GRADE :12

SUB:BIOLOGY (EXTRA TOPICS INCLUDED BY BOARD)

RICE GENOME PROJECT

Rice Genome Project: Rice is a staple meal for almost half of the world’s
population, and it is mostly grown and consumed in Asia and Africa, where the
population is predicted to quadruple in the next 50 years. However, disease,
drought, and salinization are making it increasingly difficult to increase rice
output.
We need to enhance rice plants to make them more resistant to such pressures.
Innovative technologies are needed to detect the genetic information contained in
rice DNA, which governs all of the features of rice plants, in order to attain this
tolerance. Rice genome project is one such step. Read further to learn about the
rice genome project.

Rice: Overview
Rice (Oryza sativa), edible starchy cereal grain and the grass plant that produces it
(family Poaceae). It is a member of the grass family. It has a smaller genome and
more diversity than wheat, barley, and maize. It also exhibits co-linearity with
wheat, barley, and maize.
Rice is a staple meal for about half of the world’s population, including virtually all
of East and Southeast Asia; humans consume 95 per cent of the world’s rice
production. Rice may be prepared in a variety of ways, including boiling or
grinding into flour. paddy, also known as rice paddy, is a small, flat, flooded rice
field found in southern and eastern Asia. Rice was domesticated as early as 3500
BC, and by 2,000 BC, it had spread throughout practically all of today’s
agricultural zones, mostly deltas, floodplains, and coastal plains, as well as some
terraced valley slopes.

Rice: A Model Genome

Rice is an obvious candidate for the first full genome sequencing of a cereal crop.
Rice genomes consist of 12 chromosomes and sizes of 400 to 430 Mb. They are the
smallest of the major cereal crop genomes. According to the two blueprints, a rice
plant has more genes than a human being. Whereas the human genome is
estimated to have between 30,000 and 40,000 genes, indica rice has between
45,000 and 56,000 genes, and japonica rice might have up to 63,000 genes.What
was the Rice Genome Project?
It’s a collaboration between the National Institute of Aerobiological Sciences
(NIAS), the Society for Techno-innovation in Agriculture (STAFF), the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (NAFF), and the National Institute of
Aerobiological Sciences (NIAS).
In September 1997, during a workshop conducted in connection with the
International Symposium on Plant Molecular Biology in Singapore, the
International Rice Genome Sequencing Project (IRGSP) was launched. The
workshop drew scientists from all around the world, who committed to working
together to sequence the rice genome. As a consequence, six months later in
Tsukuba, delegates from Japan, Korea, China, the United Kingdom, and the United
States gathered to develop the guidelines.
The participants agreed to exchange resources and to make physical maps and
annotated DNA sequences available in public databases on a timely basis. The
IRGSP has grown to encompass 11 countries, and its rules and finishing standards
are developed by the IRGSP Working Group, which is made up of a representative
from each member country.

