The gender bread man

The Genderbread Person (not "man") is a visual tool that was created to help explain
and understand the concepts of gender, sex, and sexual orientation. It is often used in
educational settings to facilitate discussions around gender identity and expression.
The Genderbread Person consists of four components: gender identity, gender
expression, biological sex, and sexual orientation. Here's a brief explanation of each:
1. Gender Identity: This refers to a person's internal sense of their own gender. It is
how someone identifies and experiences themselves, whether as male, female, or
something else entirely. Gender identity is deeply personal and may not necessarily
align with the sex assigned at birth.
2. Gender Expression: This refers to how a person presents their gender to the world
through their behavior, clothing, hairstyles, and other external factors. Gender
expression is not necessarily tied to a person's gender identity.
3. Biological Sex: This refers to the physical and physiological characteristics that
typically define male and female bodies. These characteristics may include
reproductive organs, chromosomes, hormones, and secondary sexual characteristics.
4. Sexual Orientation: This refers to a person's emotional, romantic, and/or sexual
attraction to others. It is about who someone is attracted to, whether it be individuals
of the same gender, opposite gender, or multiple genders.

The Genderbread Person is a helpful tool that visually represents these components
and emphasizes that they are separate and distinct from one another. It recognizes
that gender is a complex and multifaceted spectrum, rather than a binary concept.
The Genderbread Person is often used to highlight the understanding that gender
exists on a spectrum rather than just two categories of male and female. It recognizes
that there are diverse ways in which people experience and express their gender.

CONT
The development of boys and girls is certainly affected by both biological and

social processes, and is influenced by interactions with parents, peers, school,

and the culture at large" means that the development of boys and girls is

influenced by a combination of biological factors and social factors.

Biological factors include the physical changes that occur during puberty, such

as growth spurts, changes in body proportions, and the development of

secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair in boys and breast development

in girls .

Social factors include interactions with parents, peers, school, and the broader

cultural environment. For example, children's gender development can be

influenced by their interactions with same-sex peers, as they tend to have more

interactions with peers of the same sex and engage in gender-stereotyped play .

Parents and teachers also play a role in socializing children to think and act in

gendered ways, although biological factors like sex hormones can also influence

children's preferences for certain activities .

Overall, the development of boys and girls is a complex interplay between

biological and social processes, with various factors shaping their growth and

behavior.

THE MANY COMPONENTS OF SEX AND GENDER

Many people believe that everything about a person's sex and gender is consistent and

straightforward. They think that someone is either completely male or female, strictly

heterosexual or homosexual, and always masculine or feminine. However, these

aspects of sex and gender are much more complex than they may seem.
While most children are born with clear biological characteristics that make them male

or female, there are some cases where things are not so clear-cut. Some individuals

may have inconsistent biological features like chromosomes, hormones, or genital

structures. These biological aspects can also vary from person to person.

Cultural aspects of sex and gender are even more diverse. Not all girls fit into the

typical feminine qualities defined by their culture. Some girls may enjoy sports and be

competitive basketball players, while also enjoying dressing up and wearing makeup.

They may have different interests and career aspirations, such as being a nursery

school teacher or a computer programmer. These girls usually don't question their

gender identity; they simply accept that they are girls. However, they may question

certain aspects of what it means to be feminine according to societal norms.

Sexual orientation, or who someone is attracted to, is also not always directly tied to

masculinity and femininity. While some boys with feminine interests may grow up to be

gay men, others do not. Similarly, many girls who prefer traditionally masculine

activities grow up to be heterosexual women. These matters of sex, gender, gender

identity, gender roles, and sexual orientation are far from simple and can vary greatly

from person to person.

“Sex” or “Gender”: What’s the Difference?

The terms "sex" and "gender" are used to talk about males and females, but their

meanings can vary depending on who is using them. In the past, these terms were
often used interchangeably, but psychologist John Money helped distinguish between

them.

Money used the term "gender" to describe the external aspects of being male or

female, like the roles and behaviors associated with each gender. He used "sex" to

refer to the biological aspects, like chromosomes and hormones.

However, different scholars and disciplines have different ways of using these terms.

Some use "sex" only to talk about biological aspects, while others use "gender" to

describe both biological and social/cultural aspects. This can make it confusing

because different authors might use different terms.

The “Sexes” or the “Genders”: How Many Are There?

Sometimes, when a baby is born, their physical characteristics may not align

completely with typical male or female traits. This is called an intersex condition. It

means that the child's chromosomes (which determine their biological sex) and their

genital structures may not match up perfectly.

