Vectors in R^n

Lecture
Vectors are algebraic and geometric objects that are central to all of linear algebra.
They can belong to spaces of very high dimension as will soon be explained, but first
let's review the concepts of the real line and the real (two-dimensional) plane that you
have learned before in school.

The Real Line

The symbol ℝ denotes the set of all real numbers, which can be depicted by the real
number line as below.

The Real Plane

To form a real plane, denoted by R2 , combine two real orthogonal lines as axes

Vectors in R^n 1
 Points in R2 are represented by ordered pairs, where the first number in the pair
indicates the horizontal coordinate, and the second number in the pair represents the
vertical coordinate. (x,y)

Real 3-space
Similarly R3 is formed by three mutually perpendicular real axes

Vectors in R^n 2
 The point qshow above is located so that the first coordinate is 1 in the positive red
direction, its second coordinate is 4 in the positive green direction, and it’s third
coordinate is 3 in the positve blue direction
Thus, q = (1, 4, 3)
Extending this idea for any natural number n(any number of the type 1, 2, 3, 4, ...),
there is a set called Rn formed using nperpendicular lines as axes. We cannot draw
Rn for n > 3, but we still understand that a point in Rn would be written in the form
(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )where each number xi indicates the coordinate along the i-th axis of
​ ​ ​ ​

R . It is not possible to visualize R for n > 3, but we will at least be able to use
n n

algebra to work in this higher dimensional space

Vector Space
It is possible to add two objects in the same Rn together and to scale objects in Rn by
real numbers (this is called scalar multiplication). When we allow for these two
operations on Rn we obtain what is called a vector space. In this context, we refer to
the objects in Rn as vectors instead of points. These vectors are written in the form
[x1 , x2 , ..., xn ], but they are typically drawn as arrows (directed line segments) that
​ ​ ​

Vectors in R^n 3
 begin at the origin (the point 0 = (0, 0, … , 0)) and end at the point (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ):
​ ​ ​

such a drawing is referred to as a vector in standard position.

➕ vectors use square brackets

Vector Notation
When typing, it is typical to use bold font for vector names; as bold font is difficult to
express in hand writing, we instead underline vector names. So, for example, 0 denotes
the zero-vector (while 0 only denotes the zero number), and another valid notation for
the zero vector, which is easier to write by hand, is 0. In general, the vector v can also
be written v.

Vectors in R^n 4
 Belongs to
The symbol ∈
means in or belongs to, so we can write 𝑝 ℝ to say "𝑝 is in ℝ", or "𝑝 ∈
belongs to ℝ"

Order and Equality

Order of the numbers matters.
We only say that two vectors u = [u1 , u2 , ..., un ]and v = [v1 , v2 , ..., vn ]are equal if
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 , ..., un = vn 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Number Addition
Can be show on number line

2+5

Vector Addition
For vectors u = [u1 , u2 , ..., un ] and v = [v1 , v2 , ..., vn ]in Rn 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , ..., un + vn ]
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Geometrically, for u and v = Rn , the vector u + vis the vector we get by copying v so
that its initial point attaches to the terminal point of u.

Vectors in R^n 5
 ➕ referred to as the head-to-tail rule for vector addition

u = [−2, 4], v = [3, −1], u + v = [1, 3]

Only vectors of same Rn can be added

Vectors in R^n 6
 Scalar Multiplication of Numbers
Geometrically viewed as stretching or compressing

If scalar negative → reverse direction of arrow

3(2)

Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

For u = [u1 , u2 , ..., un ]and c ∈ r , cu = [cu1 , cu2 , ..., cun ]
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

ie. 3[1, 4, −2, 7] = [3, 12, −6, 21]

Geometrically, u ∈ Rn , scaling u by 3 and -3/2:

Vectors in R^n 7
 u = [3, 2]
v = 2u, w = (−4/3)u

Parallel Vectors
We call two non-zero vectors u,v ∈ Rparallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other

there is a real number csuch that v = cu

Vectors in R^n 8
 If u, v are non-zero vectors in Rn and v
= cu, the cmust be non-zero. We may
express uin terms of v as u = bv , where b = 1c  ​

By convention, we do say that 0 ∈ Rn is parallel to every vector v ∈ Rn since 0v =

0 always

Linear Combinations
Can combine scalar multiplication with vertical addition and apply these to many
vectors to obtain a new vector called a linear combination

A equation wis called a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vs

​ ​ ​
∈ Rn if there exist
scalars c1 , c2 , ..., cs in Rsuch that”
​ ​ ​

w = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + ... + cs vs 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The scalars cs are called coefficients

​

Green vector is the linear combination of 3t + 2u + v for vectors t, u, v

Vectors in R^n 9
 If uand v are both linear combinations of xand y in Rn , then u + vis also a linear
combination of xand y

Let uand v be linear combinations of xand y 

u = ax + by
v = cx + dy for a, b, c, d ∈ R
∴ u + v = ax + by + cx + dy
= (a + c)x + (b + d)y

Vector Subtraction
The vectors v = [v1 , v2 , ..., vn ]and w = [w1 , w2 , ..., wn ]in Rn can be subtracted as
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

follows:

v − w = [v1 − w1 , v2 − w2 , ..., vn − wn ]
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

ie. [10, −4] − [−1, 2] = [11, −6]

➕ v − w = v + (−1)w→ subtraction is a special case of linear

combination

Represent graphically w/ adapted head-to-tail rule:

Vectors in R^n 10
 v = [3, 4] and w = [5, −1]
∴ v − w = [−2, 5]

Algebraic Properties of Vectors in Rn (true for ALL vectors and

scalars)
1. Vector addition is commutative

v + u = u + v

Vectors in R^n 11
 ➕ known as the parallelogram rule

2. Vector addition is associative

(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
3. The zero vector 0 = [0, ..., 0]is the additive identity
u + 0 = u
4. Scaling any vector by zero gives the zero vector
0u = 0
5. The number 1 is the scalar identity
1u = u
6. The additive inverse of uis
−u = (−1)u, since u + (−u) = 0
Let cand k be arbitrary scalars in R

7. Scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition

c(u + v) = cu + cv
8. Scalar multiplication is distributive over scalar addition
(c + k)u = cu + ku
9. Scalar multiplication is associative
(ck)u = c(ku)

To prove for all, must show the property holds for arbitrary vectors

Proof for statement 7:

Vectors in R^n 12
 Let u = [u1 , u2 , ..., un ] and v = [v1 , v2 , ..., vn ] ∈ Rn and let c ∈ R
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

∴ c(u + v) = c[u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , ..., un + vn ]by vector addition

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

= [c(u1 + v1 ), c(u2 + v2 ), ..., c(un + vn )]by scalar multiplication

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

= [cu1 + cv1 , cu2 + cv2 , ..., cun + cvn ]since ×is distributive over
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

+ in R
= [cu1 , cu2 , ..., cun ] + [cv1 , cv2 , ...cvn ]by vector addition
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

= c[u1 , u2 , ..., un ] + c[v1 , v2 , ..., vn ] by scalar multiplication

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

= cu + cv
∴ Property 7 holds

To prove for all not true, sufficient to find a single counterexample that demonstrates the
property is false for at least one case
ie. Prove the following statement is false:

For all uand v in Rn , u − v = v − u

The vectors u = [1, 2] and v = 5, −1are in R2 , but u − v = [−4, 3]and v −
u = [4, −3]
∴u−v = v−u
∴ it is not always true that u − v = v − u ∈ R
Condition is true when u = v

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