SEX

Sex is the biological dimension of your gender and sexuality. It also referred to as
biological sex or physical sex, the term generally pertains to your identity depending on your
sexual anatomy and physiology – the parts of your body that are relevant to reproduction and
the function of these parts. Sex is typically determined by examining your genitals – these are
external organs that are associated with reproduction – the process or the ability to create
offspring (Canadian Institutes of Health Research).
Basically, sex is associated with the physical and physiological features that includes
chromosomes, gene expression, hormone levels and function, and reproductive or sexual
anatomy. It categorized humans as male or female. It is often assigned at birth. If a child at
birth, have a penis and testicles, then the child is categorized as male, on the other hand, a child
with a vagina, is categorized as female. In spite of this categorization, there are children born
with both the male and female genitals which causes difficulty to classify their sexes without
further examination. This condition is referred as intersexuality (before the condition was
referred as hermaphroditism). Intersexuality is a naturally occurring variation in humans and
animals according to the American Psychological Association (APA) (2006).
There are other biological markers used to categorized males from females. One of these
biological markers is our chromosomes. Chromosomes are protein structures which contain our
genetic materials and are used to determine our sexes. A human with set of XY sex
chromosomes is a male, while a human with a set of XX is a female. Another biological marker
used is by determining the level of some hormones. Hormones are chemicals in our body that
are responsible for sustaining bodily processes. Males have a higher level of testosterone, which
is associated with sex drives and aggressions. Females have a higher level of estrogen and
progesterone, which are associated to lactation, menstruation and other female reproductive
functions.

GENDER
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of
girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people. It influences how people perceive
themselves and each other, how they act and interact, and the distribution of power and
resources in society. Gender identity is not confined to a binary (girl/woman, boy/man) nor is it
static; it exists along a continuum and can change over time. There is considerable diversity in
how individuals and groups understand, experience and express gender through the roles they
take on, the expectations placed on them, relations with others and the complex ways that
gender is institutionalized in society (Canadian Institutes of Health Research).
 We are meaning-making organisms. We think, comprehend, justify and create social
norms that allows us to attach predominantly social and cultural meanings to things, including
our sex. Males are expected to be masculine and females are expected to be feminine. With
these expectations, we attach social and cultural meanings to our sexes. We are trained to act
and behave to be masculine or feminine, to be a male or a female. This is what referred by
gender.
Gender is manifested in many ways. For example, when we hear a new baby is coming,
we tend to attach both the social and cultural norms to the baby. One is color association, blue
for a baby boy and pink for a baby girl. The moment a baby is born, we associate things to
baby’s sex, such as the name, apparels and toys.
Attached expectations are becoming more complex and at some point, difficult
throughout the duration of childhood and adolescence. We are asked to act and behave as what
we are expected to do. We are expected to stick to the social and cultural norms and behaviors
assigned to our sexes. The normality of our behavior based on whether we conform or not to the
expectations attach to our sexes is referred to as heteronormativity. In our culture, boys are
expected to be courageous, strong, rough and assertive, while girls are typically expected to be
modest, gentle, caring and more loving. These expectations also extend to how men and women
are expected to behave, the college courses they take, and the jobs they apply to.
However, there are people who do not conform to these socially and culturally accepted
standards of masculinity and femininity. This is gender expression. Nothing is permanent, these
social and cultural practices change through time. For example, in the past, only men could
wear pants, but now, wearing pants is not only for males but also females. Fashion trend does
change the normally accepted practices.
Absolutely, we express our gender based on our social and cultural setting. Most of us are
comfortable with our sex and gender; men are masculine and women are feminine. But we must
remember, that each culture has different standards on how to be a man and a woman and how
they should portray themselves according to their sex and gender.