For example, some intersex individuals may have both ovaries and testes, or they may

have one type of gonad (either ovaries or testes) but their external or internal genital

structures may not fully match. This shows that there can be variations in biological

sex beyond just male or female.

Biologist Anne Fausto-Sterling suggested that if we consider people with intersex

conditions, we could see biological sex as a continuum rather than just two categories.

She emphasized that there is a lot of variation in biological sex, including differences

in chromosomes, hormones, internal sex structures, gonads, and external genitalia.

Gender can vary along a spectrum, even for boys. Some boys may have interests and

personalities that are very masculine, while others may have interests and

personalities that are more feminine. However, our society typically only recognizes

two gender categories: male and female. There isn't widespread acceptance of

additional gender categories beyond these two.

Since the Middle Ages, people with intersex conditions in Western cultures have been

expected to choose to be either male or female. When a child is born with intersex

traits, they are usually assigned to one gender or another. Sometimes, they undergo

surgeries to change their genitals to match the assigned gender. For example, if a child

has an enlarged clitoris that looks like a penis, surgery might be done to make it

smaller.

In recent years, advocacy groups like the Intersex Society of North America have

called for a change in how intersex individuals are treated. They believe that

non-medically necessary surgeries on infants and young children should be avoided

until they can make their own decisions about their gender identity and any potential

surgeries.

In many cultures, there are more than just two gender categories. For example, some

Native American cultures have historically recognized a third gender category called a

"berdache." These individuals, who could be men or women, would dress and live in the

social roles of the opposite sex. They might even have a marriage partner of the same

biological sex as themselves.

Similarly, in Samoa, there is a third gender category consisting of males who dress in

women's clothing and have different social rules for their behavior compared to males

and females. In Albanian culture, there are "sworn virgins," which are women who live,

dress, and work as celibate men.

These examples show that not all cultures adhere strictly to the binary understanding

of gender as male or female. However, it is important to note that in most cultures,

especially modern Western cultures, there is a tendency to recognize only two social

categories: male and female. When a child is born, there is often an expectation to

determine whether the child is a boy or a girl.

Sexual Orientation and Sexual Identity

Sexual orientation refers to a person's feelings of sexual attraction or arousal and their

sexual behavior with partners of the same sex, opposite sex, or both. It is about who

someone is attracted to romantically and sexually. Sexual identity, on the other hand,

refers to how individuals identify themselves in terms of their sexual orientation, such

as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.

While same-sex attractions and behaviors have likely existed throughout history, the

identification of lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities did not become common until the

late 19th century. Since then, the number of people identifying as lesbian, gay, or

bisexual has increased significantly during the 20th century.

Although sexual orientation and sexual identity become more central in the lives of

adolescents and adults, sexual feelings and romantic attractions can emerge earlier
than many people realize. Research suggests that most children experience their first

erotic attractions and feelings around the age of 10, coinciding with the production of

sex hormones during puberty. Many individuals recall their first crushes and sexual

attractions around this age.

Researchers have explored the developmental roots of adult sexual orientation,

examining factors such as genetics, early hormonal influences, family configurations,

and childhood gender roles or behaviors. However, it is important to note that the

factors influencing sexual orientation may differ between males and females.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are beliefs about the characteristics of males and females. They

include personality traits, physical attributes, roles, occupations, and assumptions

about sexual orientation. For example, men are often seen as strong and rugged, while

women are seen as delicate and graceful. Men are typically viewed as competent,

confident, and independent, while women are seen as warm, kind, and caring.

These stereotypes can be both positive and negative. For instance, men may be

perceived as aggressive or selfish, while women may be seen as overly emotional.

However, recent research suggests that stereotypes about women are generally

viewed more positively overall, particularly in terms of warmth and kindness. On the

other hand, men are seen as more competent, powerful, and having higher status.

Some studies have also explored whether these stereotypes are seen as "prescriptive"

or obligatory, meaning whether people believe that men and women should have
specific characteristics and not others. For example, college students believed that

women should be friendly, compassionate, and emotionally expressive, while avoiding

characteristics like intimidation or arrogance. Similarly, men were expected to be

ambitious, assertive, and rational, while avoiding emotional or weak traits.

Children begin to learn about these stereotypes from an early age. Even young children

tend to perceive girls and women as kinder, while boys and men are seen as more

competent.