Fig: International Rice Genome Sequencing Project Logo

Objectives of Rice Genome Project
The objectives of the rice genome project are as follows:
Discover the function of every gene in the rice genome by the year 2020,
Uncover functional diversity of alleles for agriculturally relevant genes from the
rice primary gene pool, and
Use the findings of functional genomics research to rice genetic improvement
Tools of the Project
The sequence of DNA nucleotides, or bases, in a genome—the order of As, Cs, Gs,
and Ts that make up an organism’s DNA—is determined through genome
sequencing. Sequencing of chromosomes was assigned to different countries and
organizations.
Large insert genomic libraries are created in bacterial artificial chromosomes
(BACs) or P1-derived artificial chromosomes as main sequencing templates (PACs).
The rice genome is mostly sequenced using genomic BAC or PAC libraries made
from the Nipponbare variety, which was chosen as the common template for the
IRGSP. China is the only IRGSP member to employ a different variety, indica, for
chromosome 4 sequencing Guang Lu Ai 4.
Salient Features of Rice Genome Project
The salient features of the rice genome project are as follows:
Rice has a genome size of 389 megabytes.
A total of 37,544 protein-coding sequences associated with non-transposable
elements were discovered. Rice and other cereals appear to have a total of 2,859
genes, some of which may distinguish monocot and dicot lineages.
Rice has a transposon load of at least 35% and is inhabited by members of all
known transposon superfamilies.
The availability of comprehensive, high-quality map-based sequencing has allowed
researchers to investigate genomic structure and evolution. Most critically, the
identity and order of 37,544 rice genes have been discovered.
The sequence has the necessary components for functional genomics and
molecular breeding programmes targeted at deciphering complex cellular
processes and increasing rice yield.
Applications of Rice Genome Project
Rice mutants in large numbers and types have been created intentionally. It aids in
the enhancement of molecular products.
Rice genomics is an open-access journal dedicated to rice genome research.
Summary
Rice (Oryza sativa), edible starchy cereal grain and the grass plant that produces it
(family Poaceae). It is a member of the grass family. Rice is an obvious candidate
for the first full genome sequencing of a cereal crop. Rice genomes consist of 12
chromosomes and sizes of 400 to 430 Mb. In September 1997, during a workshop
conducted in connection with the International Symposium on Plant Molecular
Biology in Singapore, the International Rice Genome Sequencing Project (IRGSP)
was launched.
The participants agreed to exchange resources and to make physical maps and
annotated DNA sequences available in public databases on a timely basis.
Sequencing of chromosomes was assigned to different countries and organizations
using tools like BACs, PACs etc. The finding was published and is available as a
database. Rice genome project has allowed identification of all rice genes and can
be used to develop improved varieties.
FAQs on Rice Genome Project
Q.1. What is the scientific name of rice?
Ans: Scientific name of rice is Oryza sativa.
Q.2. What is the objective of the International Rice Genome Sequencing project?
Ans: The main objective of the IRGSP is to determine the function of every gene in
the rice genome by the year 2020.
Q.3. What is the size of the rice genome?
Ans: The size of the rice genome is 389 Mb.
Q.4. How many chromosomes are there in rice?
Ans: There are 12 chromosomes in rice.
Q.5. How much DNA do we share with rice?
Ans: We share 24% of DNA with rice.