GENDER IDENTITY
Gender identity is defined as a personal conception of oneself as male or female (or
rarely, both or neither). (Shuvo Ghosh, https://emedicinemedscape.com). In all instances, we
can say that gender identity is the result of both natural and environmental factors to a person.
One of the important aspects of our gender is our sense who we are: do we see ourselves
as a man, a woman, or neither? Do we experience ourselves as a man, a woman, or neither? If
you consider yourself as a male and you are comfortable referring to your gender in masculine
terms, then your identity is a male. On the other hand, if you consider yourself as a female and
you are comfortable referring to your gender in feminine terms, then your identity is a female.
 However, there are people who are biologically male and female but they do not conform
with their gender identity. People with this experience are called transgenders. A male who is
not comfortable referring himself as masculine, but is comfortable identifying himself as a
woman and as a feminine is a transgender woman. While a female who is not comfortable
referring herself as feminine, but is comfortable identifying herself as a man and as a masculine
is a transgender man. And some of these transgender people, undergone surgeries to align their
physical characteristics to their gender identity.

Sexual Orientation
Describes to whom a person is sexually attracted. Some people are attracted to people of
a particular gender; others are attracted to people of more than one gender. Some are not
attracted to anyone.
Sexual orientation is a term used to refer a person’s pattern of emotional, romantic, and
sexual attraction to people of a particular gender (male or female) (https://webmd.com).
According to the Psychological Association of the Philippines, typically at ages 6 or 8,
we experience or develop attraction to other people. By adolescence, we already know how we
are attracted to and would experiment through dating and relationships. (Gender and Society: A
Human Ecological Approach, p5)
Our sexuality is a very important part of who we are as humans. Our sexuality defines
how we view ourselves and how physically we relate to others. And of course, sexuality bless
us the ability to reproduce.
Sexual orientation is usually divided into these categories:
Asexual - not sexually attracted to anyone and/or no desire to act on attraction to anyone. Does
not necessarily mean sexless. Asexual people sometimes do experience affectional (romantic)
attraction.
Bisexual - attracted to people of one’s own gender and people of other gender(s). Two common
misconceptions are that bisexual people are attracted to everyone and anyone, or that they just
haven’t “decided.” Often referred to as “bi.” See also Pansexual/Fluid and Queer.
Gay - generally refers to a man who is attracted to men. Sometimes refers to all people who are
attracted to people of the same sex; sometimes “homosexual” is used for this also, although this
term is seen by many today as a medicalized term that should be retired from common use.
Lesbian - a woman who is attracted to women. Sometimes also or alternately “same-gender-
loving woman” or “woman loving woman.” See also Gay.
Pansexual/Fluid - attracted to people regardless of gender. Sometimes also or alternately
“omnisexual” or “polysexual.” See also Bisexual and Queer.
Questioning - one who may be unsure of, reconsidering, or chooses to hold off identifying their
sexual identity or gender expression or identity.
Queer - traditionally a derogatory term, yet reclaimed and appropriated by some LGBTQ
individuals as a term of self-identification. It is an umbrella term which embraces a matrix of
sexual preferences, gender expressions, and habits that are not of the heterosexual,
heteronormative, or gender-binary majority. It is not a universally accepted term by all
members of the LGBT community, and it is often considered offensive when used by
heterosexuals.
Straight - attracted to people of the “opposite” sex (see below); also sometimes generally used
to refer to people whose sexualities are societally normative. Alternately referred to as
“heterosexual.”

