CHAPTER EIGHT
In most traditional, sedentary agricultural facility has also been developed in West Java
systems, farmers use the land application of raw or
composted agricultural wastes as a means of recycling
of valuable nutrients and organics back into the soil
and this remains the most widespread means of
disposal. Similarly, fish farming communities in
Bangladesh, People’s Republic of China, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet
Nam commonly integrate fish rearing with
agricultural activities such as livestock husbandry,
vegetable and paddy cultivation and fruit farming
(Fauzia and Rosenani 1997, UNEP 1997).
Many countries with agricultural-based
economies use agricultural wastes to produce biogas
through anaerobic digestion. The biogas
(approximately 60 per cent methane) is primarily used
directly for cooking, heating and lighting, whilst the
slurry from the anaerobic digesters is used as liquid
fertiliser, a feed supplement for cattle and pigs and
as a medium for soaking seeds prior to germination
(Hendersen and Chang 1997).
Purpose-built sanitary landfills have been
developed to receive hazardous waste in Australia,
Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand and Republic of Korea,
whilst hazardous waste incinerators have been
developed in Australia, Japan, Hong Kong, China,
Malaysia, Republic of Korea, Singapore and Thailand
(ASIAN WATER 1998, World Bank 1998). Other
countries such as Bangladesh, People’s Republic of
China, India, Mongolia, the Philippines, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka and many Island States in the South Pacific
subregion usually co-dispose hazardous waste along
with MSW in open dumps or seek to store
particularly toxic wastes in sealed containers (United
Nations 1995, UNEP/SPREP 1997).
In some countries, including Australia, Japan,
Hong Kong, China, Republic of Korea and Singapore,
progress has been made on methods for detoxification
of hazardous waste and subsequent immobilization
by fabrication into bricks and other usable materials.
In Thailand, a major programme of hazardous
waste management is underway along the Eastern
Seaboard where petrochemical, chemical and
non-ferrous industries produce some 250 000 to
300 000 tonnes of commercially viable hazardous
industrial waste each year. A hazardous waste
treatment plant, managed by the Industrial Estate
Authority of Thailand, has been established at the
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, a focal point of the
country’s petrochemical and chemical industries.
In Malaysia, the Bukit Nanas Integrated Waste
Treatment Facility is the country’s first comprehensive
treatment plant possessing various facilities including
high-temperature incineration, physical and chemical
treatment, stabilization and a secure landfill (Malaysia
1998). A centralized hazardous waste treatment
182
(Indonesia) to treat hazardous waste from
JABOTABEK (Jakarta, Bogor, Tangeran, and Behasi)
industrial area. Between 1994 and 1997, the facility
increased the quantities of treated hazardous waste
from 9.7 tonnes to 29 tonnes, although the economic
and political crisis of 1998-1999 saw industrial
production slump with a commensurate decline in
the quantities of waste treated to 16.6 tonnes in 1998,
before increasing to 18.8 tonnes in 1999.
Japan possesses well-developed systems for
treating and disposing of the 500 million tonnes of
hazardous waste produced by its industries each year.
Recycling and material recovery are encouraged to
reduce the net amount of wastes requiring treatment
and disposal and purpose-build landfills have been
developed to receive hazardous waste. However,
the most widely practised disposal options is
incineration with some 3 840 hazardous industrial
waste incinerators across the country (ASIAN WATER
1999), many of which have energy recovery facility
to provide heating or for electrical power generation.
In Hong Kong, China, the Chemical Waste
Treatment Centre (CWTC) receives most of the
hazardous wastes generated by industries (Chua et
al 1999) with some solid chemical wastes, including
asbestos, tannery off-cuts and treatment residues
being co-disposed at landfills.
4. Biomedical Waste
The number of hospitals and health care
institutions in the Asian and Pacific Region has been
increasing to meet the medical and health care
requirements of the growing population. Although
city planners have long taken into consideration the
provision of medical and health care institutions and
services, until recent years, they, and even municipal
waste management authorities, have paid very little
attention to the wastes generated from these facilities,
which are potentially hazardous to human health and
the environment.
In recent years, however, serious concern has
arisen regarding the potential for spreading
pathogens, as well as causing environmental
contamination due to the improper handling and
management of clinical and biomedical waste. Whilst
regulatory programmes and guidelines to control
waste from such institutions have been introduced
in most developed countries, including Australia,
Japan, New Zealand, and Singapore, in developing
countries, such as Bangladesh, People’s Republic of
China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan and the Philippines,
such programmes have yet to be fully developed
(Ogawa 1993, WHO 1996, UNEP/SPREP 1997).
In Australia, the National Health and Medical
Research Council has published national guidelines