Dengue Fever
About Dengue
Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease caused by the Dengue virus. In this case,
the dengue virus is transmitted by female mosquitoes – Aedes aegypti. These
dengue mosquitos generally bite during the daytime and are found everywhere
(Both inside and outside the house). These mosquitos are found to be at the peak of
their activeness at dawn and dusk. The symptoms can develop only after 6 to 10
days after being bitten by an infected mosquito.
Dengue Fever
Dengue fever is transmitted by mosquitos which carry the dengue virus, which has
four varied serotypes to infect human beings. The serotypes mentioned above
denote a set of microorganisms that are exceptionally closely associated. These
microorganisms can only be distinguished due to them having somewhat dissimilar
antigens (the alien unit that affects the body and makes us produce antibodies)
which prompt the body to create some dissimilar antibodies. Dengue cases are
more common in subtropical and tropical regions of our planet, including our
country.
Dengue Life Cycle
Following its departure from sylvatic cycles, the dengue virus has spread
worldwide, and its primary lifecycle now only involves transmission between
people and Aedes mosquitoes. The four life stages of the Aedes aegypti mosquito
are egg, larva, pupa, and adult. About 8 to 10 days are needed to complete the life
cycle from egg to adult. Mosquitoes can survive and breed both inside and outside
the house.
Eggs
 Above the waterline, adult female mosquitoes lay their eggs on the interior,
wet walls of water-filled containers.
 Usually, mosquitoes lay a hundred eggs at a time.
 Eggs are highly resilient; they can withstand drying up to eight months and
adhere to container walls like glue.
 A female mosquito can be attracted to very little water. Any object storing
water, including cups, bowls, fountains, barrels, tires, vases, and other
containers, makes an excellent “nursery.”
Larva
 Mosquito eggs hatch into larvae only once the water level rises enough to
cover the eggs. Humans or rains will cause the larvae to emerge from
containers containing eggs.
 Larvae consume aquatic bacteria as food. The larva develops into a pupa
after going through three moults.
Pupa
Pupae continue to grow until the newly formed adult flying mosquito’s body breaks
through the pupal skin and exits the water.
Adult
 The adult female mosquito feeds on human and animal blood to generate
eggs, while the male mosquito feeds on nectar from flowers.
 Female mosquitoes search for water sources to lay additional eggs after
feeding.
 Throughout its lifespan, Aedes aegypti flies only a few blocks.
 Aedes aegypti mosquitoes prefer to attack humans above other mosquito
species.
 Mosquitoes of the Aedes aegypti species favour areas with humans. They
can be found inside residences, buildings, and workplaces when windows
and doors lack screens or are left open.
Sign and Symptoms of Dengue Fever
Dengue has an unexpected attack, viz. a sudden start and these symptoms could be
an indicator of its onset.
 Loss of appetite
 Diarrhoea and vomiting
 Gum and nose bleedings
 Severe joint and muscle pain
 Fatigue, nausea, and vomiting
 A sudden drop in blood pressure
 Multiple rashes and wounds on the skin
 Pain behind the eyes coupled with extreme headaches
 The patient might feel weak with a high fever for 3-7 days
Diagnosis of Dengue Fever
The presence of the Dengue virus in the blood cells can be diagnosed by isolation
of the virus, testing serum samples, and other molecular methods. A patient with
this syndrome is allowed to have a few blood tests to check the total count of red
blood cells, and blood platelets, and other physical examinations conducted by the
physician to evaluate whether the symptoms are caused by a dengue infection.
Treatment of Dengue Fever
Till today, there is no definite treatments or specific medicine to treat dengue
infection. In general, the doctor may generally recommend regulating the pain and
fever by using paracetamol instead of aspirin (as it might stimulate bleeding) and
increasing fluid ingestion. Children below the age of 12 should not be given aspirin
until and unless specially prescribed by the doctor.
In severe cases, blood transfusions, intravenous (IV) fluid supplementation and 24
hours hospitalization are required.
Prevention of Dengue Fever
The patient should take proper bed rest, especially during the days when the fever
is at its peak and take leave from work, school preschool or childcare.
People suffering from dengue must stay away from places where they could get
bitten by mosquitoes and should stay at home until they are no longer infectious
(around 3-5 days).
For avoiding this illness, make sure your surroundings are free of any water
logging issues, as the Aedes mosquito prefers to breed in stagnant clean water that
could be found easily nearby our habitats.
Until now, no vaccine has been developed to prevent the Dengue virus. The only
prevention is to avoid mosquito bites.
1. Cover your skin by wearing long pants, and long-sleeved shirts.
2. Use of mosquito repellents, traps, and nets.
3. Keep all the doors and windows closed especially at dawn, dusk, and early
evening to avoid the entry of Dengue mosquitoes.
4. Keep your surroundings clean by removing all the waste and cleaning the
standing water.
For more detailed information about Dengue fever, visit BYJU’S.
Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
Name the insect which carries the dengue virus.
Aedes aegypti is the mosquito name that can spread dengue fever. The mosquito
can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the
form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax.
Name the pathogen which causes dengue.
Dengue virus is the cause of dengue fever. It is a mosquito-borne, single positive-
stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus Flavivirus.
Give the name of the dengue virus.
Dengue virus (DENV) is the name of the virus that causes dengue. Four infections
with the four DENV serotypes are possible. In Latin American and Asian nations,
severe dengue is a primary cause of critical illness and fatalities.
Give scientific name of vector of dengue.
The yellow fever mosquito, or Aedes aegypti, is a vector of several diseases,
including the viruses that cause dengue fever, Zika, chikungunya, and the Mayaro
and yellow fevers. A lyre-shaped marking on the upper surface of the mosquito’s
thorax and black and white patterns on its legs make the insect easy to identify.
What is the symptom that distinguishes dengue from other mosquito-borne
diseases?
Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue have common symptoms
such as high fever, headache, body ache and sore throat. Low platelet count is one
symptom that is specific to dengue and this distinguishes it from other diseases.
How can we control the spread of malaria and dengue?
Water is where all mosquitoes breed. Therefore, we can stop mosquitoes from
breeding by keeping the environment dry and clean. Water should not be allowed
to accumulate in containers like flower pots or coolers. In the evening and at night,
we should wear full-sleeved clothes. Additionally, mosquito netting and insect
repellent treatments are available.