GENDER IDENTITY AND EXPRESSION

The ways in which a person identifies and/or expresses their gender, including self-image,
appearance, and embodiment of gender roles. One’s sex (e.g. male, female, intersex, etc.) is
usually assigned at birth based on one’s physical biology. One’s gender (e.g. male, female,
genderqueer, etc.) is one’s internal sense of self and identity. One’s gender expression (e.g.
masculine, feminine, androgynous, etc.) is how one embodies gender attributes, presentations,
roles, and more.
Androgyny - The mixing of masculine and feminine gender expression or the lack of gender
identification. The terms androgyne, agender, and neutrois are sometimes used by people who
identify as genderless, non-gendered, beyond or between genders, or some combination thereof.
Cisgender - A gender identity that society considers to “match” the biological sex assigned at
birth. The prefix cis- means “on this side of” or “not across from.” A term used to call attention
to the privilege of people who are not transgender.
Crossdresser - Cross-dressing refers to occasionally wearing clothing of the “opposite” gender,
and someone who considers this an integral part of their identity may identify as a crossdresser
(note: the term crossdresser is preferable to transvestite and neither may ever be used to
describe a transsexual person). Cross-dressing is not necessarily tied to erotic activity or sexual
orientation.
Genderqueer/Third Gender/Gender Fluid - These terms are used by people who identify as
being between and/or other than male or female. They may feel they are neither, a little bit of
both, or they may simply feel restricted by gender labels.
Intersex - A general term used for a variety of genetic, hormonal, or anatomical conditions in
which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem to fit the typical
definitions of female or male. Some intersex individuals identify as transgender or gender
variant; others do not. (Note: hermaphrodite is an obsolete term that is not currently considered
appropriate.)
Transgender - First coined to distinguish gender benders with no desire for surgery or
hormones from transsexuals, those who desired to legally and medically change their sex, more
recently transgender and/or trans has become an umbrella term popularly used to refer to all
people who transgress dominant conceptions of gender, or at least all who identify themselves
as doing so. The definition continues to evolve.
Transsexual - The term transsexual has historically been used to refer to individuals who have
medically and legally changed their sex, or who wish to do so. Most transsexual people feel a
conflict between their gender identity and the sex they were assigned at birth. Other labels used
within this group are MtF (maleto-female) or trans woman, and FtM (female-to-male) or trans
man.
Two-Spirit – A person who identified with the Native American tradition of characterizing
certain members of the community as having the spirit of both the male and female genders.

OTHER COMMONLY USED TERMS

Biphobia - Aversion of and/or prejudice toward the idea that people can be attracted to more
than one gender, and/or bisexuals as a group or as individuals, often based on negative
stereotypes of bisexuality and the invisibility of bisexual people.
Coming Out – The process of acknowledging one’s sexual orientation and/or gender identity or
expression to oneself or other people.
Gender Binary - A system of classifying sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected
forms of masculine and feminine. It can be referred to as a social construct or a social boundary
that discourages people from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating other third (or
more) forms of gender expression. It can also represent some of the prejudices which stigmatize
people who identify as intersex and transgender.
Heterosexism - The presumption that everyone is straight and/or the belief that heterosexuality
is a superior expression of sexuality. Often includes the use of power of the majority
(heterosexuals) to reinforce this belief and forgetting the privileges of being straight in our
society.
Homophobia - Negative attitudes and feelings toward people with non-heterosexual
sexualities; dislike of, or discomfort with, expressions of sexuality that do not conform to
heterosexual norms.
Internalized Oppression - In reference to LGBTQ people, internalized oppression is the belief
that straight and non-transgender people are “normal” or better than LGBTQ people, as well as
the often-unconscious belief that negative stereotypes about LGBTQ people are true.
LGBTQ - An acronym for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer. This is currently one
of the most popular ways in U.S. society to refer to all people who are marginalized due to
sexual orientation and/or gender identity, although other letters are often included as well to
represent identities described above.
Transphobia - Negative attitudes and feelings toward transgender individuals or discomfort
with people whose gender identity and/or gender expression do not conform to traditional or
stereotypic gender roles.
GENDER AND SEXUALITY ACROSS TIME
Society has advanced such a great amount such that data and information is accessible to
everybody. This offers us a chance to inspect our social and political conditions in more detail
than when data was scant and restricted to just a couple of people. Chronicled accounts show
that across time, people's origination of sex and sexuality has likewise changed. Archeological
artifacts uncover that in the inaccessible past, during the beginning of civic establishments,
human social orders have high respect for women. The idea of the divine feminine (the holiness
of the woman because of her capacity to conceive children) has won, and accordingly, women
are dealt with similarly with men. This makes societies egalitarian (men and women have equal
footing in the society).
Notwithstanding, society’s discovery of paternity, probably during the Agricultural
period, have likewise changed how social orders have seen women and men hence. For a very
long time from that point, social orders have advantaged men over different sexual orientations,
basically in view of the special given to them in the gainful circle. Women who have been
worshipped because of their capacity to conceive have been seen as exclusively proficient just
of reproductive undertakings. The sexual orientation difference was escalated by the modern
times when men were favored on the grounds that they did not need to endure babies for nine
months and as a result of their apparent physical quality. However, how did actually the
conceptualization of sex and sexuality change?