Gender Roles

In society, there are certain roles associated with gender. For example, the role of a

homemaker is often associated with women, while the role of an economic provider is

often associated with men. These roles are influenced by stereotypes about gender.

The traits that are considered important for these roles differ. For the homemaker role,

traits like care and concern for others are seen as valuable. On the other hand, for the

economic provider role, traits like independence and competence are seen as

important.

Children are often socialized and educated in a way that prepares them for these roles.

Girls may be taught skills related to homemaking and caring for others, while boys

may be encouraged to develop skills that are useful for being an economic provider.

Research has shown that household tasks like cooking and child-care are more often

assigned to girls, while tasks like lawn mowing are more commonly assigned to boys.

This reflects the societal expectations and stereotypes associated with gender roles.
However, in modern Western societies, many women and men are involved in both

homemaking and economic providing to some extent. It is also observed that men and

women tend to work in different occupations or have different job assignments.

Female-dominated occupations often involve nurturing and caretaking, while

male-dominated occupations are associated with physical strength and assertiveness.

It can be difficult to determine whether the characteristics associated with these jobs

are inherent to the jobs themselves or if they are assumed based on the gender

composition of the jobs.

Gender roles encompass various aspects beyond the traditional homemaker and

provider roles. They include physical appearance, such as clothing, hairstyles, and

accessories like jewelry. Gender roles also extend to leisure interests, social etiquette,

self-presentation, rules for sexual behavior, and even preferences for certain toys and

activities during childhood.

Sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists have studied gender roles across

different cultures. While all cultures differentiate between male and female roles, the

specific expectations and assignments can vary. For example, in some cultures,

women may handle tasks like marketing or weaving, while in others, men may take on

these responsibilities. Cultures also differ in terms of how much emotion is expected

to be shown by each gender, expectations of sexual behavior, and the level of

interaction between men and women on a daily basis. Some cultures emphasize

gender differences more strongly, while others have less differentiation.

Despite cultural variations, certain aspects of gender roles tend to be consistent. In a

study involving university students from 25 different countries, researchers found a

remarkable degree of similarity in the traits associated with males and females. Traits

like being active, adventurous, aggressive, independent, and logical were consistently

attributed to males, while traits like affectionate, emotional, fearful, submissive, and

talkative were consistently associated with females.

There are also cross-cultural similarities in production tasks. Men are often more

involved in activities like hunting, metalworking, and lumbering, while women are more

commonly engaged in tasks like carrying water, cooking, laundering, and gathering

vegetables. These differences can be influenced by reproductive roles and men's

physical strength. Additionally, women tend to participate more in childcare across

cultures.

Across cultures, there are certain trends in gender roles related to dating, mating, and

childhood behavior.

Dating and Mating: In various cultures, men generally tend to choose partners who are

younger and less powerful than themselves. Men also tend to have more sexual

partners compared to women. Additionally, there is a higher prevalence of

interpersonal violence among men, particularly violence against other men. Partner

violence often stems from men's attempts to control their female partners.
Childhood Behavior: In childhood, there are consistent patterns of behavior observed

across cultures. Boys tend to engage in more rough and tumble play compared to girls.

There is also a common phenomenon called gender segregation, where children tend

to play predominantly with others of the same sex. In these same-sex groups, boys

typically focus more on dominance and social status, while girls tend to prioritize close

and communal relationships. Furthermore, across many cultures, boys exhibit higher

levels of aggression, while girls are more likely to take on caring roles, such as looking

after younger children.

In summary, these cross-cultural patterns suggest that certain gender roles and

behaviors related to dating, mating, and childhood are observed consistently across

different societies. Men often seek younger and less powerful partners, engage in

more violence against other men, and have more sexual partners. In childhood, boys

tend to engage in rough play, play separately from girls, prioritize dominance, and

exhibit more aggression, while girls focus on building close relationships and engage

in caregiving behaviors.

Gender and Status

In many societies, men generally hold more legal, economic, and political power, as

well as higher social status compared to women. This power differential is evident in

various aspects of life. For example, the economic provider role is typically associated
with more power and status than the homemaker role. Male-dominated occupations

tend to have higher status, power, and pay compared to female-dominated

occupations. Men also tend to have more control over economic resources globally

and occupy more positions of authority in government, business, and the professions.

On the other hand, women are more likely to be found among the poor in most

countries worldwide.

Children become aware of these status differences between men and women at a

young age, around 10 years old or even earlier. However, it is important to note that

there are exceptions to these general trends, and not all individuals or cultures adhere

strictly to these gender roles and power differentials.

