meaning less heat is lost to
the outside
The insulation is often made from fibreglass (or glass fibre)
This is a reinforced plastic material composed of woven material with glass
fibres laid across and held together
The air trapped between the fibres makes it a good insulator
It has a much lower thermal conductivity than the roof material
Several layers of insulation make it very thick and therefore decrease the rate of
cooling
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YOUR NOTES

Less heat is lost from a building with the help of insulation (filled cavity in walls)
Another aspect that affects the rate of energy lost as heat is through the walls
Houses in cold countries are fitted with cavity wall insulation which is made from
blown mineral fibre filled with gas
This lowers the conduction of heat through the walls from the inside to the
outside
 Exam Tip
A common mistake when explaining how an insulator keeps something
warm is to state something along the lines of “The object warms up the
insulator which then warms the object up”.
Avoid giving this kind of answer!
The real explanation is:

The insulator contains trapped air, which is a poor conductor of heat
Trapping the air also prevents it from transferring heat by convection
This reduces the rate of heat loss from the object, meaning that it will
stay warmer for longer
Other things to watch out for:
Heat does not rise (only hot gases or liquids rise)
Shiny things do not reflect heat (they reflect thermal radiation)
Black things do not absorb heat (they absorb thermal radiation)
And remember, a good answer will often include references to more than
one method of thermal energy transfer.
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4.2 Work, Power & Energy Resources YOUR NOTES


4.2.1 Work Done
Work Done
Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one store
to another
The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in
joules)
Energy transferred (J) = Work done (J)
If a force acts in the direction that an object is moving, then the object will gain
energy (usually in the form of kinetic energy)
If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object
will lose energy (usually as heat)
One example of work done is when an object is moved over a distance by a force
applied in the direction of its displacement
It is said that the force does work on the object
If a force is applied to an object but doesn’t result in any movement, no work
is done
Work is done when a force is used to move an object
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Examples of Work YOUR NOTES

Work is done on a ball when it is lifted to a height above the ground 
The energy transfer is from kinetic energy to lift the ball from the ground to
gravitational potential energy
The weight on the ball produced by the gravitational field does work on the ball over
a distance equal to the height of the ball
Work is done when a bird flies through the air

The bird must travel against air resistance and therefore some energy is
wasted through this resistance
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Air resistance (drag) does work against the bird as it flies through the air YOUR NOTES

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Calculating Work Done YOUR NOTES

The amount of work that is done is related to the size of the force and the distance 
moved by the object in the direction of the force
To calculate the amount of work done on an object by a force the following
formula is used
W=f×d
Where:
W = work done in Joules (J) or newton-metres (N m)
F = force in Newtons (N)
d = distance in metres (m)
Work, force, distance formula triangle
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 A car moving at speed begins to apply the brakes. The brakes of the car

apply a force of 500 N which brings it to a stop after 23 m.
Calculate the work done by the brakes in stopping the car.
Distance, d = 23 m
Force, F = 500 N
Step 2: Write out the equation relating work, force and distance
W=F×d
Step 3: Calculate the work done on the car by the brakes
W = 500 × 23 = 11 500 J
 Exam Tip
Remember to always convert the distance into metres and force into
Newtons for the work to be in Joules in calculations.
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4.2.2 Gravitational Potential Energy YOUR NOTES


Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object (also known as its
gravitational store) is defined as:
The energy an object has due to its height in a gravitational field
This means:
If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE
If it falls, it will lose GPE
The GPE of an object can be calculated using the equation:
GPE = mgh
Where:
GPE = gravitational potential energy, in Joules (J)
m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength in Newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
h = height in metres (m)
The mass now has GPE as it is lifted above the ground
Gravitational Field Strength

The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the
Earth
This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the Moon than on the Earth
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The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and YOUR NOTES
Saturn) is more than on the Earth 
This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the
Earth
Some values for g on the different objects in the Solar System
The two graphs below show how GPE changes with height for a ball being thrown
up in the air and when falling down
Graphs showing the linear relationship between GPE and height
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 A man of mass 70 kg climbs a flight of stairs that is 3 m higher than the

floor. Gravitational field strength is approximately 10 N/kg.Calculate the
increase in his gravitational potential energy store.
Mass of the man, m = 70 kg

Gravitational field strength, g = 10 N/kg
Height, h = 3 m
Step 2: Write down the equation for gravitational potential energy
GPE = mgh
Step 3: Calculate the gravitational potential energy
GPE = 70 × 10 × 3 = 2100 J
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When doing calculations involving gravitational field strength, g, don't panic, 
you will always be told the value of g in your examination paper!
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4.2.3 Kinetic Energy YOUR NOTES


Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy (KE) of an object (also known as its kinetic store) is defined as:
The energy an object has as a result of its mass and speed
This means that any object in motion has kinetic energy
Kinetic energy can be calculated using the equation:

KE = ½ × m × v2
Where:
KE = kinetic energy in Joules (J)
m = mass of the object in kilograms (kg)
v = speed of the object in metres per second (m/s)
 Worked Example
Calculate the kinetic energy stored in a vehicle of mass 1200 kg moving at
a speed of 27 m/s.
Mass of the vehicle, m = 1200 kg

Speed of the vehicle, v = 27 m/s
Step 2: Write down the equation for kinetic energy
KE = ½ mv2
Step 3: Calculate the kinetic energy
KE = ½ × 1200 × (27)2 = 437 400 J

Step 4: Round the final answer to 2 significant figures
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KE = 440 000 J YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
When calculating kinetic energy, make sure you know that only the speed is
squared – not the mass or the ½
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4.2.4 Work, GPE & KE YOUR NOTES


Work, GPE & KE
Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one store
to another
This is a consequence of conservation of energy
The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in
joules)
Energy transferred (J) = Work done (J)
If a force acts in the direction that an object is moving, then the object will gain
energy (usually in the form of kinetic energy)
If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will
lose energy (usually as heat)
Common forms of energy that work can be transferred to:

Kinetic Energy, when speeding an object up
Gravitational Potential Energy, when raising an object higher
Thermal Energy, in heating the object up
Sound Energy, in producing noise
Take the example of an object which is pushed horizontally with a 100 N force a
distance of 10 m
The work done on the object is equal to:
W = Fd
W = 100 N × 10 m = 1000 N m
This work transferred energy to the object in the form of kinetic energy
The object started with no kinetic energy and now has 1000 J of kinetic energy
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 A woman draws a bucket up out of a well. The bucket has a mass of 10 kg

when filled with water and the well is 15 m deep. Take the gravitational
field strength to be 9.8 N/kg.
a) Describe the energy transfer involved in raising the bucket out of the
well
b) Calculate the energy transferred to the bucket
Part (a)
Work is done by the woman as she exerts a force on the rope to pull the
bucket up
The work done on the bucket is due to overcoming the weight of the bucket
for a distance of 15 m
As the bucket rises, the work done is stored as gravitational potential energy
Part (b)
Step 1: List all of the known values
Mass, m = 10 kg
Gravitational field strength, g = 9.8 N/kg
Height, h = 15 m
Step 2: Write the equation relating work, force and distance
Work = Force × Distance

Step 3: Write out the equation for weight and substitute it into the work
equation
Weight = m × g
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Work = m × g × h YOUR NOTES

Note: This is the equation for gravitational potential energy 
Step 4: Calculate the work done on the bucket
Work = 10 × 9.8 × 15 = 1470 N m

Step 5: Convert the work done into energy transferred
Energy transferred in Joules = Work done in newton-metres

Energy transferred = 1470 J
The bucket gained 1470 J of gravitational potential energy
 Exam Tip
Remember:
Changes in speed are related to kinetic energy
Changes in height are related to gravitational potential energy
Changes in the shape of materials are related to elastic potential
energy
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4.2.5 Power YOUR NOTES


Power
Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one type to another every
second
The rate of this energy transfer, or the rate of work done, is called power
Two identical cars accelerating to the same final speed will both gain the same
amount of energy. But if one of them reaches that speed sooner, it will have a greater
power
Common power ratings are shown in the table below:
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Power Ratings Table YOUR NOTES


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Calculating Power YOUR NOTES

Power is defined as the energy transferred per unit time: 
Power can also be defined as the work done per unit time:
Where:
E or W = The energy transferred, or work done, measured in joules (J)
t = time measured in seconds (s)
P = power measured in watts (W)
Work, power, time formula triangle
An example that illustrates the definition of power is by comparing two electric

motors if:
They lift the same weight
They are lifted by the same height
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One lifts it faster than the other YOUR NOTES

The motor that lifts the weight faster is said to have more power 
This is because the work done does not depend on time, only the force (weight)
and the distance lifted
Two motors with different powers
 Worked Example
Calculate the energy transferred if an iron of power 2000 W is used for 5
minutes.
Power, P = 2000 W
Time, t = 5 minutes = 5 × 60 = 300 s
Step 3: Rearrange for energy transferred, E
Energy transferred = power × time

E = Pt
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E = 2000 × 300 = 600 000 J YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Think of power as “energy per second”. Thinking of it this way will help you
to remember the relationship between power and energy.
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YOUR NOTES
5. Solids, Liquids & Gases
CONTENTS
5.1 Density & Pressure
5.1.1 Density
5.1.2 Core Practical: Determining Density
5.1.3 Pressure
5.1.4 Pressure in Liquids
5.2 Ideal Gases
5.2.1 Kinetic Theory
5.2.2 Absolute Zero
5.2.3 Temperature
5.2.4 The Gas Laws
5.2.5 The Pressure Law
5.2.6 Boyle's Law
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5.1 Density & Pressure YOUR NOTES


5.1.1 Density
Density
Density is defined as:
The mass per unit volume of a material
Objects made from low density materials typically have a low mass
Similarly sized objects made from high density materials have a high mass
For example, a bag full of feathers is far lighter compared to a similar bag full
of metal
Or another example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite
occupying a larger volume
Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:
Gases, for examples, are less dense than solids because the molecules are more
spread out (same mass, over a larger volume)
Gases are less dense than solids
This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:
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YOUR NOTES

Density, mass, volume formula triangle
The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume:
If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in
g/cm3
If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in
kg/m3
This table gives some examples of densities on common materials
If a material is more dense than water (1000 kg/m3), then it will sink
Approximate Densities of Materials Table
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YOUR NOTES

The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated
with the appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape
Volumes of common 3D shapes
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 A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85

m.
Calculate the density, in kg/m3, of the material from which the paving slab
is made.
Mass of slab, m = 73 kg
Volume of slab, V = 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m = 0.017 m3
Step 2: Write out the equation for density
Step 3: Substitute in values
ρ = 73 ÷ 0.017 = 4294 kg/m3

Step 4: Round the answer to two significant figures
ρ = 4300 kg/m3
 Exam Tip
Make sure you are comfortable converting between units such as metres (m)
and centimetres (cm) or grams (g) and kilograms (kg).
When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)
E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)
E.g. 5 g = 5 ÷ 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg
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5.1.2 Core Practical: Determining Density YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 9: Determining Density
Equipment List

30 cm ruler = 1 mm
Vernier calipers = 0.01 mm
Micrometer = 0.001 mm
Digital balance = 0.01 g
Experiment 1: Measuring the Density of Regularly Shaped Objects
The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of regular objects by
using measurements of their dimensions
Variables:
Independent variable = Type of shape / volume
Dependent variable = Mass of the object
Method
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YOUR NOTES

1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Use either the ruler, Vernier calipers or micrometer to measure the object’s
dimensions (width, height, length, radius) – the apparatus will depend on the size
of the object
3. Repeat these measurements and take an average of these readings before
calculating the density
An example of a results table might look like this:
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Analysis of Results YOUR NOTES