PATRIARCHY
Patriarchy is a often used term in everyday conversation. The question here is “what is
patriarchy?” In casual conversation, whether in English or any other language the term implies
“male domination”, “male prejudice (against women)”, or more simply “male power”. Put
simply, the term means “the absolute rule of the father or the eldest male member over his
family”. Patriarchy is thus the rule of the father over all women in the family and also over
younger socially and economically subordinate males. Literally, patriarchy means rule by the
male head of a social unit (like family, tribe). The patriarch is typically a societal elder who has
legitimate power over others in the social unit. However, since the early twentieth century,
feminist writers have used the term patriarchy as a concept to refer to the social system of
masculine domination over women. Patriarchy has been a fundamentally important concept in
gender studies. Feminist writers have developed a number of theories that aim to understand the
bases of women's subordination to men.
The term patriarchy is not only a descriptive term that explains how different societies
construct male authority and power, but also become an analytical category. This changes of the
use of the term patriarchy from a descriptive to an analytical category took place in the 1970s,
in a specific global historical context of feminist political and intellectual culture. In the course
of time this later led to the development of the discipline of women's studies or gender studies,
when women agitated for their rights. At the Universities women demanded that their
experiences and points of view be taken seriously that patriarchy emerged as a way of both
describing and explaining the world. Since this time, patriarchy has been used critically to
explain the main components of authority and power in any social system. Patriarchy
automatically privileges men over women such that women have little or no claims to material,
sexual and intellectual resources of the society. That is, in a patriarchal society women have to
struggle to be educated, to have property or to make choices regarding marriage and other
aspects of life. For men, these resources are a matter of right and can make choices that affect
their lives.
Let us take some examples to clarify the way in which patriarchy is evident in our daily
life.
When a man raises his voice in the course of an argument and insects on his point of
view, without letting others especially women get to utter a single word, his actions are likely to
be described as “aggressively patriarchal”.
If a women complains of sexual harassment at her work place, and all the men in her
office deny that this could ever happen. The reasoning of men can be described as being
“typically patriarchal”.
In public speeches that disclaim the subordination of women, this decimal is described by
the term "patriarchy‟.
In a very general way “patriarchy” is a „catch‟ word that describes the different ways in
which society discriminates against women. These examples explain the many different and
subtle ways through which patriarchy is expressed in the society.
Anglo – European anthropologists, writing in the nineteenth century, used the term
widely. In their writings, "patriarchy‟, usually referred to a social system where men were
family heads, descent was through the father. Men alone were priests, and all laws and norms
were dictated by the male elders in the community. When used in this sense, the term
„patriarchy‟ is often contrasted with the term „matriarchy‟, which referred to social system
where women exercised political authority over men, or possessed decisive power and
exercised a measure of control over social relationships and everyday life. In the evolution of
society, matriarchy was usually considered and earlier and more primitive stage of society, and
patriarchy on later and more advanced stage of society.
 In contemporary discourses on gender, patriarchy is a central concept that feminist
writers have been grappling with to explain differential positions of men and women in the
society. These writings view patriarchy as the subordination of women. The patriarchal system
provides self – definitions and norms for women. These social norms restrict the social roles of
women as mothers and wives. The patriarchal system also amply rewards all those women who
learn to passively their defined roles.
Both wifehood and motherhood become glorified in the patriarchal system. These roles
are granted social sanctions and at the same time are also eulogized in local folk lore, in
literature, and religion so that women do actively engage themselves in playing their social