In some cultures, the power and status differentials between genders can be extreme.

For example, in Taliban-ruled Afghanistan, girls were severely restricted in their public

activities, education, and even the ability to read. In many developing nations, there is

a preference for having male children, leading to practices like sex-selective abortions

or giving up female babies for adoption in the pursuit of having sons. However, it is

worth noting that these extreme examples do not represent all cultures or societies.

In contemporary Western societies, there has been a shift in preferences regarding the

gender of children. While in the past, both men and women often expressed a

preference for having sons or boys as firstborns, recent research suggests that the

preference for one gender over the other has diminished. Many parents now prefer to

have one child of each sex or have no preference at all. However, there is still some
tendency for men to express a preference for sons as firstborns, while women are less

likely to express a preference for either gender.

When children interact with each other, there are some behaviors that suggest boys

are considered to have higher status than girls. For instance, even at a young age, girls

may have a harder time getting boys to listen to them or do what they ask, compared to

how boys can influence other boys or girls. In elementary school, boys are often less

willing to include girls in their friend groups, while girls are more likely to include boys

in their groups. Boys are also more cautious about doing things that are seen as "girly"

or feminine.

It's not fully clear why these behaviors happen, but they seem to show that boys are

seen as having higher status than girls, even in childhood. Research has found that

boys' friend groups in childhood tend to have characteristics associated with higher

status. Boys are more likely to set boundaries for their groups and may even act

unkindly towards boys who interact with girls or do things that are seen as feminine.

On the other hand, girls are more likely to be open to crossing gender boundaries,

taking on roles or behaviors that are considered more masculine, and allowing boys to

join their groups.

In simpler terms, there are some signs that suggest boys are seen as more important

or powerful than girls when they interact with each other, even at a young age. Boys
may have more control over their friend groups and be less accepting of girls, while

girls are more willing to include boys and explore different roles.

Missing women

In many developing nations, there is a preference for having male children, which can

be seen as an indicator of status. This preference is evident in countries like China and

India, where parents may choose to abort female fetuses or give up female babies for

adoption in their desire to have sons. However, these practices have led to a shortage

of women for their sons to marry.

It is important to note that these practices are not limited to developing nations. In

contemporary Western societies, there has been a shift in preferences regarding the

gender of children. While in the past, both men and women often expressed a

preference for having sons or boys as firstborns, recent research suggests that the

preference for one gender over the other has diminished. Many parents now prefer to

have one child of each sex or have no preference at all.

This preference is influenced by various cultural and societal factors. Some reasons

behind this preference include:

1. Cultural norms and expectations: In certain cultures, there is a strong emphasis

on male lineage and the continuation of family names. Having a son is often

seen as carrying on the family legacy and ensuring the family's social standing.

2. Economic considerations: In some societies, sons are seen as potential

breadwinners who can support the family financially. This perception leads to
 the belief that having sons will provide economic security and stability in the

future.

3. Patriarchal social structures: Many societies have deeply ingrained patriarchal

systems where men hold more power and authority. The preference for male

children can be a reflection of these power dynamics and the desire to maintain

male dominance in society.

4. Gender roles and expectations: Traditional gender roles often assign specific

responsibilities and roles to men and women. The preference for male children

may stem from the belief that sons are better suited for certain roles, such as

carrying on family traditions or taking care of elderly parents.

Changing gender roles

In recent decades, there have been significant changes in adult gender roles,

particularly in developed countries. These changes are influenced by factors such as

increasing education for women and their greater participation in the paid labor force.

For example, the percentage of women in the paid labor force has increased over time

in countries like the United States. However, despite these changes, women still tend

to earn less than men and often work in occupations that are predominantly female.

These shifts in workforce roles also impact family roles. Men's decision-making power

within families has decreased, and their involvement in childcare and household tasks

has increased. These changes have positive benefits for both men and women, but

particularly for women. Research suggests that individuals who have multiple roles,

such as being a labor force participant, spouse, and parent, experience fewer mental
and physical health problems and greater life satisfaction. Women, in particular, have

fewer mental health issues when they are involved in the labor force and report higher

satisfaction in their marriages when they share more household tasks with their

husbands.

Research shows that when women work outside the home, they and their families tend

to have more modern and nontraditional views on gender roles. This means that they

are more likely to believe that men and women should have equal opportunities and

responsibilities.