Calculate the volume of the object depending on whether it is a cube, sphere, 
cylinder (or other regular shape)
Calculating the volume of an object depends on its shape
Remember to convert from centimetres (cm) to metres (m) by dividing by 100

1 cm = 0.01 m
50 cm = 0.5 m
Using the mass and volume, the density of each can be calculated using the
equation:
Where:
ρ = density in kilogram per metres cubed (kg/m3)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
V = volume in metres cubed (m3)
Experiment 2: Measuring the Density of Irregularly Shaped Objects
The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of irregular objects using
a displacement technique
Variables:
Independent variable = Different irregular shapes / mass
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Dependent variable = Volume of displaced water YOUR NOTES

Method 
Apparatus for measuring the density of irregular objects
1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Fill the eureka can with water up to a point just below the spout
3. Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
4. Carefully lower the object into the eureka can
5. Measure the volume of the displaced water in the measuring cylinder
6. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating the density
Analysis of Results
The volume of the water displaced is equal to the volume of the object
Once the mass and volume of the shape are known, the density can be calculated
using:
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
Experiment 3: Measuring Density of Liquids
The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of a liquid by finding a
difference in its mass
Variables:
Independent variable = Volume of water added
Dependent variable = Mass of cylinder
Method
Apparatus for determining the density of a liquid
1. Place an empty measuring cylinder on a digital balance and note down the mass
2. Fill the cylinder with the liquid and note down the volume
3. Note down the new reading on the digital balance
4. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating the density
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
Analysis of Results
Find the mass of the liquid by subtracting the final reading from the original
reading
Mass of liquid = Mass of cylinder with water – mass of cylinder
Remember to convert between grams (g) and kilograms (kg) by dividing by 1000
1 g = 0.001 kg
78 g = 0.078 kg
Once the mass and volume of the liquid are known, the density can be calculated
using the equation:
Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:
Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking measurements of mass
This includes when measuring the density of the liquid – remove the
measuring cylinder and zero the balance before adding the liquid
Random Errors:
A main cause of error in this experiment is in the measurements of length
Ensure to take repeat readings and calculate an average to keep this error to a
minimum
Place the irregular object in the displacement can carefully, as dropping it from a
height might cause water to splash which will lead to an incorrect volume reading
There is a lot of glassware in this experiment, ensure this is handled carefully
Water should not be poured into the measuring cylinder when it is on the electric
balance
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This could lead to electric shock YOUR NOTES

Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react quickly to any spills 
 Exam Tip
There is a lot of information to take in here! When writing about
experiments, a good sequence is as follows:
If you need to use an equation to calculate something, start off by giving
it as this will give you some hints about what you need to mention later
List the apparatus that you need
State what measurements you need to make (your equation will give you
some hints) and how you will measure them
Finally, state that you will repeat each measurement several times and
take averages
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5.1.3 Pressure YOUR NOTES


Pressure
Pressure is defined as
The concentration of a force or the force per unit area
For example, when a drawing pin is pushed downwards:

It is pushed into the surface, rather than up towards the finger
This is because the sharp point is more concentrated (a small area) creating a
larger pressure
When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface (rather than your finger)
Example 1: Tractors
Tractors have large tyres
This spreads the weight (force) of the tractor over a large area
This reduces the pressure which prevents the heavy tractor from sinking into
the mud
Example 2: Nails
Nails have sharp pointed ends with a very small area
This concentrates the force, creating a large pressure over a small area
This allows the nail to be hammered into a wall
The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using the equation:
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YOUR NOTES

Pressure is measured in the units Pascals (Pa)

The area should always be the cross-sectional area of the object
This means the area where the force is at right angles to it
Pressure, force, area formula triangle
This equation tells us that:

If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure
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YOUR NOTES

High heels produce a higher pressure on the ground because of their smaller area,
compared to flat shoes
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 The diagram below shows the parts of the lifting machine used to move the

platform up and down.
The pump creates pressure in the liquid of 5.28 × 105 Pa to move the
platform upwards. Calculate the force that the liquid applies to the piston.
Cross-sectional area = 2.73 × 10-2 m2

Pressure = 5.28 × 105 Pa
Step 3: Rearrange for the force, F
F=p×A
Step 4: Substitute the values into the equation
F = (5.28 × 105) × (2.73 × 10-2) = 14 414.4

Step 5: Round to the appropriate number of significant figures and quote the
correct unit
F = 14 400 N = 14.4 kN (3 s.f)
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 Exam Tip
Look out for the units for the force!Large pressures produce large forces - 
this is sometimes in kN! (1 kN = 1000 N)
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5.1.4 Pressure in Liquids YOUR NOTES


Pressure in Liquids
A fluid is either a liquid or a gas
When an object is immersed in a fluid, the fluid will exert pressure, squeezing the
object
This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of the fluid and in all
directions
The pressure exerted on objects in fluids creates forces against surfaces
These forces act at 90 degrees (at right angles) to the surface
The pressure of a fluid on an object creates a force normal (at right angles) to the
surface
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Calculating Pressure in a Liquid YOUR NOTES

The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation 
p=h×ρ×g
Where:
p = pressure in pascals (Pa)
h = height of the column in metres (m)
ρ = density of the liquid in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
g = gravitational field strength on Earth in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
The force from the pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of an
object in a liquid, and in all directions
The force from the pressure of objects in a liquid is exerted evenly across its whole
surface
The pressure is more accurately the difference in pressure at different depths h in

a liquid, since the pressure changes with the depth
 Worked Example
Calculate the depth of water in a swimming pool where a pressure of 20
kPa is exerted. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and the gravitational
field strength on Earth is 9.8 N/kg.
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
 Exam Tip
This pressure equation will be given on your formula sheet, however, make
sure you are comfortable with rearranging it for the variable required in the
question!
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5.2 Ideal Gases YOUR NOTES


5.2.1 Kinetic Theory
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high speeds
Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in no specific path and
undergo sudden changes in their motion if they collide:
With the walls of its container
With other molecules
The random motion of tiny particles in a fluid is known as Brownian motion
Random motion of gas molecules in a container
Brownian motion provides evidence that air is made of small particles

This is because when larger particles, such as smoke particles or pollen, are
observed floating in the air:
The larger particles move with random motion
This is a result of the larger particles colliding with smaller particles that are
invisible to the naked eye
Pressure
A feature of gases is that they fill their container
The pressure is defined as the force per unit area
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
As the gas particles move about randomly they collide with the walls of their
containers
These collisions produce a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas
container (or any surface)
Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent collisions with the container
walls and a greater force
Hence the higher the pressure, the higher the force exerted per unit area
Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container
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It is possible for someone to experience this force by closing their mouth and YOUR NOTES
forcing air into their cheeks 
The strain on the cheeks is due to the force of the gas particles pushing at right
angles to the cheeks
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5.2.2 Absolute Zero YOUR NOTES


Absolute Zero
The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its container is dependent on the
temperature of the gas
This is because particles move with more energy as their temperature
increases
As the temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure on the container also
decreases
In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin, recognised that there must be a
temperature at which the particles in a gas exert no pressure
At this temperature they must no longer be moving, and hence not colliding
with their container
This temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273 °C
At absolute zero, or -273 °C, particles will have no net movement. It is therefore not
possible to have a lower temperature
Absolute zero is defined as:

The temperature at which the molecules in a substance have zero kinetic
energy
This means for a system at absolute zero, it is not possible to remove any more
energy from it
Even in space, the temperature is roughly 2.7 K above absolute zero
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The Kelvin Scale YOUR NOTES

The Kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute zero 
0 K is equal to -273 °C
An increase of 1 K is the same change as an increase of 1 °C
It is not possible to have a temperature lower than 0 K
This means a temperature in Kelvin will never be a negative value
To convert between temperatures θ in the Celsius scale, and T in the Kelvin scale,
use the following conversion:
θ / °C = T / K − 273
T / K = θ / °C + 273
Conversion chart relating the temperature on the Kelvin and Celsius scales
The divisions on both scales are equal. This means:

A change in a temperature of 1 K is equal to a change in temperature of 1 °C
 Worked Example
The temperature in a room is 300 K.
What is this temperature in Celsius?
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Step 1: Kelvin to Celsius equation YOUR NOTES

θ / °C = T / K − 273 
Step 2: Substitute in value of 300 K
300 K − 273 = 27 °C
 Exam Tip
If you forget in the exam whether it’s +273 or −273, just remember that 0
°C = 273 K. This way, when you know that you need to +273 to a
temperature in degrees to get a temperature in Kelvin. For example: 0 °C +
273 = 273 K.
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5.2.3 Temperature YOUR NOTES


Temperature & Speed
Imagine molecules of gas that are free to move around in a box
The molecules in the gas move around randomly at high speeds, colliding with
surfaces and exerting pressure upon them
The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the molecules:
The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move and vice versa
Hence, the molecules collide with the surface of the walls more frequently
Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds
This is because their kinetic energy increases
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Temperature & Kinetic Energy YOUR NOTES

Heating a system will change the energy stored in a system by increasing the 
kinetic energy of its particles
The Kelvin temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules
This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore energy stored in the system) can:
Cause the temperature of the system to increase
Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)
The internal energy of a gas is the sum of the kinetic energy of all the molecules
The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy of the molecules
and vice versa
This means they move around faster
As the container is heated up, the gas molecules move faster with higher kinetic
energy. The energy stored within the system - the internal energy - therefore
increases
If the temperature of a gas is increased, the particles move faster and gain kinetic
energy
Therefore, they will collide more with each other and the container leading to
an increase in pressure
The temperature (in Kelvin) is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules
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T ∝ KE YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
When a liquid evaporates, molecules escape from the surface of the liquid.
What happens to the temperature of the liquid and the average kinetic
energy of the molecules within it?
ANSWER: B
When evaporation takes place, the more energetic molecules are leaving the
surface of the liquid
Since the more energetic molecules have left, the average kinetic energy per
molecule must decrease
Therefore, A, C & D are not correct
Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy per molecule,
therefore the temperature also decreases
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5.2.4 The Gas Laws YOUR NOTES


The Gas Laws
Gas laws provide explanations for the relationships between:
Pressure and volume at a constant temperature
Pressure and (Kelvin) temperature at a constant volume
Pressure & Volume
If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the gas changes
when it is:
Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the pressure
Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the pressure
Pressure increases when a gas is compressed
Similarly, a change in pressure can cause a change in volume

A vacuum pump can be used to remove the air from a sealed container
The diagram below shows the change in volume to a tied up balloon when the
pressure of the air around it decreases:
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YOUR NOTES

Therefore, if the gas is compressed, the molecules will hit the walls of the
container more frequently
This creates a larger overall net force on the walls which increases the
pressure
Pressure & Temperature

The motion of molecules in a gas changes according to the temperature
As the temperature of a gas increases, the average speed of the molecules also
increases
Since the average kinetic energy depends on their speed, the kinetic energy of the
molecules also increases if its volume remains constant
The hotter the gas, the higher the average kinetic energy
The cooler the gas, the lower the average kinetic energy
If the gas is heated up, the molecules will travel at a higher speed
This means they will collide with the walls more often
This creates an increase in pressure
Therefore, at a constant volume, an increase in temperature increases the
pressure of a gas and vice versa
Diagram A shows molecules in the same volume collide with the walls of the
container more with an increase in temperature
Diagram B shows that since the temperature is proportional to the pressure, the
graph against each is a straight line
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
At constant volume, an increase in the temperature of the gas increases the pressure
due to more collisions on the container walls
 Exam Tip
You are required to be able to describe the links between pressure & volume
and pressure & temperature qualitatively. This means that the correct use of
terms such as 'collision', 'kinetic energy' and 'frequency', will be really
important.
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5.2.5 The Pressure Law YOUR NOTES