Chikungunya
Chikungunya is an infection caused by the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). It is
mainly spread by the Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes
Cases of chikungunya are usually reported in Africa and Asia but there have been
few instances of it happening in North America and Europe as well.
Recorded outbreaks of the Chikungunya Disease
Each year, outbreaks of Chikungunya cause about 3 million infections every year.
It’s the developing nations in Africa and Asia that report the most cases. The
transmission of the pathogen is high in urban environments where contact
between humans and mosquitoes is at its peak.
There is no data available to ascertain when did Chikungunya find its way into Asia
from Africa or how it did find its way, but the Asian strain outbreaks primarily
happen in India and Southeast Asia.
Transmission and Diagnosis of Chikungunya
As stated before, Chikungunya is mainly spread by the Aedes albopictus and Aedes
aegypti mosquitoes which bite during the day. Another form of transmission is
vertical transmission as in, mother to child during birth or pregnancy. Although in
theory it is possible for an infection to happen through tainted blood samples and
organ donation, no cases have been reported as of late.
Chickungunya:-
A chikungunya diagnosis is done through blood testing for the virus’s RNA to find
antibodies of the virus. At times, symptoms can be mistaken for dengue and Zika
virus fever as well. It has been reported that those previously infected with
Chikungunya become immune to the virus
At present there is no proven method to test for chronic symptoms associated with
Chikungunya fever although nonspecific laboratory findings such as C reactive
protein and elevated cytokines can correlate with disease activity.
Symptoms of Chikungunya
The following are the common symptoms of Chikungunya are as follows:
 High fever
 Joint pain
 Rash
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Digestive problems,
 Conjunctivitis
In about 40-50% cases, rashes occur after two to five day after onset of symptoms.
Abdominal pain, nausea vomiting or diarrhea may also occur. Normal activity is
limited due to fatigue.
Sometimes, inflammation of the eyes may occur in the form of iridocyclitis, or
uveitis, and retinal lesions may occur.
Treatment and Prevention of Chikungunya
There is no specific method of treatment for chikungunya at present. Supportive
care and treatment of its symptoms are the best known methods to fight against
chikungunya.
No vaccine against the disease has been made and the most effective methods of
prevention is protection against contact with disease-carrying mosquitoes and
controlling mosquito populations by destroying or limiting their habitats. This
involves eliminating standing water bodies, preventing mosquitoes from laying
eggs. If this isn’t possible then insecticides and repellents need to be employed.
Other preventive measures include:
 Wearing bite-proof clothes such as long sleeves and trousers
 Treating garments with pyrethroids ( a type of insect repellent)
 Securing windows or any other points of entry with meshes or anti mosquito
nets.
Frequently Asked Questions related to Chikungunya
What is the recovery time for a person afflicted with Chikungunya?
Most people recover fully, with symptoms resolving in three to 10 days. For some
people, joint pain may continue for months, or even years. Death from
complications of chikungunya is very rare.
What are the long term effects of chikungunya?
Joint pain can persist in subacute or chronic form for several months or even years,
particularly in older patients.
When was the first recorded outbreak of Chikungunya in India?
In India, the first outbreak of Chikungunya was reported in Kolkata in 1963. This
was followed by epidemics in Chennai, Puducherry, and Vellore in 1964;
Visakhapatnam, Rajahmundry, Kakinada, and Nagpur in 1965; and Barsi in 1973.

Antibiotics
What do you generally do when you feel very sick? You might probably go to a
doctor who will check you to diagnose the disease and its cause. After that he
might prescribe some medicines which can help you to get better. Have you ever
wondered what kind of medicines are prescribed by the doctors?
Does the term ‘antibiotics’ ring a bell? Generally for diseases caused due to
bacterial infections, we are prescribed with antibiotics that help in eliminating the
bacteria from our body. But did you know that antibiotics are actually produced by
microorganisms and are capable of killing other microorganisms. Interesting,
right? But how are these chemicals produced by microbes obtained and used as
medicines? What are their source microbes? How did we find out about this
technique? Let us find out the answers to all these questions in this article.
Table of contents
Definition of antibiotics
Discovery of antibiotics
Production of antibiotics from microbes
Classification of antibiotics
Examples of antibiotics
Practice Problems
FAQs
Definition of antibiotics
What is the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the term antibiotics? It
will obviously be penicillin. Right? Penicillin was the first discovered antibiotic and
it kills other microbes such as bacteria. So you can guess why it is called an
antibiotic. In Greek anti means against and bio means life. So antibiotics are the
chemicals that work against the life of microbes.
Hence antibiotics can be defined as the chemical substances(secondary
metabolites), which are produced by some microbes and have the ability to kill or
retard the growth of other microbes. Antibiotics can be used as drugs in
appropriate concentrations and can help to eliminate the disease-causing microbes
within a host body, without harming the host.
Characteristics of an ideal antibiotic
An ideal antibiotic is the one which does not harm the normal microflora of the
host, does not have any side effects and is effective against a wide range of
different pathogens, i.e, it should be broad spectrum in nature. It should also not
take too long to start working against the pathogens.
Discovery of antibiotics
Did you know that Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered, and it was an
accidental discovery by Alexander Fleming? But how did it happen? Let us discuss
more about the discovery of antibiotics now.