roles and thus themselves contributes and perpetuate the patriarchal social order.
Patriarchy has both productive and punitive aspects. Thus women who wish to remain
single and refuse marriage and treated with disdain by the society. Similarly women who are
not fertile or those who cannot bear children especially male are ridiculed and held in contempt
and their position in the family is a non-existent one. The position of widow, especially upper
caste widows under the patriarchal system was even pitiable. Widow remarriage was prohibited.
The widow was excluded from also social and religious functions of the family, confined to the
house and household chores. Those women who did not fall into this pattern of society, that is
those women who refused to be invisible, and did not conform to their civic identity on their
fertility and domestic status were ridiculed, and criticized for being stubborn and even as
unnatural to their basic biology.
In some countries women who did not marry, or were not fertile, or who became widows
at a young age were deforminised in some ways. For example in India, upper caste widows
were required to slave their heads, wear no ornaments, or color garments as they were viewed
with suspicion. They were women who had deviated from the conventional norms of
reproduction and had to be relegated to a lowly status and position. Women who appeared as a
threat to the larger society because they did not conform to the norms that governed feminine
behavior were accused of practicing magic and sorcery. They were identified as witches. Witch-
hunting by men was expressed through violence against these women who were severely
punished, publicly humiliated and ever killed.
Patriarchy has been viewed as more than just the subordination of women. It has been
pointed out that not all men are powerful in a patriarchal system. For example younger men in
the family have less authority and power than older men. They have to defer to older men till
their turn to exercise power comes. The lower class and underprivileged men, and in the Indian
context the "dalit men" have lesser or no authority as compared to the upper class, more
privileged and upper caste men. Such men who are oppressed and exploited by powerful men
are denied access to resources of the society as well as their own masculine identity. Inspite of
this, that certain classes and category of men are the targets of patriarchal authority, the fact
remains that all men can claim resources and power more easily than women in their families or
communities. In the lower caste lower class families male children get to eat better food and are
more likely to be sent to school and receive health care than the female children. Another
example is that of the hirjas (enuchs) in India. They actively renounce and refuse their
masculinity. They are often the object or ridicule and derision. Moreover, many of them are
from lower castes and lower classes.
A patrilineal society regularly follows a male centric culture, this implies no one but men
can acquire property and the family name. Women were left with no legacy and are relied upon
to marry a man who can uphold her monetarily. Indeed, women were not permitted to go to
schools, or even vote, since they are seen as a more fragile sex and ought not concern
themselves in learning science and political issues. Women needed to battle for the option to
cast a ballot, to go to class, to go to work, an even partake in political matters.
Male controlled society is seen by most sociologists as a social develop and not as an
organic marvel. This is on the grounds that history demonstrates that in the ancient agrarian
clans and human advancement, they organized equity all things considered, male and female.
History proposes a libertarian framework as opposed to a man centric framework. People add to
society, and they appreciate a similar economic well-being.
Women have come a long way since the ancient times through the feminist movement,
however, patriarchy has taken on subtle forms of oppression that often go unnoticed such as:
Sexism – prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination based on sex;
Gender Pay Gap – men earn more than women;
Underrepresentation in politics, military, executive positions, etc.;
Rape on women and the stigma in making women ashamed to report the crime;
Very conservative expectations on women on how they behave;
Unrealistic depictions of women in fiction, often very sexualized;
Women do more housework and childcare; and
Boys were trained to be leaders while women were trained to do house chores (Botor, et.
al., 2019)