The Pressure Law
If the volume V of an ideal gas is constant, the pressure law is given by:
P∝T
This means the pressure is proportional to the temperature
The relationship between the pressure and (Kelvin) temperature for a fixed mass of
gas at constant volume can also be written as:
Where:
P1 = initial pressure (Pa)
P2 = final pressure (Pa)
T1 = initial temperature (K)
T2 = final temperature (K)
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
Pressure law graph representing temperature (in °C) directly proportional to the
volume
 Worked Example
The pressure inside a bicycle tyre is 5.10 × 105 Pa when the temperature is
279 K. After the bicycle has been ridden, the temperature of the air in the
tyre is 299 K.Calculate the new pressure in the tyre, assuming the volume is
unchanged.
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 Exam Tip
Remember when using gas law the temperature T must always be 
in kelvin (K)!
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5.2.6 Boyle's Law YOUR NOTES


Boyle's Law
For a fixed mass of a gas held at a constant temperature:
pV = constant
Where:
p = pressure in pascals (Pa)
V = volume in metres cubed (m3)
This means that the pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other
When the volume decreases (compression), the pressure increases
When the volume increases (expansion), the pressure decreases
This is because when the volume decreases, the same number of particles collide
with the walls of a container but more frequently as there is less space
However, the particles still collide with the same amount of force meaning
greater force per unit area (pressure)
The key assumption is that the temperature and the mass (and number) of the
particles remains the same
Increasing the volume of a gas decreases its pressure
This equation can also be rewritten for comparing the pressure and volume before
and after a change in a gas:
P1V1 = P2V2
Where:
P1 = initial pressure in pascals (Pa)
V1 = initial volume in metres cubed (m3)
P2 = final pressure in pascals (Pa)
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V2 = final volume in metres cubed (m3) YOUR NOTES

This equation is sometimes referred to as Boyle's Law 
Initial pressure and volume, P1 and V1, and final pressure and volume, P2 and V2
 Worked Example
A gas occupies a volume of 0.70 m3 at a pressure of 200 Pa. Calculate the
pressure exerted by the gas if it is compressed to a volume of 0.15
m3.Assume that the temperature and mass of the gas stay the same.
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
 Exam Tip
Always check whether your final answer makes sense. If the gas has been
compressed, the final pressure is expected to be more than the initial
pressure (like in the worked example).If this is not the case, double-check
the rearranging of any formulae and the values put into your calculator.
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6. Magnetism & Electromagnetism
CONTENTS
6.1 Magnetism & Electromagnetism
6.1.1 Magnetism
6.1.2 Magnetic Fields
6.1.3 Permanent & Induced Magnets
6.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields
6.1.5 Electromagnetism
6.1.6 The Motor Effect
6.1.7 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
6.2 Electromagnetic Induction
6.2.1 Electromagnetic Induction
6.2.2 Generators & Dynamos
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6.1 Magnetism & Electromagnetism YOUR NOTES


6.1.1 Magnetism
The Law of Magnetism
Poles of a Magnet
The ends of a magnet are called poles
Magnets have two poles: a north and a south
Poles of a Magnet
The Law of Magnetism

When two magnets are held close together, there will be an attractive or repulsive
force between the magnets depending on how they are arranged:
Opposite poles attract; like poles repel
The Law of Magnetism states that:

Two like poles (S and S or N and N) repel each other
Two unlike poles (S and N) attract each other
The attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is an example of a non-
contact force
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Magnetic Materials YOUR NOTES

Magnetic materials can be soft or hard 
Magnetically soft materials (e.g. iron):
Are easy to magnetise
Easily lose their magnetism (temporarily magnetised)
Magnetically hard materials (e.g. steel):
Are difficult to magnetise
Do not easily lose their magnetism (permanently magnetised)
Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials
Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials
This means that electromagnets can be made magnetic or non-magnetic as an
when required
A steel pin will be attracted when an electromagnet switches on but not when it
switches off. It is always attracted to a permanent magnet
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6.1.2 Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Field Lines
All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field
A magnetic field is defined as:
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a
magnetic material (such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel)
Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic
field
The direction of the magnetic field is shown using arrows
The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field
lines
If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will be
strong
If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak
There are some rules which must be followed when drawing magnetic field lines.
Magnetic field lines:
Always go from north to south (indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
Must never touch or cross other field lines
Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field is strongest at the poles
This is where the magnetic field lines are closest together
The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnet increases
This is because the magnetic field lines are getting further apart
The magnetic field around a bar magnet
Two bar magnets can repel or attract, the field lines will look slightly different for
each:
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
Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets
Therefore, the magnetic field lines around different configurations of two bar
magnets would look like:
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
Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets
 Exam Tip
If you are asked to draw the magnetic field around a bar magnet remember
to indicate both the direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the
magnetic field.You can do this by:
Adding arrows pointing away from the north pole and towards the south
pole
Making sure the magnetic field lines are further apart as the distance
from the magnet increases
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Representing Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES

Two bar magnets can be used to produce a uniform magnetic field 
Point opposite poles (north and south) of the two magnets a few centimetres apart
A uniform magnetic field will be produced in the gaps between opposite poles
Note: Outside that gap, the field will not be uniform
A uniform field is created when two opposite poles are held close together. Magnetic
fields are always directed from North to South
A uniform magnetic field is one that has the same strength and direction at all
points
To show that the magnetic field has the same strength at all points there must
be equal spacing between all magnetic field lines
To show that the magnetic field is acting in the same direction at all points
there must be an arrow on each magnetic field line going from the north pole
to the south pole
The magnetic field lines are the same distance apart between the gaps of the
poles to indicate that the field strength is the same at every point between the
poles
This field can be determined by using plotting compasses that will point from
north to south or by using iron filings
 Exam Tip
Remember that the direction of the field line at a point is the same as the
direction of the force a north pole would experience at that point
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6.1.3 Permanent & Induced Magnets YOUR NOTES


Permanent & Induced Magnets
Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not
Very few metals in the Periodic Table are magnetic. These include:
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Steel is an alloy which contains iron, so it is also magnetic
Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the
magnet, regardless of which pole is held close to it
Magnetic materials attracted to magnets
To test whether a material is a magnet it should be brought close to a known

magnet
If it can be repelled by the known magnet then the material itself is a magnet
If it can only be attracted and not repelled then it is a magnetic material
There are two types of magnets
Permanent magnets
Induced magnets
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are made out of permanent magnetic materials, for example
steel
A permanent magnet will produce its own magnetic field
It will not lose its magnetism
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Induced Magnets YOUR NOTES

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material can 
temporarily be turned into a magnet.
This is called induced magnetism
When magnetism is induced on a material:
One end of the material will become a north pole
The other end will become a south pole
Magnetic materials will always be attracted to a permanent magnet
This means that the end of the material closest to the magnet will have the
opposite pole to magnets pole closest to the material
Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material
When the magnetic material is removed from the magnetic field it will lose
most/all of its magnetism quickly
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 The diagram below shows a magnet held close to a piece of metal that is

suspended by a light cotton thread. The piece of metal is attracted towards
the magnet.
Which of the following rows in the table gives the correct type of pole at X
and the correct material of the suspended piece of metal?
ANSWER: A
X must be a north pole

The piece of metal is being attracted towards the magnet
The law of magnetism states that opposite poles attract
The material of the suspended piece of metal is nickel
Nickel is a magnetic material (It will experience a force when it is placed in
a magnetic field, in this case it is attracted towards the magnet)
B is incorrect because X cannot also be a south pole (and hence is a north
pole)
If the pole at X was a south pole then the piece of metal would be repelled
from the magnet because the law of magnetism states that like poles repel
C and D are incorrect because aluminium is not a magnetic material
A non-magnetic material would be unaffected by the magnetic field
produced by the magnet.
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6.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 12: Investigating Magnetic Fields
To investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between
two bar magnets
Equipment List
Method
Step 1:
Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper

Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
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
Step 2:
Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the
compass points away from the dot
Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle
Step 3:
Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the
process above
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
Step 4:
Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots going from
one end of the magnet to the other
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will
be the magnetic field line
Step 5:
Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field
lines
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
Step 6:
Repeat the whole process for two bar magnets placed 5 cm apart first facing
the same pole then facing opposite poles
Analysis of Results
The magnetic field pattern for the single bar magnetic should look like this:
The magnetic field pattern for two bar magnets should look like this:
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

Make sure the pencil you use is sharp to provide a clear and accurate drawing of
the field lines
Read the marker on the compass from above and not at an angle
Allow the compasses to settle for a couple of seconds before taking the reading
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6.1.5 Electromagnetism YOUR NOTES


Electromagnetism
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced
around the wire
The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses
Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles

A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire has no poles
As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets
weaker as the distance from the wire increases
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic
field
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
The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the
direction of the magnetic field around the wire
Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the
direction of the magnetic field
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
Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field
produced
If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the
strength of the magnetic field
This means the field lines will become closer together
Factors Affecting Field Strength
The strength of the magnetic fields field depends on:
The size of the current
The distance from the long straight conductor (such as a wire)
A larger current will produce a larger magnetic field and vice versa
The greater the distance from the conductor, the weaker the magnetic field and
vice versa
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
The greater the current, the stronger the magnetic field. This is shown by more
concentrated field lines
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6.1.6 The Motor Effect YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
The motor effect occurs:
When a wire with current flowing through it is placed in a magnetic field and
experiences a force
This effect is a result of two interacting magnetic fields

One is produced around the wire due to the current flowing through it
The second is the magnetic field into which the wire is placed, for example,
between two magnets
As a result of the interactions of the two magnetic fields, the wire will experience a
force
The motor effect is a result of two magnetic fields interacting to produce a force on
the wire
Simple Motors
The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) positioned
in a uniform magnetic field:
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
A simple d.c. motor consisting of two magnets, a coil and a split ring commutator to
control the direction of the current
When the current is flowing in the coil at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field:
The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field produced
by the magnets
This results in a force being exerted on the coil
The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-hand rule
As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the force
produced from the magnetic field will push one side of the coil up and the
other side of the coil down
This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in the
vertical position
When the coil is in the vertical position there will be a force acting upwards
and a force acting downwards
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
Forces acting on the coil in the vertical position
The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil

This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing
Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which the
forces are acting
As a result, the coil will continue to rotate
Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current
The commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
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This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is flowing YOUR NOTES
Factors Affecting the D.C Motor 
The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:
Increasing the current
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
Reversing the direction of the current
Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the
magnet
The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
Adding more turns to the coil
Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound
They work due to the motor effect
They work in the opposite way to microphones
A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a
permanent magnet
Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker
An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker

This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field
will be constantly changing
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the
permanent magnet
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The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil YOUR NOTES
The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s 
left-hand rule
As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the
coil will constantly change direction
This makes the coil oscillate
The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves
 Worked Example
A d.c motor is set up as shown below.
Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.
Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines
These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the
magnet
Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils
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Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative YOUR NOTES
terminal 
Step 3: Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of the force on
each side of the coil
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points
in the direction of the Current
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation
The coil will be turning clockwise
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
 Exam Tip
The explanation of the loudspeaker is very similar to the explanation of a
motor, however direct current is used in a d.c motor and alternating
current is used in a loudspeaker. You need to learn how both work.When
explaining how a loudspeaker works remember to refer to the alternating
current and the changing magnetic field that it creates.
Factors Affecting Magnetic Force

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields
Stronger magnetic fields produce stronger forces and vice versa
For a current carrying conductor, the size of the force exerted by the magnetic
fields can be increased by:
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire
This will increase the magnetic field around the wire
Using stronger magnets
This will increase the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet
Placing the wire at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field lines between the
poles of the magnet
This will result in the maximum interaction between the two magnetic
fields
Note: If the two magnetic fields are parallel there will be no interaction between
the two magnetic fields and therefore no force produced
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6.1.7 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule YOUR NOTES


Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire depends on
the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field
All three will be perpendicular to each other
This means that sometimes the force could be into and out of the page (in 3D)
The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-
hand rule:
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule can be used to determine directions of the force, magnetic
field and current
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 Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is

placed into the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown
below, there will be a downwards force acting on the wire.
Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field.
Step 2: Determine the direction of the current
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points
in the direction of the Current
Step 3: Determine the direction of the force
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move
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 Exam Tip
Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to 
South and current is always in the direction of a positive terminal to a
negative terminal.Feel free to use Fleming's left hand rule in your exam, just
don't make it too obvious or distracting for other students!
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6.2 Electromagnetic Induction YOUR NOTES


6.2.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic (EM) induction is used to generate electricity
EM induction is when:
A voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a
magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it
This is done by the conductor or coil cutting through the magnetic field lines of
the magnetic field
This is often referred to as the generator effect and is the opposite to the motor
effect
In the motor effect, there is already a current in the conductor which
experiences a force
In the generator effect, there is no initial current in the conductor but one is
induced (created) when it moves through a magnetic field
This is done by the conductor or coil cutting through the magnetic field lines of
the magnetic field
Generating Potential Difference
A potential difference will be induced in the conductor if there is relative
movement between the conductor and the magnetic field
Moving the electrical conductor in a fixed magnetic field
When a conductor (such as a wire) is moved through a magnetic field, the wire
cuts through the fields lines
This induces a potential difference in the wire
Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce a potential difference
Moving the magnetic field relative to a fixed conductor

As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns on
the coil
This induces a potential difference in the coil
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
When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing a
potential difference
A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced potential
difference
If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the
conductor
Factors Affecting the Induced Potential Difference
The size of the induced potential difference is determined by:
The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
The number of turns on the coils of wire
The size of the coils
The strength of the magnetic field
The direction of the induced potential difference is determined by:
The orientation of the poles of the magnet
1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:
Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines
are cut
This will increase the induced potential difference
2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:
Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the
potential difference induced
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This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the total YOUR NOTES
potential difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting the 
magnetic field lines
3. The size of the coils:
Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential difference induced
This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines
4. The strength of the magnetic field:
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the potential
difference induced
5. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:

Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
 Exam Tip
When discussing factors affecting the induced potential difference:
Make sure you state:
“Add more turns to the coil” instead of “Add more coils”
This is because these statements do not mean the same thing
Likewise, when referring to the magnet, use the phrase:
“A stronger magnet instead of “A bigger magnet”
This is because larger magnets are not necessarily stronger
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6.2.2 Generators & Dynamos YOUR NOTES


Generators & Dynamos
The generator effect can be used to:
Generate a.c in an generator
Generate d.c in a dynamo
Alternator
A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy in the form of alternating current
An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field with commutator rings
A rectangular coil that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field

The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that press on
two metal slip rings (or commutator rings)
The slip rings and brushes provide a continuous connection between the coil
and the meter
When the coil turns in one direction:
The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and a potential
difference, and therefore current, is induced in the coil
The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit repeatedly
changes direction as the coil spins
This is because the induced potential difference in the coil repeatedly changes
its direction
This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction
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The induced potential difference and the current alternate because they repeatedly YOUR NOTES
change direction

A.c output from an alternator - the current is both in the positive and negative region
of the graph
Dynamos
A dynamo is a direct-current generator
A simple dynamo is the same as an alternator except that the dynamo has a split-
ring commutator instead of two separate slip rings
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
A dynamo is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to a split ring commutator

As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines
This induces a potential difference between the end of the coil
The split ring commutator changes the connections between the coil and the
brushes every half turn in order to keep the current leaving the dynamo in the
same direction
This happens each time the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines
Therefore, the induced potential difference does not reverse its direction as it
does in the alternator
Instead, it varies from zero to a maximum value twice each cycle of rotation, and
never changes polarity (positive to negative)
This means the current is always positive (or always negative)
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
D.C output from a dynamo - the current is only in the positive region of the graph
Bicycle Dynamo
A bicycle dynamo is used to supply electricity to bicycle lights whilst in motion
It consists of a rotating magnet placed inside (or next to) a coil
The magnet is rotated by its connection to the bicycle inside the coil
This is sometimes called the friction wheel and the axle / spindle
The magnetic field lines cut through the sides of the coil
This induces a potential difference in the coil
Since the magnetic field is constantly changing direction as it rotates, so does the
output potential difference
This means the output current is also changing direction
Therefore, a bicycle dynamo, unlike a normal dynamo, produces alternating
current (a.c)
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
A bicycle dynamo consists of a magnet rotating in a coil due to the motion of the
wheels
 Exam Tip
Motors and generators look very similar (as do microphones and
loudspeakers), but they do very different things.When tackling a question on
either of them, make sure you are writing about the right one!You might be
expected to give the above explanations - make sure that you understand
their subtle differences!
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7. Radioactivity & Particles
CONTENTS
7.1 Properties of Radiation
7.1.1 Atomic Structure
7.1.2 Isotopes
7.1.3 Types of Radiation
7.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Radiation
7.1.5 Decay Equations
7.1.6 Detecting Radiation
7.2 Radioactivity, Uses & Dangers
7.2.1 Activity & Decay
7.2.2 Half-Life
7.2.3 Uses of Radioactivity
7.2.4 Contamination & Irradiation
7.2.5 Dangers of Radiation
7.3 Fission & Fusion
7.3.1 Nuclear Energy
7.3.2 Nuclear Fission
7.3.3 Nuclear Reactors
7.3.4 Nuclear Fusion
7.3.5 The Conditions for Fusion
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7.1 Properties of Radiation YOUR NOTES


7.1.1 Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter
They are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m
This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across
your thumbnail
Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their centre, with electrons orbiting around
the nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it
contains almost all of the mass of the atom
Diagram showing the structure of a Lithium atom. If drawn to scale then the
electrons would be around 100 metres away from the nucleus!
Parts of the Atom

The nucleus contains:
Protons - positively charged particles with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Neutrons – no charge, and also with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Almost all of the atom is empty space, but moving around the nucleus there are:
Electrons – negative charge with almost no mass (1/2000 the mass of a proton
or neutron)
The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:
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
Charge in the Atom

Although atoms contain particles of different charge, the total charge within an
atom is zero
This is because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
The following table sets out the calculation of the total charge in the Lithium atom
in the diagram above:
Total Charge Calculation Table
If an atom loses electrons, then it is said to be ionised

Symbols are used to describe particular nuclear by their element symbol, atomic
number and mass number
This notation is called nuclear notation
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
Carbon 12 in nuclear notation
 Worked Example
A nucleus of carbon-12 is shown below.
How many electrons are there in an atom of carbon-12?
Step 1: Count the number of protons in the carbon nucleus
There are 6 protons in the carbon atom

Step 2: Determine the number of electrons
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Remember, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of YOUR NOTES
protons 
Therefore there must be 6 electrons in the carbon atom
 Exam Tip
You may have noticed that the number of electrons is not part of the mass
number. This is because electrons have a tiny mass compared to neutrons
and protons. We say their mass is negligible when compared to the particles
in the nucleus.
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Atomic & Mass Number YOUR NOTES

Atomic Number 
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (it can also be
called the proton number)
Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
For example:
Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in
order to have no overall charge
Mass Number
The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass
number (it can also be called the nucleon number)
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the atom
The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the
mass number
Number of Neutron = Mass Number – Atomic Number
For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of
11, then the number of neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12
Nuclear Notation
The mass number and atomic number of an atom are shown by writing them with
the atomic symbol
This is called nuclear notation
Here are three examples:
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Examples of nuclear notation for atoms of Hydrogen, Sodium and Uranium YOUR NOTES
The top number is the mass number 
This is equal to the total number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the
nucleus
The lower number is the atomic number
This is equal to the total number of protons in the nucleus
The atomic and mass number of each type of atom in the examples above is
shown in this table:
Number of Protons, Neutrons & Electrons Table
 Worked Example
The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons, neutrons and
electrons are in the gold atom?
ANSWER: D
Step 1: Determine the atomic and mass number
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The gold atom has an atomic number of 79 (lower number) and a mass YOUR NOTES
number of 197 (top number) 
Step 2: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is equal to the number of protons

The atom has 79 protons
Step 3: Calculate the number of neutrons
The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons

The number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the atomic
number
197 - 79 = 118
The atom has 118 neutrons
An atom has the same number of protons and electrons

The atom has 79 electrons
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7.1.2 Isotopes YOUR NOTES


Isotopes
Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the
number of neutrons can be different
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons
but a different number of neutrons
In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:
Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons
Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than others
For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms is Deuterium
Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion billion hydrogen atoms)
Differences Between Isotopes
The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an
atom, such as its charge, but only its mass
This is because neutrons have no charge but do have mass
The charge of the nucleus of a particular element is always the same
In the periodic table, the mass number of Chlorine is often given as 35.5
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YOUR NOTES

This section of a periodic table shows Chlorine as having a mass number of 35.5, but
other elements have an integer mass number
The mass number of Chlorine is given as 35.5 because it has roughly equal
numbers of isotopes with a mass number of 35, and of 36
The number of electrons and protons in different isotopes remains the same
Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to the imbalance of protons and neutrons
 Worked Example
State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in Chlorine-35 and
Chlorine-36 atoms.
Step 1: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is the number of protons

Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 protons
Step 2: Determine the number of neutrons
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons

Chlorine-35 neutrons: 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Chlorine-36 neutrons: 36 - 17 = 19 neutrons
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons

Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 electrons
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7.1.3 Types of Radiation YOUR NOTES


Types of Radiation
Unstable Nuclei and Radiation
Some atomic nuclei are unstable
This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable
It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12
Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14 has

two extra neutrons
Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or because they have too
many or too few neutrons
Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable
Radiation can be in the form of a high energy particle or wave
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves
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As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it YOUR NOTES
This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus 
This makes the nucleus more stable
The process of emitting radiation is called radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a random process
This means it is not possible to know exactly when a particular nucleus will
decay
When an unstable nucleus decays it emits radiation, called nuclear radiation
There are different types of radiation that can be emitted:
Alpha (α)
Beta (β-)
Gamma (γ)
 Worked Example
Which of the following statements is not true?
A Isotopes can be unstable because they have too many or too few
neutrons
B The process of emitting particles or waves of energy from an
unstable nucleus is called radioactive decay
C Scientists can predict when a nucleus will decay
D Radiation refers to the particles or waves emitted from a decaying
nucleus
ANSWER: C
Answer A is true. The number of neutrons in a nucleus determines the stability

Answer B is true. This is a suitable description of radioactive decay
Answer D is true. Radiation is about emissions. It is different to radioactive
particles
Answer C is not true
Radioactive decay is a random process
It is not possible to predict precisely when a particular nucleus will decay
 Exam Tip
The terms unstable, random and decay have very particular meanings in
this topic. Remember to use them correctly when answering questions!
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Properties of Radiation YOUR NOTES

The three different forms of nuclear radiation have different properties: 
Alpha Particles
The symbol for alpha is α
An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
Alpha particles have a charge of +2
This means they can be affected by an electric field
Beta Particles
The symbol for beta is β-
Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
Beta particles have a charge of -1
This means they can be affected by an electric field
Gamma Rays
The symbol for gamma is γ
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
Gamma rays have no charge
Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves can be emitted from unstable nuclei
The properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma are given in this table, and then
described in more detail below
Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation
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YOUR NOTES