Penicillin was the first naturally produced antibiotic to be discovered by

Alexander Fleming in 1928. Alexander Fleming observed a mould growing in one
of his unwashed Staphylococcus culture plates around which Staphylococci could
not grow.

That mould was identified as Penicillium genus. Penicillium moulds generated a

diffusible extract with antibacterial action against Staphylococci. Although Fleming
conducted multiple in vitro trials, he did not test the extract against animal
models. Thus, penicillin was only used as a local antiseptic for many years. Until
the late 1930s, it was also difficult to isolate and purify penicillin.

Fig: Penicillium and penicillin

Florey and Chain discovered the structure of penicillin in 1939. In 1940, they
demonstrated that penicillin could be used to treat streptococcal infection in mice.
Following this discovery, penicillin began to be used widely as an antibiotic,
bringing in the antibiotic golden age. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
was awarded to Fleming, Chain, and Florey in 1945 for their discovery of
penicillin.During World War II, this antibiotic was widely used to treat American
soldiers who had been injured. Other antibiotics were isolated from other bacteria
after Penicillin.
Antibiotics have significantly enhanced our ability to treat
terrible diseases like plague, whooping cough, diphtheria, and leprosy, which used
to kill millions of people around the world. Antibiotics are now so common that we
can't envision a world without them.
Streptomyces is the greatest antibiotic-producing actinomycetes genus ever found
in the microbial world. This group is notable for being the world's largest producer
of antibiotics. The species are responsible for manufacturing the greatest amount
of antibiotics. Antibiotics with a wide range of activities, such as antibacterial,
antifungal, and antiparasitic, are synthesised by them. They are also known to
create chemicals that can inhibit the immune system or are called
immunosuppressants.
Production of antibiotics from microbes
Antibiotics are industrially produced by culturing the source microorganism in big
containers (100,000–150,000 litres or more) called bioreactors with a liquid growth
medium.
 Fig: Production of antibiotics
Oxygen concentration, temperature, pH, and nutrient levels must all be at their
optimum values, which are constantly checked and modified as needed. Because
antibiotics are secondary metabolites, the population number must be carefully
managed to achieve maximal output before the cells die. The antibiotic must next
be removed and refined into a crystalline form once the process is complete. If the
antibiotic is soluble in an organic solvent, this is easier to accomplish. Otherwise,
ion exchange, adsorption, or chemical precipitation must be used to separate it
from the culture medium. It is important to maintain aseptic conditions and avoid
any sort of contamination during the entire process.
Sometimes the antibiotics obtained from microbes are modified to enhance their
potency. These are known as semisynthetic antibiotics, e.g., ampicillin. Some
antibiotics are completely designed and prepared in the laboratories and are
known as synthetic antibiotics, e.g, norfloxacin.
For industrial production of antibiotics, Penicillium notatum has been replaced
with Penicillium chrysogenum. The total number of known antibiotics is more than
7000. Bacillus subtilis produces around 60 varieties of antibiotics and
Streptomyces griseus produces around 41 different antibiotics.
Classification of antibiotics
Antibiotics can be classified as bactericidal if they kill the bacteria or bacteriostatic
if they just inhibit the growth. They can also be classified as broad spectrum or
specific based on whether they are effective against a wide variety of pathogens or
a single type of pathogen, respectively.
Based on their composition antibiotics are categorised into the following
five classes -
1. Beta lactams, e.g., Penicillin
2. Aminoglycosides, e.g., Gentamicin
3. Quinolones, e.g., Ciprofloxacin
4. Sulfonamides, e.g., Sulfamethoxazole
5. Glycopeptides, e.g., Vancomycin
Examples of antibiotics

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria develop the ability to defeat the drug
designed to kill or inhibit their growth. It is one of the most acute threat to public
health. Antibiotic resistance is accelerated by the misuse and over use of
antibiotics, as well as poor infection prevention control. Antibiotics should be used
only when prescribed by a certified health professional. When the bacteria become
resistant, antibiotics cannot fight against them and the bacteria multiply. Narrow
spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad spectrum antibiotics. They
effectively and accurately target specific pathogenic organisms and are less likely
to cause resistance. "Superbug" is a term used to describe strains of bacteria that
are resistant to the majority of antibiotics commonly used today.