What do men control in the Patriarchal System

Different areas of women's lives are said to be under patriarchal control.

1. Women’s productive or labor power

Men control women's productivity both within the household and outside, in paid work. Within the
household women provide all kinds of services to their husbands, children and other members of the
family throughout their lives. Feminist writer Sylvia Walby calls this as the “patriarchal mode of
production” where women's labor is expropriated by then husbands and others who live there. She
calls housewives as the „producing class‟ and husbands are the "expropriating class‟. The work done
by housewives is not considered as work at all and housewives become dependent on their husbands.
Men also control women's labor outside the home. They make women to sell their labor or they may
prevent their women from working. They may appropriate what women earn often women are
excluded from better paid work. They are usually working in jobs with low wages; or work within the
home in what is called home based production, which is itself an exploitative system.
This control over and exploitation of women's labor mean that men benefit materially from
patriarchy. They benefit economically from the subordination of women. This is the material or
economic basis of patriarchy.

2. Women’s Reproduction
Men also control women's reproductive power. In many societies women have no control over then
reproduction capacities. They cannot decide how many children they want, whether to use
contraceptives, or a decision to terminate pregnancy. In addition men control social institutions like
religion and politics which are male dominated. Control is institutionalized by laying down rules
regarding women's reproduction capacity. For example, in the Catholic Church, the male religious
hierarchy decides whether men and women can use birth control contraceptives. In modern times, the
patriarchal state tries to control women's reproduction through its family planning programs. The
state decides the optimum size of the country's population. In India for example the birth control
program limits the family size and discourages women from having more than two children. On the
other hand, in Europe, where birth rates are low, women are lured through various incentives have
more children. Women are given long paid maternity leave, child care facilities and opportunities for
part-time jobs.
Patriarchy idealizes motherhood and thereby forces women to be mothers. It also determines the
conditions of their motherhood. This ideology of motherhood is considered one of the bases of
women's oppression. It also creates feminine and masculine character types and perpetuates
patriarchy. It restricts women's mobility and it reproduces male dominance.

3. Control over Women’s Sexuality

Women are obliged to provide sexual services to their husbands according to their needs and desires.
Moral and legal regulations exist to restrict the expression of women's sexuality outside marriage in
every society, while male promiscuity is often condoned.
Another way of exercising control over women's sexuality is when men force their wives, daughters or
other women in their control into prostitution. Rape and threat of rape is another way in which
women‟' sexuality is controlled through notions of "shame‟ and "honor", family honor. Lastly,
women's sexuality is controlled through their dress, behavior and mobility which are carefully
monitored by the family and through social, cultural and religions codes of behavior.

4. Women’s Mobility
Besides control of women's sexuality, production and reproduction, men also control women's
mobility. The imposition of purdah restriction on leaving the house, limit on interaction between the
sexes are some of the ways by which the patriarchal society controls women's mobility and freedom of
movement. Such restriction are unique to women, while men are not subject to such restrictions.
 5. Property and other Economic Resources
Most property and other productive resources are controlled by men and are passed on from father to
son. Even in societies where women have legal rights to inherit property, customary practices, social
sanctions and emotional pressures that prevents them from acquiring control over them. According to
UN statistics, “Women do more than 60% of the hours of work done in the world, but they get 10% of
the world's income and own 1% of the world's property”.

Women Empowerment
What is women’s empowerment?
Women’s empowerment can be defined to promoting women’s sense of self-worth, their ability to
determine their own choices, and their right to influence social change for themselves and others.
It is closely aligned with female empowerment – a fundamental human right that’s also key to
achieving a more peaceful, prosperous world.

In Western countries, female empowerment is often associated with specific phases of the women’s
rights movement in history. This movement tends to be split into three waves, the first beginning in
the 19th and early 20th century where suffrage was a key feature. The second wave of the 1960s
included the sexual revolution and the role of women in society. Third wave feminism is often seen as
beginning in the 1990s.
Women’s empowerment and promoting women’s rights have emerged as a part of a major global
movement and is continuing to break new ground in recent years. Days like International Women’s
Empowerment Day are also gaining momentum.
But despite a great deal of progress, women and girls continue to face discrimination and violence in
every part of the world.
Women’s empowerment is related to the concept of gender. Gender is the ensemble of the
characteristics formed by the society that construct the role for men, women, and other genders (in
the binary vision, but there can be a lot of various gender). The empowerment can happen in a wide
range of society stratum, but mainly, it takes place in economy and politics.
Human Rights take into account what concerns genders equality and the empowerment of women. It
is considered as a key way to measure the development of a country too. And it is part of the focuses
of the United Nations.
That’s why it is a recurrent care of the corporations in order to be socially responsible.
There are several fields that are considered as a key to give more power to women :
 education: in a lot of countries, women and young girls don’t have the opportunity to go to school. Or, a woman
who knows is a woman that has the most chances to have a participation in society.
 technology: as it is an access to education, the internet is key to empower women.
 clean water: it is often something that retains girls to go to school.
 eliminating discriminatory practices in every stratum of society.
 giving women a chance to participate in politics is giving them a voice and power in their life.
 equality in the distribution of resources
 access to employment: women participate in the economy, but to give them a chance of choosing their life, they
need to have a way to make money for themselves.
 eliminating violence against women
 access to justice