The trend down the table shows:

The range increases
Penetrating power increases
Ionisation decreases
Penetrating Power
Alpha, beta and gamma have different properties
They penetrate materials in different ways
This means they are stopped by different materials
Alpha, beta and gamma are different in how they penetrate materials. Alpha is the
least penetrating, and gamma is the most penetrating
Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and gamma pass through it

Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium
Gamma can pass through aluminium
Gamma rays are only partially stopped by thick lead
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Ionising Power YOUR NOTES

All nuclear radiation is capable of ionising atoms that it hits 
When an atom is ionised, the number of electrons it has changes
This gives it a non-zero charge
When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
Alpha radiation is the most ionising form of nuclear radiation

This is because alpha particles have a charge of +2
Gamma radiation is the least ionising form of nuclear radiation
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 A student has an unknown radioactive source. They are trying to work

which type of radiation is being given off:
A Alpha particles
B Beta particles
C Gamma rays
D Neutrons
They measure the count-rate, using a Geiger-Muller tube, when the source
is placed behind different material. Their results are shown in the table
below:
Which type of radiation is being given off by the source?
ANSWER: B
The answer is not A because the radiation passed through the paper almost
unchanged
This means it is not alpha
The answer is not C or D because the aluminium decreased the count-rate
significantly
This means it is not gamma (gamma penetrates aluminium)
This also means it is not neutrons (neutrons penetrate aluminium,
however you do not need to know this for your GCSE)
Therefore, the source must be Beta particles
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7.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Radiation YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 13: Investigating Radiation
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the penetration powers of different
types of radiation using either radioactive sources or simulations
Variables:
Independent variable = Absorber material
Dependent variable = Count rate
Control variables:
Radioactive source
Distance of GM tube to source
Location / background radiation
Equipment List

Ruler = 1 mm
Geiger-Müller tube = 0.01 μS/hr
Method
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YOUR NOTES

Investigating radiation apparatus
1. Connect the Geiger-Müller tube to the counter and, without any sources present,
measure background radiation over a one minute period
2. Repeat this three times, and take an average
3. Now place a radioactive source a fixed distance of 3 cm away from the tube and
take another reading over a one minute interval
4. Now take a set of absorbers: some paper, several different thicknesses of
aluminium (increasing in 0.5mm intervals) and different thickness of lead
5. One at a time, place these absorbers between the source and the tube and take
another reading over a one minute interval
6. Repeat the above experiment for other radioactive sources
Analysis of Results
If the count over that interval falls to background levels (allow for a little random
variation), then the radiation has all been absorbed
Note that some sources will emit more than one type of radiation
If the radiation is stopped by paper, the source will be emitting alpha
If the radiation is stopped by a few mm of aluminium (about 5 or 6) then the
source is emitting beta
If some radiation is still able to penetrate a few mm of lead (5 or 6) then the
source is emitting gamma
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YOUR NOTES

Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Systematic Errors:
Make sure that the sources are stored well away from the counter during the
experiment
Conduct all runs of the experiment in the same location to avoid changes in
background radiation levels
Random Errors:
The accuracy of such an experiment is improved with using reliable sources with a
long half-life and an activity well above the natural background level
When not using a source, keep it in a lead lined container
When in use, try and keep a good distance (a metre or so) between yourself and the
source
When handling the source, do so using tweezers (or tongs) and point the source
away from you
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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When answering questions about the core practicals you could try to 
remember the acronym SCREAMS:
S: Which variable will you keep the same
C: which variable should you change
R: what will you do to make your experiment reliable
E: what special equipment and equations are required
A: how will you analyse your results
M: which variable will you measure
S: what safety precautions will you take?
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7.1.5 Decay Equations YOUR NOTES


Decay Equations
Radioactive decay events can be shown using a decay equation
A decay equation is similar to a chemical reaction equation
The particles present before the decay are shown before the arrow
The particles produced in the decay are shown after the arrow
During decay equations the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the
reaction must be the same as the sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the
reaction
The following decay equation shows Polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay
It forms Lead-208 and an alpha particle
An alpha particle can also be written as a helium nucleus (Symbol He)
The polonium nucleus emits an alpha particle, causing its mass and charge to
decrease. This means it changes into a new element
Alpha Decay
During alpha decay an alpha particle is emitted from an unstable nucleus

A completely new element is formed in the process
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Alpha decay usually happens in large unstable nuclei, causing the overall mass and YOUR NOTES
charge of the nucleus to decrease

An alpha particle is a helium nucleus
It is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number
and atomic number of the nucleus changes
The mass number decreases by 4
The atomic number decreases by 2
The charge on the nucleus also decreases by 2
This is because protons have a charge of +1 each
Alpha decay equation
Beta Decay
During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei
A completely new element is formed because the atomic number changes
Beta decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many neutrons. The mass
number stays the same, but the atomic number increases by one
A beta particle is a high-speed electron
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It has a mass number of 0 YOUR NOTES

This is because the electron has a negligible mass, compared to neutrons and 
protons
Therefore, the mass number of the decaying nuclei remains the same
Electrons have an atomic number of -1
This means that the new nuclei will increase its atomic number by 1 in order
to maintain the overall atomic number before and after the decay
The following equation shows carbon-14 undergoing beta decay
It forms nitrogen-14 and a beta particle
Beta particles are written as an electron in this equation
Beta decay equation
Gamma Decay
During gamma decay, a gamma ray is emitted from an unstable nucleus
The process that makes the nucleus less energetic but does not change its
structure
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Gamma decay does not affect the mass number or the atomic number of the YOUR NOTES
radioactive nucleus, but it does reduce the energy of the nucleus

The gamma ray that is emitted has a lot of energy, but no mass or charge
Here is an example of Uranium-238 undergoing gamma decay
Notice that the mass number and atomic number of the unstable nuclei
remains the same during the decay
Gamma decay equation
Neutron Emission
A small number of isotopes can decay by emitting neutrons.
When a nucleus emits a neutron:
The number of protons does not change:
The atomic (proton) number does not change
The total number of particles (nucleons) in the nucleus decreases by 1:
The mass (nucleon) number decreases by 1
 Worked Example
A nucleus with 84 protons and 126 neutrons undergoes alpha decay. It
forms lead, which has the element symbol Pb.
Which of the isotopes of lead pictured is the correct one formed during the
decay?
ANSWER: A
Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of
neutrons
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The original nucleus has 84 protons and 126 neutrons YOUR NOTES
84 + 126 = 210 
The mass number of the original nucleus is 210

Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
The alpha particle emitted is made of two protons and two neutrons
Protons have an atomic number of 1, and neutrons have an atomic number of
0
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the atomic number by 2
84 – 2 = 82
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 82
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1

Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the mass number by 4
210 – 4 = 206
The new nucleus has a mass number of 206
 Worked Example
A nucleus with 11 protons and 13 neutrons undergoes beta decay. It forms
magnesium, which has the element symbol Mg.
Which is the correct isotope of magnesium formed during the decay?
ANSWER: D
Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of
neutrons
The original nucleus has 11 protons and 13 neutrons
11 + 13 = 24
The mass number of the original nucleus is 24
Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
During beta decay a neutron changes into a proton and an electron

The electron is emitted as a beta particle
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The neutron has an atomic number of 0 and the proton has an atomic number YOUR NOTES
of 1 
So the atomic number increases by 1
11 + 1 = 12
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 12
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1

Changing a neutron to a proton will not affect the mass number
The new nucleus has a mass number of 24 (the same as before)
 Exam Tip
It is easy to forget that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus. The two are
interchangeable, so don’t be surprised to see either used in the exam. You
are not expected to know the names of the elements produced during
radioactive decays, but you do need to be able to calculate the mass and
atomic numbers by making sure they are balanced on either side of the
reaction.
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7.1.6 Detecting Radiation YOUR NOTES


Detecting Radiation
It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation
The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured in
sieverts (Sv)
One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
It would cause acute radiation poisoning
People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
To protect against over-exposure, the dose received by different activities is
measured
Radiation can be measured and detected using a photographic film or a Geiger–
Müller tube
Photographic Film
Photographic films detect radiation by becoming darker when it absorbs radiation,
just like it does when it absorbs visible light
The more radiation the film absorbs, the darker it is when it is developed
People who work with radiation, such as radiographers, wear film badges which
are checked regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed
To get an accurate measure of the dose received, the badge contains different
materials that the radiation must penetrate to reach the film
These materials may include aluminium, copper, paper, lead and plastic
The diagram shows what a typical radiation badge looks like:
A badge containing photographic film can be used to monitor a person’s exposure to

radiation
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The badge shows the amount of different types of radiation that the radiographer YOUR NOTES
has been exposed to 
Different areas of the film are exposed to different types of radiation
Alpha radiation is unlikely to be detected at all as it will be absorbed / stopped
by the paper
Beta radiation is absorbed by the aluminium
Gamma (or X-rays) affect all areas of the film but the lead will reduce some of
the gamma radiation
Geiger-Müller tube
The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect
radiation
Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting
machine
This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate
The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more
radiation the Geiger-Müller tube is absorbing
Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected
A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector
 Worked Example
A Geiger-Müller tube is used to detect radiation in a particular location. If it
counts 16,000 decays in 1 hour, what is the count rate?
Step 1: Identify the different variables
The number of decays is 16 000

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The time is 1 hour YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds 
1 hour is equal to 60 minutes, and 1 minute is equal to 60 seconds

Time period = 1 × 60 × 60 = 3600 seconds
Step 3: Divide the total counts by the time period in seconds
Counts ÷ Time period = 16 000 ÷ 3600 = 4.5

Therefore, there are 4.5 decays per second
 Exam Tip
If asked to name a device for detecting radiation, the Geiger-Müller tube is a
good example to give. You can also refer to it as a GM tube, a GM detector,
GM counter, Geiger counter etc. (The examiners will allow some level of
misspelling, providing it is readable). Don’t, however, refer to it as a
‘radiation detector’ as this is too vague and may simply restate what was
asked for in the question.
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Background Radiation YOUR NOTES

It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon 
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are
exposed to on Earth
Background radiation is defined as:
The radiation that exists around us all the time
There are two types of background radiation:

Natural sources
Man-made sources
Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment.
Radon gas is given off from some types of rock
Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources
such as:
Rocks
Cosmic rays from space
Foods
Man-made sources of radiation increase the background radiation levels,
examples include:
Fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents
Exposure from medical testing
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Natural Sources YOUR NOTES

Radon gas from rocks and soil 
Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in
rocks in the ground
Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
Cosmic rays from space
The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of
gamma radiation
Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic
events
Carbon-14 in biological material
All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their
systems hence the amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant
Radioactive material in food and drink
Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since
they are in contact with rocks and soil containing these elements
Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause
for concern
Man-Made Sources
Medical sources
In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
Nuclear waste
While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation,
it can be dangerous for the people handling it
Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a
nuclear explosion, such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would
increase significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
Nuclear accidents
Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into
the environment
While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and
render areas devastated for centuries
Corrected Count Rate
Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory
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This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then YOUR NOTES
subtracting this from readings with the source present 
This is known as the corrected count rate
 Worked Example
A student is using a Geiger-counter to measure the counts per minute at
different distances from a source of radiation. Their results and a graph of
the results are shown here.
Determine the background radiation count.
Step 1: Determine the point at which the source radiation stops being detected
The background radiation is the amount of radiation received all the time
When the source is moved back far enough it is all absorbed by the air before
reaching the Geiger-counter
Results after 1 metre do not change
Therefore, the amount after 1 metre is only due to background radiation
Step 2: State the background radiation count
The background radiation count is 15 counts per minute
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7.2 Radioactivity, Uses & Dangers YOUR NOTES