Egalitarian attitudes: Over time, there has been a consistent shift towards more equal

attitudes about gender roles in society. Women have been at the forefront of

embracing these changes, while men have not shown as much change in their

attitudes and behaviors.

Women's personality traits and assertiveness: As women's roles and status have

evolved, they have become more likely to adopt personality traits traditionally

associated with men and become more assertive in various aspects of their lives.

However, men have not generally shown similar changes.

Changes in children's gender role behaviors: There is limited research on how

children's gender role behaviors and attitudes have changed over time. Some studies

suggest that as societies become more modern and roles change, there has been little

change in children's learning of gender norms. However, it's interesting to note that in
many cultures today, girls tend to have more progressive attitudes about gender roles

compared to boys, even at a young age.

FEMINISM AND FEMINIST CRITIQUES OF SCIENCE

The word "feminism" carries strong emotional meaning and often people who hold

feminist views are hesitant to identify as feminists. Feminism is a perspective that

believes in the equal value of males and females. It recognizes that in many cultures,

females and the feminine have been undervalued in comparison to males and the

masculine. Feminists oppose the devaluation of girls and women and advocate for

equal opportunities for both genders, especially for girls by challenging gender roles

and stereotypes. Feminism also involves social activism to achieve full equality

between males and females.

Feminism is about believing in and working towards gender equality. It is a personal

belief system. On the other hand, feminist scholarship refers to using feminist

perspectives and theories in academic research.

Influence of feminism on gender roles: Feminism has changed how we think about

gender roles. It challenges traditional ideas that women are less valuable than men

and advocates for equal opportunities for everyone.

Questioning the neutrality of scientific research: Feminist scholars have raised

concerns that scientific research may not be completely neutral and unbiased. They
argue that researchers' personal values can influence the research process and

introduce biases.

Feminist scholars have looked at how research on children's gender development has

been influenced by societal values. For example, some studies have focused more on

the negative effects of mothers' employment on children, while ignoring potential

benefits or harms of fathers' employment. There have also been cases where only

boys were studied, leading to generalizations that may not apply to girls.

Feminist critiques of science, including psychology, can be categorized into three main

types. The first type is called feminist empiricism or liberal feminism. Its goal is to

remove gender bias from research. In psychology, this approach is quite common.

Through this lens, researchers have discovered that traditional gender roles can

negatively impact the mental and physical health, life satisfaction, marital satisfaction,

and economic well-being of both men and women.

The second feminist approach is called feminist standpoint epistemology. It is not as

commonly found in psychology compared to feminist empiricism. This approach

suggests that knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is influenced by the

perspective of the person producing it, particularly their position in the social

hierarchy.

An example of feminist standpoint epistemology is Carol Gilligan's study of moral

development in girls and women. Her research highlighted differences in moral

reasoning between genders based on their social positions. Gilligan found that girls
and women often prioritize caring about the impact on others in their moral

decision-making, while boys and men tend to emphasize abstract principles of justice.

Feminist scholars argue that science is incomplete without knowledge generated from

various standpoints. They question the idea that researchers' perspectives can be

completely separated from the research process and challenge traditional notions of

objectivity in science. They emphasize the importance of considering diverse

perspectives and experiences to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the

world.

The third type of feminist critique is called feminist postmodernism. It is not as

commonly found in psychology compared to feminist empiricism. Feminist

postmodernism challenges the idea that science discovers an objective truth about the

world. Instead, it suggests that science actually creates knowledge and that there can

be different versions of reality.

In simpler terms, feminist postmodernism says that science doesn't uncover a single

truth, but rather shapes our understanding of the world. It argues that there are

different perspectives and interpretations of reality. This perspective is often referred

to as social constructionism in psychology. It emphasizes that knowledge is influenced

by social and cultural factors.

Feminist scholars who adopt a postmodern perspective believe that science should

consider a range of perspectives and question the assumption of complete objectivity.

They argue that understanding the social and cultural influences on knowledge

creation is important.
Theories of Gender Development

The "nature-nurture" question is a key topic in developmental psychology. It explores

the extent to which behavioral development is influenced by biological factors (nature)

such as genes and hormones, and experiential factors (nurture) such as parenting

practices. It also examines how these factors interact with each other.

In the context of children's gender development, the nature-nurture question is

particularly relevant. There are three main approaches to understanding gender

development: biological, socialization, and cognitive views.

The biological view of gender development focuses on how genes, chromosomes, sex

hormones, and brain organization influence physical functioning and behavior, leading

to sex differences. During prenatal development, male and female children are

exposed to different levels of hormones over several months. Researchers study how

these hormones impact the development of the body, including the genitals and the

brain. They also investigate how these differences in the brain can affect behavior

later in life.

One area of interest is studying children who have been exposed to unusual levels of

hormones before birth. For example, in a rare condition called congenital adrenal

hyperplasia (CAH), girls are exposed to higher levels of masculinizing hormones

(androgens) produced by their own adrenal glands during prenatal development. As

these children grow up, they may exhibit behaviors that are more commonly

associated with boys. These behaviors can include showing greater interest in toys
typically associated with boys, being more active, displaying higher levels of

aggression, and showing less interest in interacting with infants.

In the biological view of gender development, there is a focus on evolutionary theory,

which explores how our evolutionary history has influenced differences in behavior

between males and females. This view is particularly interested in sex differences that

are consistent across different cultures, such as behaviors related to childcare and

mating.

On the other hand, the socialization approach emphasizes how children are treated

differently based on their gender by various individuals, including parents, family

members, peers, and teachers. This approach is rooted in learning theory, which

examines how behavior is influenced by rewards, punishments, and observational

learning.

For example, a recent study looked at how mothers of 11-month-old infants estimated

their babies' abilities to crawl down an inclined ramp. The study found that boys and

girls were equally skilled at crawling and attempted to crawl down ramps of the same

difficulty level. However, mothers of sons tended to believe that their babies could

crawl down steeper slopes and were more willing to let them try more challenging

ramps compared to mothers of daughters. This shows how parents' beliefs and

expectations can impact their perceptions of their children's abilities, which can have
significant consequences if girls' capabilities are underestimated and boys'

capabilities are overestimated.

The socialization perspective in gender development looks at how the media, like

books, TV shows, movies, and video games, influences our understanding of gender

roles. There are two main issues with the media's influence on gender. First, males are

shown more often than females in the media. Second, the roles and behaviors

portrayed in the media often reinforce stereotypes about how males and females

should behave.

Another approach, called the social construction of gender, focuses on how society

shapes our understanding of gender. It suggests that our ideas about what is

"masculine" and "feminine" are not fixed, but are created by society and affect our

behavior, thoughts, and interactions.

The third perspective, called the cognitive approach, focuses on how children learn

about gender and how it influences their thoughts and behavior. There are two main

types of cognitive theories. The first one, called social cognitive theory, combines

ideas from the environment and cognitive approaches. It looks at how children learn

from their surroundings and how their own thoughts and understanding of gender

affect their behavior.

There is a category of cognitive theories called developmental constructivist theories.

One famous theory in this category is Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget
believed that children actively create their own knowledge by interacting with the world

around them. This knowledge forms the basis for their growth and development.

In terms of gender development, another important theory is Kohlberg's cognitive

developmental theory. According to Kohlberg, children's understanding of gender goes

through three stages. As they grow, children start to value things in their environment

that they see as appropriate for their gender. For example, a boy might develop an

interest in playing with trucks because he believes that trucks are meant for boys like

him.

Gender constructivism theorists in developmental psychology are interested in how

children's thoughts about gender change as they grow up. One theory in this category

is developmental gender schema theory. This theory focuses on children's increasing

knowledge of gender stereotypes and values, which are called gender schemas.

Gender schema theorists study how and when children learn these schemas, what kind

of information they learn, and how this knowledge affects their behavior.

A variation of gender schema theory is the dual-pathway gender schema theory. It also

considers how children's unique interests and experiences can influence their overall

gender schemas.

Another group of constructivist approaches comes from intergroup theories in social

psychology. These theories suggest that people have a need for positive self-regard,

which leads them to view their own groups (in-groups) as superior to other groups

(out-groups). Developmental psychologists have explored how these intergroup

processes can lead children to develop and maintain stereotypes and prejudices based

on group membership.

All of these different theoretical approaches play important roles in understanding how

children develop their understanding of gender. It's important to note that these

theories are not in conflict with each other, and we shouldn't consider one theory as

being better or more correct than the others.

It's possible that different aspects of gender development have roots in various

factors. For example, some aspects may be influenced by evolutionary processes,

others by the effects of hormones on the developing brain, reinforcement from parents

and others, interactions with peer groups, observation and imitation of gendered

behavior in the child's environment and media, cognitive processes, and social

interactions with others. It's likely that biological, social, and cognitive factors all

contribute to the process of children's gender development.