VACCINE PRODUCTION
Recombinant DNA technology has been used to produce new generation vaccines.
The limitations of traditional vaccine production could be overcome by this
approach. The recombinant vaccines are generally of uniform quality and produce
less side effects as compared to the vaccines produced by conventional methods.
Different types of recombinant vaccines include subunit recombinant vaccines,
attenuated recombinant vaccines and DNA vaccines. Subunit recombinant vaccines
Vaccines that use components of a pathogenic organism rather than the whole
organism are called subunit vaccines; recombinant DNA technology is very suited
for developing new subunit vaccines. It includes components like proteins,
peptides and DNAs of pathogenic organisms. The advantages of these vaccines
include their purity in preparation, stability and safe use. Attenuated recombinant
vaccines This includes genetically modified pathogenic organisms (bacteria or
viruses) that are made nonpathogenic and are used as vaccines. It is now possible
to genetically engineer the organisms (bacteria or viruses) and use them as live
vaccines and such vaccines are referred to as attenuated recombinant vaccines.
DNA Vaccines Genetic immunisation by using DNA vaccines is a novel approach
that came into being in 1990. The immune response of the body is stimulated by a
DNA molecule. A DNA vaccine consists of a gene encoding an antigenic protein,
inserted onto a plasmid, and then incorporated into the cells in a target animal.
DNA instructs the cells to make antigenic molecules which are displayed on its
surfaces. This would evoke an antibody response to the free floating antigen
secreted by the cells. The DNA vaccine cannot cause the disease as it contains only
copies of a few of its genes. DNA vaccines are relatively easy and inexpensive to
design and produce. Vaccines produced by these new techniques have definite
advantages like producing target proteins, long lasting immunity and trigger
immune response only against specific pathogens with less toxic effects.
Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine as a subunit vaccine is produced by cloning
hepatitis B surface antigen (HbsAg) gene in the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The recombinant vaccine for hepatitis B (HbsAg) was the first synthetic
vaccine launched in 1997 which was marketed by trade names Recombivax
and Engerix-B. India is the fourth country in the world after USA, France
and Belgium to develop an indigenous hepatitis B vaccine
Stem Cell Therapy
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells found in most of the multi cellular animals.
These cells maintain their undifferentiated state even after undergoing numerous
mitotic divisions. Stem cell research has the potential to revolutionize the future of
medicine with the ability to regenerate damaged and diseased organs. Stem cells
are capable of self renewal and exhibit ‘cellular potency’. Stem cells can
differentiate into all types of cells that are derived from any of the three germ
layers ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In mammals there are two main types
of stem cells – embryonic stem cells (ES cells) and adult stem cells. ES cells are
pluripotent and can produce the three primary germ layers ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm. Embryonic stem cells are multipotent stem cells that can
differentiate into a number of types of cells (Fig. 10.4). ES cells are isolated from
the epiblast tissue of the inner cell mass of a blastocyst. When stimulated ES can
develop into more than 200 cells types of the adult body. ES cells are immortal i.e.,
they can proliferate in a sterile culture medium and maintain their undifferentiated
state. Adult stem cells are found in various tissues of children as well as adults. An
adult stem cell or somatic stem cell can divide and create another cell similar to it.
Most of the adult stem cells are multipotent and can act as a repair system of the
body, replenishing adult tissues. The red bone marrow is a rich source of adult
stem cells. The most important and potential application of human stem cells is the
generation of cells and tissues that could be used for cell based therapies. Human
stem cells could be used to test new drugs.
Totipotency (Toti-total) is the ability of a single cell to divide and produce
all of the differentiated cells in an organism.
(Pluri-several) refers to a stem cell that has the potential to differentiate
into any of the three germ layers-ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
Multipotency (multi-Many) refers to the stem cells that can differentiate
into various types of cells that are related. For example blood stem cells
can differentiate into lymphocytes, monocytes , neutrophils etc.,
Oligopotency (Oligo-Few) refers to stem cells that can differentiate into
few cell types. For example lymphoid or myeloid stem cells can
differentiate into B and T cells but not RBC.
Unipotency ( Uni- Single) refers to the ability of the stem cells to
differentiate into only one cell type.