7.2.1 Activity & Decay
Activity and Decay
Objects containing radioactive nuclei are called sources of radiation
Sources of radiation decay at different rates which are defined by their activity
The activity is defined as
The rate at which the unstable nuclei from a source of radiation decays
Activity is measured in Becquerels

The symbol for Becquerels is Bq
1 Becquerel is equal to 1 nucleus in the source decaying in 1 second
Decreasing Activity
The activity of a source decreases with time
This is because each decay event reduces the overall number of radioactive
particles in the source
The nature of radioactive decay can be demonstrated by observing the count rate
of a source using a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube, and then plotting these results
against time
These fluctuations in count rate on the GM tube also provide evidence for the
randomness of radioactive decay
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The decreasing activity of a source can be shown on a graph against time. The YOUR NOTES
fluctuations show the randomness of radioactive decay

 Worked Example
A source of radiation has an activity of 2000 Bq. How many unstable atoms
decay in 2 minutes?
Step 1: Determine the activity
The activity of the source is 2000 Bq

This means 2000 nuclei decay every second
Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds
The time period is 2 minutes

Each minute has 60 seconds
The time period in seconds is:
2 × 60 = 120 seconds
Step 3: Multiply the activity by the time period
Activity (Bq) × Time period (s) = 2000 × 120 = 240 000

Therefore, 240 000 unstable nuclei decay in 2 minutes
 Exam Tip
Do not confuse activity and count rate.Activity is the rate at which unstable
nuclei decay, whereas count rate is the rate at which radioactive emissions
are detected.
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7.2.2 Half-Life YOUR NOTES


Half-Life
It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
This is known as the half-life
Half-life is defined as:
The time it takes for the number of nuclei of a sample of radioactive
isotopes to decrease by half
In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its
original level
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction
of a second to billions of years in length
Using Half-life
Scientists can measure the half-lives of different isotopes accurately:
Uranium-235 has a half-life of 704 million years
This means it would take 704 million years for the activity of a uranium-235
sample to decrease to half its original amount
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years
So after 5700 years, there would be 50% of the original amount of carbon-14
remaining
After two half-lives, or 11 400 years, there would be just 25% of the carbon-14
remaining
With each half-life, the amount remaining decreases by half
The diagram shows how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each
time the original activity halves, another half-life has passed
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The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is YOUR NOTES
the half-life 
It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25 %
activity
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
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Calculating Half-Life YOUR NOTES

To calculate the half-life of a sample, the procedure is: 
Measure the initial activity, A0, of the sample
Determine the half-life of this original activity
Measure how the activity changes with time
The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life
 Worked Example
The radioisotope technetium is used extensively in medicine. The graph
below shows how the activity of a sample varies with time.
Determine the half-life of this material.
Step 1: Draw lines on the graph to determine the time it takes for technetium to
drop to half of its original activity
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YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Read the half-life from the graph
In the diagram above the initial activity, A0, is 8 × 107 Bq

The time taken to decrease to 4 × 107 Bq, or ½ A0, is 6 hours
The time taken to decrease to 2 × 107 Bq is 6 more hours
The time taken to decrease to 1 × 107 Bq is 6 more hours
Therefore, the half-life of this isotope is 6 hours
 Worked Example
A particular radioactive sample contains 2 million un-decayed atoms. After
a year, there is only 500 000 atoms left un-decayed.What is the half-life of
this material?
Step 1: Calculate how many times the number of un-decayed atoms has halved
There were 2 000 000 atoms to start with

1 000 000 atoms would remain after 1 half-life
500 000 atoms would remain after 2 half-lives
Therefore, the sample has undergone 2 half-lives
Step 2: Divide the time period by the number of half-lives
The time period is a year

The number of half-lives is 2
1 year divided by 2 is half a year or 6 months
Therefore, the half-life is 6 months
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7.2.3 Uses of Radioactivity YOUR NOTES


Uses of Radioactivity
Radiation is used in a number of different ways:
Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer
Sterilising food (irradiating food)
Sterilising medical equipment
Determining the age of ancient artefacts
Checking the thickness of materials
Smoke detectors (alarms)
The properties of the different types of radiation determine which one is used in a
particular application
Smoke Detectors
Alpha particles are used in smoke detectors
The alpha radiation will normally ionise the air within the detector, creating a
current
The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke enters the detector
The alarm is triggered by a microchip when the sensor no longer detects alpha
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
In the diagram on the right, alpha particles are stopped by the smoke, preventing the
flow of current and triggering the alarm
Measuring the Thickness of Materials

As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it
can be monitored using a detector
If the material gets thicker more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will
get through
If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
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This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material YOUR NOTES
constant 
Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper,
cardboard or aluminium foil
Beta radiation is used because it will be partially absorbed by the material

If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would
get through
If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would
not be able to sense any difference if the thickness were to change
Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer
Radiotherapyis the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation
(Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals)
Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it
Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are
more susceptible to radiation than others
Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
Gamma rays are used because they are able to penetrate the body, reaching
the tumour
The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still
being aimed at the tumour
A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement of
substances, like blood, around the body
A PET scan can detect the emissions from a tracer to diagnose cancer and
determine the location of a tumour
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
Radiation therapy to remove a tumour
Sterilising Food and Medical Equipment

Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilise medical equipment
Gamma is most suited to this because:
It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
Instruments can be sterilised without removing the packaging
Food can be irradiated in order to kill any microorganisms that are present on it
This makes the food last longer, and reduces the risk of food-borne infections
Food that has been irradiated carries this symbol, called the Radura. Different
countries allow different foods to be irradiated
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 Use the diagram to explain why is alpha radiation used in smoke detectors,

and not beta or gamma radiation.
Consider the different properties of alpha, beta and gamma:

Alpha is the most weakly penetrating and strongest ioniser
Beta and gamma have stronger penetrating power and weaker ionising
power
If beta or gamma radiation were used in this situation then they would pass
straight through the smoke and the alarm would not go off
Therefore, since alpha is absorbed by smoke, and beta and gamma are not,
this makes it most suitable for use in a smoke detector
 Exam Tip
If you are presented with an unfamiliar situation in your exam don’t panic!
Just apply your understanding of the properties of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation. Mainly think about the range (how far it can travel) and ionising
power of the radiation to help understand which radiation is used in which
situation.
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7.2.4 Contamination & Irradiation YOUR NOTES


Contamination & Irradiation
Contamination
Contamination is defined as:
The unwanted presence of materials containing radioactive atoms on other
materials
A substance is only radioactive if it contains radioactive atoms that emit radiation

Contamination occurs when a radioactive isotope gets onto a material where it
should not be
This is often due to a radiation leak
As a result of this, the small amounts of the isotope in the contaminated areas will
emit radiation and the material becomes radioactive
The Assassination of Alexander Litvinenko
Contamination is almost always a mistake or an accident
However, in 2006 a former Russian spy was poisoned by a radioactive isotope
His name was Alexander Litvinenko and he was contaminated with the isotope
polonium-210
He died because of the poisoning
It is believed that the polonium-210 that poisoned Alexander Litvinenko was secretly
put into a cup of tea he was drinking
Irradiation
Irradiation is defined as:
The process of exposing a material to alpha, beta or gamma radiation
Irradiating a material does not make that material radioactive

However, it can kill living cells
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
This sign is the international symbol indicating the presence of a radioactive material
Irradiation can be used as a method of sterilisation:

Surgical equipment is irradiated before being used in order to kill any micro-
organisms on it before surgery
Food can be irradiated to kill any micro-organisms within it
This makes the food last longer without going mouldy
Hazards of Irradiation and Contamination
Although irradiation can cause harm, contamination has the potential to cause far
more harm, due to the continuous exposure to radiation that it will produce
Contamination is particularly dangerous if a radioactive source gets into the
human body
The internal organs will be irradiated as the source emits radiation as it moves
through the body
Comparison of Irradiation and Contamination Table
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
Protecting against Irradiation and Contamination

It is important to reduce the risk of exposure to radiation
Radiation can mutate DNA in cells and cause cancer
Shielding is used to absorb radiation
Lead lined suits are used to reduce irradiation for people working with
radioactive materials
The lead absorbs most of the radiation that would otherwise hit the person
To prevent contamination an airtight suit is used by people working in an area
where there may have been a radiation leak
This prevents radioactive atoms from getting inside the person
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
Lead shielding is used when a person is getting an x-ray, as well as for people who
work with radiation. Contamination carries much greater risks than irradiation
 Worked Example
Summarise the difference in the risk posed by radioactive sources with very
short and very long half-lives with regards to:
(a) Irradiation.
(b) Contamination.
(a) Sources with short half-lives present a greater risk of irradiation
A short half-life means a source has a high activity

This means there is a high rate of radioactive emissions, compared to a source
with a long half-life
(b) Sources with long half-lives present a greater risk of contamination
Sources with long half-lives will remain radioactive for longer

They need to be controlled for longer, to prevent them spreading
Shielding and storage may be required
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 Exam Tip
Irradiation and contamination are very commonly confused.Remember that 
something is radioactive only if it contains radioactive atoms. This can only
occur from contamination, not from irradiation!
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7.2.5 Dangers of Radiation YOUR NOTES


Dangers of Radiation
Ionising radiation can damage human cells and tissues
If the atoms that make up a DNA strand are ionised then the DNA strand can be
damaged
If the DNA is damaged then the cell may die, or the DNA may be mutated when it
reforms
If a mutated cell is able to replicate itself then a tumour may form
This is an example of cancer, which is a significant danger of radiation
exposure
Diagram showing the damage caused to DNA by ionising radiation. Sometimes the
cell is able to successfully repair the DNA, but incorrect repairs can cause a mutation
Acute radiation exposure can have other serious symptoms:

It can cause skin burns, similar to severe sunburn
Radiation can reduce the amount of white blood cells in the body, making a
person more susceptible to infections
Because of this, it is important to handle radioactive sources carefully
Handling Radiation Safely
To mitigate the risks of radiation exposure, there are some safe practices that
should be used:
Radioactive sources should be kept in a shielded container when not in use,
for example, a lead-lined box
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Radioactive materials should only be handled when wearing gloves, and with YOUR NOTES
tongs to increase the distance from them

It may be appropriate to wear protective clothing to prevent the body
becoming contaminated
The time that a radioactive source is being used for should be limited
Regulating Exposure
Because of the harmful effects of radiation, it is important to regulate the
exposure of humans to radiation
The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured in
sieverts (Sv)
One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
It would cause acute radiation poisoning
People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
To protect against over-exposure, the dose received by different activities is
measured
A dosemeter measures the amount of radiation in particular areas and is often
worn my radiographers, or anyone working with radiation
A dosemeter, or radiation badge, can be worn by a person working with radiation in

order to keep track of the amount of radiation they are receiving
Differences in Exposure
The amount of radiation that a person receives is affected by a person’s
occupation, lifestyle or location
Some areas around the world have higher background radiation because they are
closer to sources of radiation
People that work with nuclear radiation receive more radiation
The UK limit for nuclear industry employees is 20 mSv in one year
The diagram below compares the dose received by some different activities
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
All living things emit a small amount of radiation: the amount of radiation within a
banana is tiny, and not at all dangerous!
Disposing of Radioactive Waste

If an isotope has a long half-life then a sample of it will decay slowly
Although it may not emit a lot of radiation, it will remain radioactive for a
very long time
Sources with long half-life values present a risk of contamination for a much
longer time
Radioactive waste with a long half-life is buried underground to prevent it from
being released into the environment
Depending on the activity of radioactive waste, it is buried in different ways
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 A student plans to use a gamma source to conduct an experiment. List four

things that the student should do in order to minimise the risk to
themselves when using the source.
Any four from:
Keep the source in a lead lined container until the time it is needed
Use tongs to move the source, rather than handling it directly
The source should be kept at as far a distance from the student as possible
during the experiment
The time that the source is being used should be minimised
After the experiment the student should wash their hands
The date and the time that the radiation has been used for should be recorded
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7.3 Fission & Fusion YOUR NOTES


7.3.1 Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Energy
The nucleus of the atom contains a huge amount of energy – roughly one million
times greater than the amount of energy involved in chemical reactions
As a result, nuclear reactions have the potential to produce large amounts of
energy (as seen in nuclear bombs)
If harnessed in a safe way, nuclear energy could reduce or replace our dependency
on fossil fuels, reducing pollution and the emission of greenhouse gases
This energy can be released nuclear reactions such as:
Fusion
Fission
Radioactive decay
Fusion is when:
Two small nuclei join together to produce a larger nucleus
Nuclear fusion does not happen on Earth naturally, but it does in Stars
However, fusion reactors can be made artificially
The fusion of deuterium and tritium (isotopes of hydrogen) fuse to form helium
with the release of energy
The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion is huge:
The energy from 1 kg of hydrogen that undergoes fusion is equivalent to the
energy from burning about 10 million kilograms of coal
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
The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy
Fission is when:
One large nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei
The large nucleus that splits is often referred to as the parent nucleus
The smaller nuclei that are split from this are referred to as the daughter
nuclei
This is the process behind nuclear power stations
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
The fission of a nucleus, such as uranium, to produce smaller daughter nuclei with
the release of energy
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7.3.2 Nuclear Fission YOUR NOTES


Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is defined as:
The splitting of a large, unstable nucleus into two smaller nuclei
Isotopes of uranium and plutonium both undergo fission and are used as fuels in
nuclear power stations
Induced Fission Reactions
It is rare for nuclei to undergo fission without additional energy being put into the
nucleus
When nuclear fission occurs in this way it is called spontaneous fission
Usually, for fission to occur the unstable nucleus must first absorb a neutron
This makes the nuclei more unstable, so that it decays almost immediately
Fission of Uranium-235
Uranium-235 is commonly used as a fuel in nuclear reactors
It has a very long half-life of 700 million years
This means that it would have a low activity and energy would be released very
slowly
This is unsuitable for producing energy in a nuclear power station
During induced fission, a neutron is absorbed by the uranium-235 nucleus to
make uranium-236
This is very unstable and splits by nuclear fission almost immediately
A uranium-235 nucleus is struck by a neutron, breaking it into two smaller daughter

nuclei and 2 or 3 neutrons
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 Exam Tip
You need to remember that uranium and plutonium are possible elements 
for fission, but you do not need to know the specific daughter nuclei that are
formed.Use your knowledge of balancing nuclear equations to work these
out.
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Products of Fission YOUR NOTES

During fission, when a neutron collides with an unstable nucleus, the nucleus 
splits into two smaller nuclei (called daughter nuclei) as well as two or three
neutrons
Gamma rays are also emitted
These products of the fission reaction move away very quickly
Energy transferred is from nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy
Eventually this energy can be converted, within the nuclear power station, into
electrical energy
 Worked Example
During a particular spontaneous fission reaction, plutonium-239 splits as
shown in the equation below:
Which answer shows the section missing from this equation?
ANSWER: D
Step 1: Identify the different mass and atomic numbers
Pu (Plutonium) has mass number 239 and atomic number 94

Pd (Palladium) has mass number 112 and atomic number 46
Cd (Cadmium) has mass number 124 and atomic number 48
Step 2: Calculate the mass and atomic number of the missing section
Mass number is equal to the difference between the mass numbers of the
reactants and the products
239 – (112 + 124) = 3
Atomic number is equal to the difference between the atomic numbers of the
reactants and the products
94 – (46 + 48) = 0
The answer is therefore not B or C
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Step 3: Determine the correct notation YOUR NOTES

Neutrons have a mass number of 1 
The answer is therefore not A
Therefore, this must be three neutrons, which corresponds to D
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7.3.3 Nuclear Reactors YOUR NOTES


Chain Reactions
Only one extra neutron is required to induce a uranium-235 nucleus to split by
fission
During the fission, it produces two or three neutrons which move away at high
speed
Each of these new neutrons can start another fission reaction, which again creates
further excess neutrons
This process is called a chain reaction
The neutrons released by each fission reaction can go on to create further fissions,
like a chain that is linked several times – from each chain comes two more
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 The diagram shows the nuclear fission process for an atom of uranium-

235.
Complete the diagram to show how the fission process starts a chain
reaction.
Step 1: Draw the neutrons to show that they hit other U-235 nuclei
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It is the neutrons hitting the uranium-235 nuclei which causes the fission YOUR NOTES
reactions 
The daughter nuclei do not need to be shown, only the neutrons and uranium-
235 nuclei
Step 2: Draw the splitting of the U-235 nuclei to show they produce two or
more neutrons
The number of neutrons increases with each fission reaction

Each reaction requires one neutron but releases two
More reactions happen as the number of neutrons increases
 Exam Tip
You need to be able to draw and interpret different diagrams of nuclear
fission and chain reactions. Generally, things move to the right as time goes
on in these diagrams, but it is important to read all the information carefully
on questions like this.If you have to draw a diagram in an exam remember
that the clarity of the information is important, not how pretty it looks!
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Control Rods and Moderators YOUR NOTES

In a nuclear reactor, a chain reaction is required to keep the reactor running 
When the reactor is producing energy at the correct rate, two factors must be
controlled:
The number of free neutrons in the reactor
The energy of the free neutrons
To do this, nuclear reactors contain control rods and moderators
Diagram of a Nuclear Reactor. The overall purpose of the reactor is to collect the heat
energy produced from nuclear reactions
Control Rods
Purpose of a control rod: To absorb neutrons
Control rods are made of a material which absorb neutrons without becoming
dangerously unstable themselves
The number of neutrons absorbed is controlled by varying the depth of the control
rods in the fuel rods
Lowering the rods further decreases the rate of fission, as more neutrons are
absorbed
Raising the rods increases the rate of fission, as fewer neutrons are absorbed
This is adjusted automatically so that exactly one fission neutron produced by
each fission event goes on to cause another fission
In the event the nuclear reactor needs to shut down, the control rods can be
lowered all the way so no reaction can take place
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Moderator YOUR NOTES

The purpose of a moderator: To slow down neutrons 
The moderator is a material that surrounds the fuel rods and control rods inside
the reactor core
The fast-moving neutrons produced by the fission reactions slow down by
colliding with the molecules of the moderator, causing them to lose some
momentum
The neutrons are slowed down so that they are in thermal equilibrium with the
moderator, hence the term ‘thermal neutron’
This ensures neutrons can react efficiently with the uranium fuel
Shielding
The entire nuclear reactor is surrounded by shielding materials
The purpose of shielding is to absorb hazardous radiation
The daughter nuclei formed during fission, and the neutrons emitted, are
radioactive
The reactor is surrounded by a steel and concrete wall that can be nearly 2 metres
thick
This absorbs the emissions from the reactions
It ensures that the environment around the reactor is safe
Shielding metals in a nuclear reactor
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7.3.4 Nuclear Fusion YOUR NOTES


Nuclear Fusion
Small nuclei can react to release energy in a process called nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is defined as:
When two light nuclei join to form a heavier nucleus
This process requires extremely high temperatures to maintain

This is why nuclear fusion has proven very hard to reproduce on Earth
Stars, including the Sun, use nuclear fusion to produce energy
Therefore, fusion reactions are very important to life on Earth
In most stars, hydrogen atoms are fused together to form helium and produce lots
of energy
Two hydrogen nuclei are fusing to form a helium nuclei
The energy produced during nuclear fusion comes from a very small amount of the
particle’s mass being converted into energy
Albert Einstein described the mass-energy equivalence with his famous equation:
E = mc2
Where:
E = energy released from fusion in Joules (J)
m = mass converted into energy in kilograms (kg)
c = the speed of light in metres per second (m/s)
The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion is huge:
The energy from 1 kg of hydrogen that undergoes fusion is equivalent to the
energy from burning about 10 million kilograms of coal
Conditions for Fusion
Since protons have a positive charge, they repel each other
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In order to overcome this repulsion, the protons must have very high kinetic YOUR NOTES
energy in order to be travelling towards each other at very high speeds

In order to make the molecules of a gas travel at such speeds, the gas has to be
heated to millions of degrees Celsius – a temperature that is usually only reached
at the centre of a star
In regular conditions, ie. on Earth, the possibility of collisions between nuclei
which result in fusion is very low
In order to increase the number of collisions (and hence fusions) that occur
between nuclei, high densities (and hence pressures) are also needed
The conditions for fusion are:
Very high temperature of fuel
Very high kinetic energy / speed of nuclei to overcome repulsion
Very high density / pressure to increase the possibility of suitable collisions
Energy from Fusion
The main reasons why fusion is not currently used as a source of power on Earth
are the difficulties in achieving (and maintaining)
High temperatures
High pressures
Whilst physicists have been able to attain the temperatures and pressure needed,
there are difficulties in containing them, which inevitably means that only a small
amount of fusion can take place
Such a small rate of fusion is not useful for current energy needs
Creating the temperatures needed for fusion requires a great deal of energy
Hence, physicists are still a long way from the point where they will
produce more energy from fusion than the energy needed to start it
 Worked Example
An example of a hydrogen fusion reaction which takes place in stars is
shown here.
Which of the following is a valid reason as to why hydrogen fusion is not

currently possible on Earth?A Hydrogen fusion produces dangerous
radioactive wasteB Hydrogen nuclei require very high temperature to fuse
togetherC Hydrogen is a rare element that would be difficult to get large
amounts ofD Hydrogen fusion does not produce enough energy to be
commercially viable
ANSWER: B
Hydrogen nuclei have positive charges

So two hydrogen nuclei would have a repulsive force between them
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High temperatures are required to give the nuclei enough energy to overcome YOUR NOTES
the repulsive force 
The answer is not A because the products of the hydrogen fusion shown in the
reaction is helium<
Helium is an inert gas
The answer is not C because hydrogen is a very abundant element
It is the most common element in the universe
The answer is not D because hydrogen fusion would produce a huge amount
of energy
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Fusion vs Fission YOUR NOTES

Fusion and fission reactions should not be confused 
We are able to use fission reactions on Earth as a source of energy for producing
electricity
However, the temperatures required to maintain fusion reactions means that it is
not yet a commercially viable method for generating electricity
If however it were possible, then fusion would have a number of advantages over
fission:
Fusion reactions would be capable of producing even more energy than
fission reactions
The fuels required for fusion reactions are more plentiful than the Uranium
and Plutonium used in fission reactors
The products of nuclear fusion are much safer, with very little long term
radioactive waste produced, and the risk of a dangerous accident at a fusion
reactor is much lower than in a fission reactor
The following table summarises some of the key differences between fusion and
fission:
Comparison of Nuclear Fusion and Fission Table
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7.3.5 The Conditions for Fusion YOUR NOTES


Fusion in Stars
Stars are huge balls of (mostly) hydrogen gas
In the centre of star, hydrogen atoms undergo nuclear fusion to form helium
The equation for the reaction is shown here:
Deuterium and Tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. They can be formed through
other fission reactions in the star
A huge amount of energy is released in the reaction

This provides a pressure that prevents the star from collapsing under its gravity
The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy
In larger stars the helium that has been produced can then be fused to form
heavier elements
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The Conditions for Fusion YOUR NOTES