Stem Cell Banks Stem cell banking is the extraction, processing and storage of
stem cells, so that they may be used for treatment in the future, when required.
Amniotic cell bank is a facility that stores stem cells derived from amniotic fluid for
future use. Stem cells are stored in banks specifically for use by the individual
from whom such cells have been collected and the banking costs are paid. Cord
Blood Banking is the extraction of stem cells from the umbilical cord during
childbirth. While the umbilical cord and cord blood are the most popular sources of
stem cells, the placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid are also rich sources in
terms of both quantity and quality.

Ramsar Convention
Ramsar Convention Signed in the year 1971, the Ramsar Convention is a
convention on wetlands, which was signed in the city of Ramsar in Iran. Also
known as the convention on wetlands, this treaty was signed for the conservation
and sustainable use of wetlands for which the negotiations started in the 1960s by
various countries and it was finally enforced in 1975. In India, there are a total of
42 sites that are listed under the Ramsar Convention for conservation of wetland.
Recently India has added 10 more wetlands to the list of sites protected by the
Ramsar Convention that are in the states of Maharashtra, Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh.
Evolution of the Convention
The convention came into force in 1975 with the aim to conserve and promote
sustainable use of wetlands with the help of local, national actions as well as
international cooperation to promote and achieve sustainable development in the
world. The idea for a treaty to protect wetlands was first discussed in the MAR
Conference after which the text for the treaty was negotiated from the year 1963
to 1970. Finally, in the year 1971 the Ramsar Conference took place where 18
nations agreed to the provisions of the treaty and declared the wetlands to be of
international importance especially for the sake of the water habitat. Australia was
the first country to agree to the convention and then Australia’s Cobourg Peninsula
was declared as the first Ramsar site. The Convention officially came into force in
1975 and UNESCO became its depository. India became a party to the treaty in the
year 1981 and declared Chilika Lake and Keoladeo National Park as Ramsar sites.
Purpose of the Convention
The main purpose for creating this convention was:
 To work towards the sustainable use of wetlands;
 Assign wetlands to Ramsar List to manage them effectively;
 To bring together various countries for international cooperation to manage
the trans boundary wetlands, shared wetlands and species.
Facts about Ramsar Convention
Here are some basic facts about Ramsar Convention -
 There are 171 countries that are parties to the Convention as of October
2020 and 2406 wetlands of international importance.
 The main focus of the treaty is to focus on habitat conservation for the water
birds.
 It is the only international treaty focused on a particular ecosystem.
 The treaty first came into existence for the conservation of Waterfowl
Habitat, but over time it has expanded to cover all aspects of wetland
conservation.
 This convention is not a regulatory regime.
 The Ramsar Convention was first modified by the Paris Protocol in 1982 and
then by the Regina Amendments in 1987.
 In 1990, a mechanism was launched associated with the Ramsar Advisory
Mission known as the Montreux Record, which is a register containing the
list of names of those Ramsar Sites that are in urgent need of attention.
 2nd February is celebrated as World Wetlands Day. It was first celebrated in
1977 to promote the mission of Ramsar Convention.
 The contracting parties to the treaty meet at an interval of every 3 years.
  The convention is 6 other international organizations partnered with it
namely:
o IUCN
o WWF
o Wetlands International
o Birdlife International
o Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust
o International Water Management Institute
 The Ramsar Convention has a 6-year strategic plan. The last plan was
formulated in 2016 to 2024, which was approved at Conference of the
Contracting Parties (COP) of the convention.
 The standing committee of the convention has 18 members that are elected
as COP till the next COP elects its members.
 The Convention carries out its works in 3 languages namely English,
Spanish and French.

Wetland Conservation in India Main points

regarding wetland conservation in India have
been mentioned below:
 India first became a party to the convention on 1st February 1981.
 India has a total of 4.63% of geographical area as wetlands.
 India implemented the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules in
2017.
 India has categorized the wetlands under two heads namely:
 The wetlands under the Ramsar List;
 Wetlands under the Central, State and Union Territory Rules
 Under the Wetland Rules, India does not regulate the following:
 Man made water bodies constructed for aquaculture purposes, drinking
water purposes, recreation purposes, irrigation or salt production purposes;
 River Channels;
 Any wetlands that come within the area protected under the Indian Forest
Act, 1972, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and States Forest Acts;
 Paddy Fields;
 Wetlands in the area covered by under the Coastal Regulation Zone
Notification, 2011;
 Wetlands in the areas protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.