Within stars the atoms are ionised 
This means that the electron that is normally on a hydrogen atom would be lost
A hydrogen ion, or a proton, is therefore positively charged
There exists a repulsive force between protons that has to be overcome for
hydrogen fusion to happen
Hydrogen ions are protons, and their positive charge makes them repel one another
In order to overcome this repulsion, the protons must have very high kinetic
energy in order to be travelling towards each other at very high speeds
In order to make the molecules of a gas travel at such speeds, the gas has to be
heated to millions of degrees Celsius – a temperature that is usually only reached
at the centre of a star
In regular conditions, ie. on Earth, the possibility of collisions between nuclei
which result in fusion is very low
In order to increase the number of collisions (and hence fusions) that occur
between nuclei, high densities (and hence pressures) are also needed
The difficulties in achieving and maintaining such high temperatures and
pressures are the main reasons why fusion is not currently used as a source of
power on Earth
The conditions for fusion therefore are:
Very high temperature of fuel
Very high kinetic energy / speed of nuclei to overcome repulsion
Very high density / pressure to increase the possibility of suitable collisions
 Exam Tip
It is useful to remember that hydrogen is the fuel within stars, but the
details of the reaction between deuterium and tritium is not required at this
level
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YOUR NOTES
8. Astrophysics
CONTENTS
8.1 Motion in the Universe
8.1.1 Objects in Space
8.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength
8.1.3 Orbital Motion
8.1.4 Orbital Period
8.2 Stellar Evolution
8.2.1 Classification of Stars
8.2.2 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars
8.2.3 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars
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8.1 Motion in the Universe YOUR NOTES


8.1.1 Objects in Space
Planets, Stars & Galaxies
The Universe is is a large collection of billions of galaxies
It is also the name given to the entirety of space
A galaxy is a large collection of a billions of stars
Stars are astronomical objects such as the Sun
These stars are part of Solar systems
Our Solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
Each Solar system has a number of planets
Our planet, the Earth, is the third of eight planets in our Solar System
The Sun is at the centre of our Solar System
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
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
Hierarchy of the solar system
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8.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength YOUR NOTES


Gravitational Field Strength
The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction
Planets have strong gravitational fields

Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit
Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due to its gravitational field
strength
Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g
differs between the surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space,
including the Moon because of the planet or moon's mass
The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field
strength
A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards
the centre of that planet or moon
g varies with the distance from a planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is
roughly the same
However, the value of g varies dramatically for different planets and moons
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The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg YOUR NOTES
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the 
Earth
This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than
on the Earth
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and
Saturn) is more than on the Earth
This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the
Earth
Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System
On such planets such as Jupiter, an object’s mass remains the same at all points in
space
However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be
unable to fully stand up
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A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully YOUR NOTES
stand up

 Exam Tip
You do not need to remember the value of g on different planets for your
exam, the value of g for Earth will be given in the exam question.
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8.1.3 Orbital Motion YOUR NOTES


Orbital Motion
There are many orbiting objects in our solar system and they each orbit a different
type of planetary body
Orbiting Objects or Bodies in Our Solar System Table
A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

For example, a planet orbiting a Sun
In order to orbit a body such as a star or a planet, there has to be a force pulling
things towards that body
Gravity provides this force
The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always
attractive
Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger
body
The gravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path
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YOUR NOTES

Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth
Gravity causes different astronomical orbits to orbit certain others

In general:
Planets orbit the Sun
Moons orbit planets
Comets orbit the Sun
Artificial satellites to orbit the Earth or any body in the Solar System
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Differences in Orbits YOUR NOTES

Orbits of Planets 
There are several similarities in the way different planets orbit the Sun:
Their orbits are all slightly elliptical (stretched circles) with the Sun at one
focus (approximately the centre of the orbit)
They all orbit in the same plane
They all travel the same direction around the Sun
There are also a few differences:
They orbit at different distances from the Sun (different orbital radius)
They orbit at different speeds
They all take different amounts of time to orbit the Sun
The further away a planet is from the Sun, the slower it travels and therefore
the longer it takes to orbit
The orbits of planets around the Sun
Orbits of Moons
Moons orbit planets in a circular path
Some planets have more than one moon
The closer the moon is to the planet:
The shorter the time it will take to orbit
The greater the speed of the orbit
Comets
The orbits of comets are very different to those of planets:
Their orbits are highly elliptical (very stretched) or hyperbolic
This causes the speed of the comets to change significantly as their distance
from the Sun changes
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Not all comets orbit in the same plane as the planets and some don’t even YOUR NOTES
orbit in the same direction 
As the comet approaches the sun, its speed increases
As it moves further away from the sun, its speed decreases
The elliptical orbit of a comet
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8.1.4 Orbital Period YOUR NOTES


Calculating Orbital Period
When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they orbit
in circular motion
This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the
circumference of a circle (the shape of the orbit)
This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle
The relationship between speed, distance and time is:
dis tance
Speed =
time
the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:
2πr
v=
T
Where:
v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
T = orbital period in seconds (s)
This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:
The time taken for an object to complete one orbit
The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to
the object orbiting
Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun
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 The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its distance above

the Earth’s surface is 560 km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It
completes one orbit in 96 minutes.
Calculate its orbital speed in m/s.
Radius of the Earth = 6400 km

Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface = 560 km
Time period, T = 96 minutes
Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r
The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope
r = Radius of the Earth + Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface
r = 6400 + 560 = 6960 km
Step 4: Convert any units
The time period needs to be in seconds

1 minute = 60 seconds
96 minutes = 60 × 96 = 5760 s
The radius needs to be in metres
1 km = 1000 m
6960 km = 6 960 000 m
Step 5: Substitute values into the orbital speed equation
 Exam Tip
Remember to always check that the orbital period r given is the distance
from the centre of the Sun (if a planet is orbiting a Sun) or the planet (if a
moon is orbiting a planet) and not just from the surface
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8.2 Stellar Evolution YOUR NOTES


8.2.1 Classification of Stars
Classification of Stars
Stars come in a wide range of sizes and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs,
from blue giants to red supergiants
These can be classified according to their colour
Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well
Therefore, the colour they emit depends on how hot they are
A star's colour is related to its surface temperature
A red star is the coolest (at around 3000 K)
A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)
The colour of a star correlates to its temperature
This is why white dwarfs, for example, are very hot and red giants are red because
they are cool
Astronomical objects cool as they expand and heat up as they contract, such as
when a star reaches the end of its life and becomes a red giant
This means that their colour will also change accordingly with their
temperature
 Exam Tip
We often remember red as being hot and blue as cool in everyday life, but
remember this is the other way around when describing the temperature of
stars!
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8.2.2 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars YOUR NOTES


The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it
forms a hot ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will
increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its
core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core hot
Thermal expansion from fusion reactions occur within its core due to fusion and
the force of gravity keeps the star in equilibrium
At this point, the star is born, and it becomes a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force which
results from the expanding hot gases inside the star
4. Red Giant
After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will
begin to run out
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become
greater than the outward force due to the pressure dies down
A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium
nuclei will undergo fusion to form beryllium
As the core shrinks, more reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
It will become a red giant
It is red because the outer surface starts to cool
5. White Dwarf
The star will eventually become unstable and eject the outer layer of dust and gas
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity,
and the star will become a white dwarf
The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it
emits will decrease
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YOUR NOTES

The lifecycle of a solar mass star
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the life cycle for a solar mass star and ensure you
can describe the sequence in a logically structured manner in case a 6
marker comes up in the exam!Ensure you can remember the end stages for a
solar mass star clearly (red giant, planetary nebula, white dwarf) as this is
different for a star that is much larger than our Sun!
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8.2.3 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars YOUR NOTES


The Life Cycle of Larger Stars
A large star is one that is much larger than the Sun
Stars that are larger than the Sun have much shorter lifespans – in the region
of hundreds of millions of years (instead of billions)
The life cycle of a star larger than the Sun starts in the same way as a solar mass
star
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it
forms a hot ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar
will increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its
core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core hot
Thermal expansion from fusion reactions occur within its core and the force of
gravity keeps the star in equilibrium
At this point, the star is born, and it becomes a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force which
results from the expanding hot gases inside the star
4. Red Supergiant
Eventually, the main sequence star will reach a stage when it starts to run out of
hydrogen gas in its core
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity is greater than
the outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases
A new series of fusion reactions will then occur around the core, for example,
helium nuclei will undergo fusion to form beryllium
These fusion reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand and it will
become a super red giant
A super red giant is much larger than a red giant
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5. Supernova YOUR NOTES

Once the fusion reactions inside the red supergiant finally finish, the core of the 
star will collapse suddenly causing a gigantic explosion
This is called a supernova
At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form
The outer remnants of the star will be ejected into space during a supernova
6. Neutron Star (or Black Hole)
At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form
In the case of the largest stars, the neutron star that forms at the centre will
continue to collapse under the force of gravity until it forms a black hole
A black hole is an extremely dense point in space that not even light can
escape from
Lifecycle of stars much larger than our Sun
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the life cycle for a high mass star and ensure you
can describe the sequence in a logically structured manner in case a 6
marker comes up in the exam!Ensure you can remember the end stages for a
high mass star clearly (red supergiant, supernova, neutron star/black hole)
as this is different for a star that is a similar size to the Sun!
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1. Forces & Motion

1.1 Movement & Position YOUR NOTES

Constant Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

Changing Speed on a Distance-Time Graph

Gradient of a Distance-Time Graph

Calculate the speed of the train.

The distance travelled (rise) = 8 km = 8000 m

The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a moving

Step 4: Substitute values in to calculate the speed

speed = gradient = 8000 ÷ 360

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.1.2 Speed YOUR NOTES

How to Use Formula Triangles

Step 1: List the known quantities

Average speed = 250 m/s

Step 3: Rearrange for the distance moved

distance moved = average speed × time taken

The time given in the question is not in standard units

2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s YOUR NOTES

distance moved = 250 × 7200 = 1 800 000 m

1.1.3 Core Practical: Investigating Motion YOUR NOTES

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Investigating the motion of a falling paper cone

1.1.4 Acceleration YOUR NOTES

The equation below is used to calculate the average acceleration of an object:

Speeding Up & Slowing Down

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)

Initial velocity = 50 m/s

change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

change in velocity = 42 − 50 = −8 m/s

Change in velocity, Δv = − 8 m/s YOUR NOTES

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

1.1.5 Velocity-Time Graphs YOUR NOTES

Increasing and decreasing velocity represented on a velocity-time graph

Acceleration on a Velocity-Time Graph

This image shows how to interpret the slope of a velocity-time graph

Gradient of a Velocity-Time Graph YOUR NOTES

How to find the gradient of a velocity-time graph

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

(a) In which section (A, B, C, D, or E) of the velocity-time graph is Tora’s

The slope of a velocity-time graph indicates the magnitude of acceleration

Section D of the graph has the steepest slope

The acceleration is given by the gradient, which can be calculated using:

1.1.6 Area under a Velocity-Time Graph YOUR NOTES

Area = ½ × Base × Height

Determining Distance from a Velocity-Time Graph

If an object moves with constant acceleration, its velocity-time graph will

Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey.

Area 1 = area of a triangle = ½ × base × height = ½ × 40 × 17.5 = 350 m

Add up each of the five areas enclosed:

1.1.7 Calculating Uniform Acceleration YOUR NOTES

(final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + 2 × acceleration × distance moved

Step 1: Identify and write down the equation to use

Initial speed, u = 0 m/s (the car starts from rest)

1.2 Forces, Movement & Changing Shape YOUR NOTES

The effects of different forces on objects

Types of Forces YOUR NOTES

Several types of forces acting on different objects

1.2.2 Scalar & Vectors YOUR NOTES

Some vectors and scalars are similar to each other

Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity