Improvement of the Power Generating System by Replacing the Turbine Blade

Material of Ferritic Steel (12Cr) to Titanium Alloy (Ti 6AL-4V) in Geysers

Geothermal Power Plant

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical

Engineering

by

Delos Santos, Cedric R.

Encarnacion, Mike Vincent E.

Gayanan, Kent S.

Nobleza, John Patrick D.

Zaragosa, Joackim V.
 Chapter 1

Design Project Background

This section covers the history of the Geysers Geothermal Power Plant, and some
of the relevant information concerning the power generating system.

1.1 Introduction
The biggest geothermal field in the world, known as The Geysers, is situated in
the Mayacamas Mountains, about 72 miles (116 km) north of San Francisco, California.
The first geothermal power plant, built privately by the proprietor of The Geysers Resort
and inaugurated in 1921, produced 250 kilowatts of electricity to illuminate the resort.
The first geothermal wells were dug in Geyser Canyon. The 11-megawatt geothermal
generating facility at The Geysers was put into service by Pacific Gas and generated it
in 1960. The Geysers, the world's biggest set of geothermal power plants, has been
producing commercial geothermal energy continuously since that time. The Geysers,
the biggest geothermal field in the world, is situated in the Mayacamas Mountains, 72
miles (116 kilometers) north of San Francisco. The first geothermal power plant, which
generated 250 kilowatts of electricity to light The Geysers Resort, was privately planned
and built in 1921. The first geothermal wells were drilled in Geyser Canyon. In 1960,
Pacific Gas and Generating installed an 11-megawatt geothermal power plant at The
Geysers. Since that time, The Geysers, the biggest set of geothermal power plants in
the world, has continuously produced commercial geothermal electricity. The Northern
California Power Agency (NCPA), the first publicly owned geothermal power station to
operate at The Geysers, began operating twin turbine generators at its 110 MW Plant 1
in January 1983. The San Francisco Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers
listed the Geysers Geothermal Power Development project as a California Historic Civil
Engineering Landmark in 1976. The Geysers have produced electricity for 50 years
despite several obstacles, and their sustainability has been beyond the expectations of
many early researchers. The Geysers has established itself as a global leader in
producing sustainable geothermal energy by harnessing steam that is produced deep
under the Earth's surface during the past 50 years. At its 110 MW Plant 1, the first
publicly owned geothermal power plant at The Geysers, the Northern California Power
 Agency (NCPA) started using twin turbine generators in January 1983. The Geysers
Geothermal Power Development project was recognized as a California Historic Civil
Engineering Landmark in 1976 by the San Francisco Section of the American Society of
Civil Engineers. The Geysers have produced electricity for 50 years despite severe
challenges, well beyond the predictions of many early experts. Over the past 50 years,
The Geysers has established itself as a global pioneer in the production of sustainable
geothermal power from deep under the Earth's surface.

1.2 Statement of Design Problem

The goal of the study is to upgrade the Geyser Geothermal Power Plant by
replacing ferritic steel (12Cr) with titanium alloy (Ti 6AL-4V). The final step of the blade
height as well changing its system from double flash into single flash system are
additional design possibilities that are included. The researchers set out to find the
answers to the following important questions to gather all the essential knowledge and
data:
1. How effective is titanium alloy when compared to ferritic steel?
2. Can the turbine's power and efficiency be increased by replacing titanium alloy?
3. Will there be a trade-off between higher efficiency and varying costs of expenses?
4.Will the turbine system be improved by the design alternatives?

1.2 General Objectives

 To reduce the environmental impact of the power plant.

 To extract the maximum amount of energy from steam.
 To improve the durability of the turbine blades.

1.2.1 Specific Objectives

 To enhance the properties of turbine blade specifically anti corrosive and more
durable.
 To improve the power output of the turbine.
 To adjust the height of last stage blade to increase overall turbine efficiency.
1.3 Scope and Limitations

This study will concentrate on replacing ferritic steel with titanium alloy to the
turbine and investigate how this change will boost the plant's output and efficiency. The
project's objective is to replace the turbine blade's material to extend its lifespan and
durability. It will also go over the results of changing the height of the blade on the final
step.

This research will not extend to the other systems in the power plant. However,
the basic structure design of the power plant will be covered as well as show the
relation of the cooling towers with other systems.

1.4 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of the study was the main topic of this section. The
conceptual framework is a visual representation of the stages and procedures the
designers followed to carry out the study. The design output of the study is reflected and
summed up by the framework shown below:
 Chapter 2

Related Theoretical Design Inputs

This chapter discusses the conceptual and research literature, both of which
include valuable information that can be applied to the study. The proponents use this
literature and studies as guidance in doing this research.

2.1 Research Literature

• Titanium In the Geothermal Industry

Based on comparative cost and the performance reviewed above, titanium alloys are
certainly viable candidates for geothermal system components when common stainless
steels have previously failed or are anticipated to exhibit marginal performance. This
would include equipment in which high reliability and near-zero corrosion allowances
are required, from a performance, maintenance, cost and /or safety standpoint.
Consideration of titanium is promoted when chloride levels exceed 5000ppm and with
temperatures greater than 100ºC. When oxygen intrusion is possible, titanium alloys
become preferred materials in geothermal systems because hot, oxidizing-chloride
conditions are known to cause severe localized attack of stainless steel and nickel-base
alloys. Oxygen entry into these systems can occur during brine well re-injection, brine
processing, system leakage, equipment downtime, or brine residence in holding ponds.
Equipment surfaces exposed to direct hypersaline geothermal brines are obvious
candidates for titanium. These include critical wellhead components, such as valves,
gages, piping, and blowout preventers. For total flow geothermal systems, critical
components exposed to two-phase brine additionally involve turbine components
(blades, rotor, seals, and shrouds), expansion nozzles, valves, venturis, steam
separator components, and barometric condensers. Direct binary cycle geothermal
systems require that binary heat exchanger tubes be immune to all forms of corrosion.
These systems can also include brine reinjection pumps, which involve critical
components such as impellers, shafts, and seals. Flashed steam geothermal systems,
which derive energy from medium to high salinity brines, are also good candidates for
application of titanium alloys. These not only encompass equipment exposed to direct
geothermal brine, including various stage separator (flash tank) components, but also
equipment downstream of the separated steam. The need for titanium would depend on
steam separation efficiencies, which determine chloride carry-over; and by system air
leakage, which is more likely to occur under that lower pressure conditions associated
with separated fluid processing. Multiple flash steam systems often include brine
processing equipment, such as evaporators / crystallizers, to prevent scaling in
downstream separators and associated piping. These represent potential problem
areas, associated with brine concentration effects and possible entry of air, for which
titanium should be considered.

• Double-Flash Geothermal Power Plants: A Review

This paper reviews the use of double flash turbines in geothermal power plants. The
authors discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using double flash turbines in
geothermal applications, and they present examples of geothermal power plants that
use double flash turbines. The aim of this study is to compare single flash, dual flash,
and binary power plants in terms of the power generated, their performance, and the
related cost. The results from the comparison are used to find the best plant type that
can be implemented to compensate for the very high-power requirements of a large
hadron collider (LHC). Using the setting and requirements of the CERN LHC in Geneva,
Switzerland, the study uses System Advisor Model software to analyze the
implementation of the different plant types. Results show that the binary power plant
has the best performance and lowest cost compared with other geothermal power
plants analyzed, and there is a reduction in the total power generation cost when using
renewable energy sources.

• Improvement of Double-Flash geothermal power plant design: A comparison of

six interstage heating processes

This paper presents a comparison of six different interstage heating processes for
double-flash geothermal power plants. The authors use a thermodynamic model to
simulate the performance of the different interstage heating processes, and they
compare the results to the performance of a conventional double-flash power plant."
These modifications are named “interstage heating” and consist of additional heat
exchangers properly located in the system. The six interstage heating designs are
analyzed, optimized, and then compared to an optimized Double-Flash reference power
plant. The objective function is the power plant specific output (kJ/kg), and the design
variables are the separator temperatures (°C) and the split fraction. Optimizations are
performed for a wide range of reservoir temperatures (i.e., from 140 °C to 240 °C).
Results show that interstage heating processes may increase the specific output of the
plant by about 5%, decrease the liquid content in the low-pressure turbine by about
50%, and decrease the required cooling capacity of the plant by about 10%. On the
other hand, the analysis showed that the new designs proposed have negligible
influence on the high-pressure turbine liquid content or on the silica saturation
coefficient.

• Modeling and design of the new combined double-flash and binary geothermal
power plant for multigeneration purposes; thermodynamic analysis

Renewable energy sources have great importance to deal with environmental

detriments. To clean and sustainable future, various design renewable energy-assisted
plants are of great importance. The current study examines the design and investigation
of a double-flash binary geothermal energy-powered integrated system for useful
products. For producing hydrogen, power, heating, and drying, the proposed work
basically consists of two steam turbines, a trans critical carbon dioxide Rankine cycle
(tCO2-RC), a PEM electrolyzer, a domestic water heater (DHW), and a dryer. The chief
target of this research study is to develop a more efficient plant as well as
multigeneration productions. Additionally, detailed parametric modeling is carried out
using energetical and exegetical approaches to examine this designed plant in the
context of thermodynamic analysis. The variation of some parameters that influence the
plant's performance, such as geothermal water temperature, flash pressure, and
ambient temperature, are parametrically investigated. Subsequently, the thermodynamic
simulation results show that the advised integrated plant produces 4431 kW electrical
power. Also, the amount of the hydrogen generation capacity is 0.006809 kgs−1. The
tCO2-RC sub-plant's energetic and exegetic performance is determined as 6.18% and
27.14%, respectively. Furthermore, the suggested integrated plant's energetic and
exegetic performances are 26.20% and 37.49%. From the results, it can be finalized
that the integration of various systems with the geothermal power plant is successfully
possible, and, in this way, there will be an increase in system performance.

 Status of Titanium Blading for low-pressure Steam Turbines

Titanium is attracting attention for the final stage blades of low-pressure steam turbines.
It is stronger, lighter, more corrosion and erosion resistant than the standard 12Cr steel
that has been used in airfoils for many years. A potential drawback of titanium vanes is
their low damping capacity. This requires careful design and the use of mechanical
damping through shrouds and tie-down wires to dampen any resonant vibrations that
may occur during use. Due to Titan's low density, the final ranks can use longer blades,
useful for very large units. The lower density of titanium also results in lower stresses
when mounted on discs and shafts, reducing susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
Due to the above properties of titanium, a study was conducted by Battelle Columbus to
summarize the global status of titanium blades in low pressure steam turbines. Steam
turbine manufacturers around the world are considering using titanium blades not only
for particularly large turbines, but also for turbines of today's size due to their better
corrosion resistance. Titanium blades appear to be being introduced into production
steam turbines, especially in Western Europe, and have become standard in the Soviet
Union. In the United States, titanium vanes have had limited evaluation for the final
stage and his penultimate stage row and are routinely used for interceptor vane
applications. EPRI will use this information to guide research and development of
titanium blades. The current project RP912 with Westinghouse evaluates the corrosion
fatigue resistance of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in steam.

 Low-Pressure Steam Turbines

LP steam turbines typically operate with steam parameters up to 10 bar and 350 °C.
Exhaust steam from the IP turbine flow is channeled through a cross tube and enters
the low-pressure turbine from above via an inlet nozzle. The inlet chamber of this
turbine design has a circular shape for improved radial deflection behavior over
clearance and minimized leakage losses. Depending on the design of the connection
between the inlet nozzle and the circular chamber portion, a turbulent flow field can
occur therein. To prevent this, vertical baffles can be welded or cast into the structure to
direct flow and improve performance. It is also common to use a spiral inlet plenum in
LP steam turbines. In this case, a single inlet nozzle is used, either placed above the
turbine in the meridional plane or eccentrically placed. In his LP steam turbines for large
nuclear power plants, drawing steam below a horizontal half-joint is a typical alternative
design.

 Vibrations Characteristics of a Continuous Cover Blade Structure with

Friction Contact Surfaces of a Steam Turbine

Last stage blades (LSBs) are critical components to the reliability of steam turbines in
thermal and nuclear power plants. As the power plant output increases, the LSB
becomes much longer. The centrifugal and aerodynamic forces acting on the LSB are
very high, and the stiffness is very low. This means that the LSB is used in difficult
conditions due to blade vibration. Many types of structures have been proposed to
dampen rotor blade vibration. These are structures with frictional interfaces that
dissipate vibrational energy through frictional damping. These include, for example, floor
dampers, platform dampers and partial instep or toe covers. For steam turbine blades,
LSB adopts a structure called CCB (Continuous Cover Blade) that connects all the
blades. It is a CCB structure that integrates the LSB tip cover and the tie rod in the
middle of the span. As shown in Figure 1, adjacent louvers are joined at the mating
surfaces of the cover and connection hub by suppressing loosening torque due to
centrifugal force. The CCB structure has the advantage of suppressing blade vibration
by improving the structural rigidity of the contact surface between the adjacent cover
and the connection hub of the LSB (hereinafter referred to as the "contact surface") and
by the strong friction damping effect. The dynamic response of a CCB structure with
such contact surfaces is complicated by the fact that the tangential forces at the contact
surfaces are nonlinear with respect to the LSB response. Therefore, various kinds of
vibration response analysis techniques have been applied by many researchers to
evaluate the friction damping effect. The problem with the CCB structure is that the
contact pressure distribution becomes uneven due to the deformation of the connecting
members due to the large centrifugal force. Recently, the effect of normal contact force
distribution on the dynamic response of the blade to the contact surface of dovetail
mounts has been reported. In this study, we focused on the influence of the condition of
the contact surface between the cover and the connecting hub on the vibration
characteristics of the steam turbine LSB.
 Chapter 3

Design Outputs

SPECIFICATIONS

OLD TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Turbine characteristics/unit

Manufacturer Tokyo Shibaura Electric Company, Ltd. (Toshiba)

Type Single-cylinder, double flow, 6 x 2 Impulse

Blade material 12Cr Steel

Rated Capacity 53.0 MW

Maximum Capacity 55.0 MW

Speed 3600 RPM

Steam Inlet Pressure 784.0 kPa 113.7 lbf/in2

Steam Inlet Temperature 179.4 °C 355.0 °F

Non condensable gas <1.0 % by weight of inlet steam

content

Exhaust Pressure 13.5 kPa 4.0 in Hg

Turbine Steam flow rate 411.7 kg/h 0.9075 x106 lbm/h

Maximum allowable (NA) (NA)

pressure

Last stage blade height 584.2 mm 23.0 in

NEW TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Country United States

Unit Name The Geysers, Units 5 and 6
Owner Pacific Gas and Electric Company
Year of start-up 1971
Plant type Natural, direct dry steam

Turbine characteristics/unit

Manufacturer Tokyo Shibaura Electric Company, Ltd. (Toshiba)

Type Single cylinder, single flow, 6 x 2 Impulse

Blade material Ti 6Al 4V

Rated Capacity 53.0 MW

Maximum Capacity 70.0 MW

Speed 3600 RPM

Steam Inlet Pressure 784.0 kPa 113.7 lbf/in2

Steam Inlet Temperature 179.4 °C 355.0 °F

Non condensable gas <1.0 % by weight of inlet steam

content

Exhaust Pressure 13.5 kPa 4.0 in Hg

Turbine Steam flow rate 411.7 kg/h 0.9075 x106 lbm/h

Maximum allowable (NA) (NA)

 pressure

Last stage blade height 1016 mm 40.0 in

Ti 6Al 4V VS 12Cr Steel

Steels

Steels are iron-carbon alloys that may also contain additional alloying elements
in significant proportions. Iron loses some of its excellent ductility when non-metallic
carbon is added but gains increased ductility in exchange. Steel is one of the most
practical and widely used ferrous alloys in modern use because of its extremely high
strength while maintaining a sizable degree of toughness and its capacity to be
significantly modified by heat treatment. Numerous alloys exist with various
compositions and/or heat treatments. The mechanical characteristics are dependent on
the carbon concentration, which is typically less than 1.0 wt%. Based on its carbon
content, carbon steel is divided into four grades according to AISI classification.
Types of Steels – Classification Based on Composition

 Common uses for low-carbon steel include construction and pipeline sheets,
structural forms (such as I-beams, channel, and angle iron), and vehicle body
parts.
Steel. Steels are iron-carbon alloys that may also contain additional alloying
elements in significant proportions. Iron loses a tiny percentage of its excellent
ductility in exchange for a little more strength when non-metallic carbon is added.
Steel is one of the most important and widely used ferrous alloys in modern use
because of its extremely high strength while maintaining a sizable degree of
toughness and its capacity to be significantly modified by heat treatment.
Numerous alloys exist with various compositions and/or heat treatments. The
mechanical characteristics are dependent on the carbon concentration, which is
typically less than 1.0 wt%. According ot AISI classification, carbon steel is
broken down into four classes based on carbon content:
Low-carbon Steels. The most popular type of steel nowadays is low-carbon steel,
sometimes referred to as mild steel, since it is reasonably inexpensive and has material
characteristics that are suitable for a wide range of uses. Low-carbon steel is malleable
and ductile due to its 0.05–0.25% carbon content. Mild steel is inexpensive and simple
to produce despite having a low tensile strength; carburizing can raise the surface
hardness.
Medium-carbon Steels. A medium-carbon steel's carbon percentage ranges from 0.3-
0.6%. has strong wear resistance and a nice balance between ductility and strength.
This steel grade is mostly employed in the manufacture of machine parts, including
shafts, axles, gears, crankshafts, couplings, and forgings. It may also be used to create
rails and railroad wheels.
High-carbon Steels. A high-carbon steel's carbon content ranges from 0.60 to 1.00%.
While ductility declines, hardness is higher than the other grades. For springs, rope
wires, hammers, screwdrivers, and wrenches, high carbon steels might be employed.
Ultra-high-carbon Steels. The carbon percentage of ultra-high-carbon steel ranges
between 1.22 and 2.0%. steels with a high degree of temperability. Hard steel goods
like truck springs, metal cutting tools, and other specialized uses like knives, axles, or
punches (not for industrial usage) might all be made from this type of steel. Most steels
with a carbon content of above 2.5% are produced via powder metallurgy.
Alloy Steels. Although iron and carbon are the main components of steel, the phrase
"alloy steel" is often exclusively used to describe steels that also contain additional
elements, such as vanadium, molybdenum, or cobalt, in proportions large enough to
change the basic steel's characteristics. To enhance its mechanical qualities, steel is
often alloyed with a number of elements in total proportions ranging from 1.0% to 50%
by weight. There are two categories for alloy steels:
 Low-alloy Steels.
 High-alloy Steels.
Stainless Steel. Low-carbon steels having at least 10% chromium, with or without other
alloying elements, are referred to as stainless steels. It is frequently used in engine
components, guns, processing equipment, and transportation and transportation
equipment due to its strength and resistance to corrosion. Hardness, strength, and
corrosion resistance are all increased by chromium. Similar advantages are provided by
nickel, but it also provides hardness without reducing ductility and toughness. As a
result, dimensional stability is improved by reducing thermal expansion.

Titanium Alloys

Pure titanium weighs 45% less yet is 45% stronger than typical low-carbon
steels. Additionally, it is just 60% heavier and twice as strong as weak aluminum. The
metal has the highest strength-to-density ratio of any metallic element and corrosion
resistance, which are its two most valuable characteristics. At normal temperatures,
titanium alloys exhibit very good corrosion resistance. The development of a durable,
protective oxide layer is the foundation for titanium's resistance to corrosion. Although
"commercially pure" titanium may be used for orthopedic and dental implants and has
acceptable mechanical qualities, titanium is often alloyed with minor quantities of
aluminum and vanadium, approximately 6% and 4% by weight, respectively, for most
uses. This combination can go through precipitation strengthening since its solid
solubility changes significantly with temperature.

Metals made of titanium and other chemical elements are known as titanium alloys.
Even at extremely high temperatures, these alloys exhibit extremely high tensile
strength and toughness. They can sustain extremely high temperatures, have
exceptional corrosion resistance, and are lightweight.

Grade 2

Grade 2 of commercially pure titanium is fairly comparable to grade 1 but stronger and
with better cold forming capabilities. It possesses good oxidation and corrosion
resistance as well as great welding capabilities. The commercially pure titanium industry
uses this grade of titanium the most frequently. It is the top option for numerous
application fields:
 Aerospace,
 Automotive,
 Chemical Processing & Chlorate Manufacturing,
 Desalination
 Power generation

Grade 5 – Ti-6Al-4V

Grade 5 is the most used alloy, and it is an alpha + beta alloy. Grade 5 alloy
accounts for 50% of total titanium usage the world over. It has a chemical composition
of 6% aluminum, 4% vanadium, 0.25% (maximum) iron, 0.2% (maximum) oxygen, and
the remainder titanium. Generally, Ti-6Al-4V is used in applications up to 400 degrees
Celsius. It has a density of roughly 4420 kg/m3. It is significantly stronger than
commercially pure titanium (grades 1-4) due to its possibility to be heat treated. This
grade is an excellent combination of strength, corrosion resistance, weld and
fabricability It is the prime choice for many fields of applications:
 Aircraft turbines
 Engine components
 Aircraft structural components
 Aerospace fasteners
 High-performance automatic parts
 Marine applications

Application of Titanium Alloys – Uses

The metal has the highest strength-to-density ratio of any metallic element and
corrosion resistance, which are its two most valuable characteristics. At normal
temperatures, titanium alloys exhibit very good corrosion resistance. These
characteristics dictate the uses for titanium and its alloys. The nacelles and firewalls of
the Douglas DC-7 airplane were the material's first production use in 1952. Titanium is a
favored metal for aerospace applications due to its high specific strength, strong fatigue
resistance, long creep life, and exceptional fracture toughness. The majority of titanium
alloys are still used in aerospace-related products, such as jet engines and structural
(airframe) components. 85% of the construction on the SR-71 supersonic aircraft was
made of titanium. Titanium has various biomedical uses because of its extremely high
inertness, which is based on its inertness in the human body, or resistance to corrosion
by bodily fluids.

Properties of Steel vs Titanium

Strength of Steel vs Titanium

According to mechanics of materials, a material's strength is determined by its capacity

to sustain an applied force without failing or deforming plastically. The main factor that
goes into determining a material's strength is the relationship between the external
loads that are placed on it and the subsequent deformation or alteration in the material's
dimensions. A material's strength is determined by its capacity to bear this imposed load
without breaking down or deforming plastically.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

 Ultimate tensile strength of low-carbon steel is between 400 – 550 MPa.

 Ultimate tensile strength of ultra-high-carbon steel is 1100 MPa.
 Ultimate tensile strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1170
MPa.

Yield Strength

 Yield strength of low-carbon steel is 250 MPa.

 Yield strength of ultra-high-carbon steel is 800 MPa.
 Yield strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1100 MPa.
Hardness of Steel vs Titanium

 Brinell hardness of low-carbon steel is approximately 120 MPa.

 Brinell hardness of high-carbon steel is approximately 200 MPa.
 Rockwell hardness of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is approximately 41
HRC.

Thermal Properties of Steel vs Titanium

Melting Point of Steel vs Titanium

 Melting point of low-carbon steel is around 1450°C.

 Melting point of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is around 1660°C.

PROCEDURES:
Replacing a geothermal turbine with a titanium turbine involves several steps,
including designing and manufacturing the turbine, refurbishing the blades, and
installing the new turbine. Here is a possible process for replacing a geothermal
turbine with a titanium turbine:

1. Design and manufacture the titanium turbine: The new titanium turbine must first
be designed and manufactured. This includes determining the raw materials,
manufacturing techniques and equipment, and utility needs. The turbine should
be customized to the geothermal resource and operational circumstances.
2. Refurbish the blades: The blades of the new turbine should be made of titanium,
which is more durable and resistant to erosion than other materials. If the blades
of the existing geothermal turbine are damaged or worn out, they may need to be
refurbished or replaced. This can be done by a specialized company that has
experience with refurbishing steam turbine blades
3. Remove the old turbine: The old geothermal turbine must be removed from the
site. This may involve disassembling the turbine and removing it in pieces,
depending on the size and location of the turbine.
4. Install the new turbine: The new titanium turbine should be installed in the same
location as the old geothermal turbine. The turbine should be connected to the
geothermal resource and the electrical grid. The installation process may involve
assembling the turbine on site or transporting the turbine in pieces and
assembling it on site.
5. Test and commission the new turbine: Once the new turbine is installed, it should
be tested and commissioned to ensure that it is operating correctly and
efficiently. This may involve running the turbine at different loads and speeds and
measuring its performance

Overall, replacing a geothermal turbine with a titanium turbine requires careful planning,
design, and execution to ensure that the new turbine is compatible with the geothermal
resource and operating conditions and that it operates efficiently and reliably.
Here are the steps on changing the last stage blade to increase the blade height
of a geothermal turbine:

1. Shut down the turbine: Before any maintenance work can be done, the turbine
must be shut down and secured to prevent any accidental start-up.
2. Remove the casing: The casing around the last stage blade must be removed to
access the blade.
3. Remove the blade: The damaged blade must be carefully removed from the rotor
assembly. This may require specialized tools and equipment.
4. Inspect the rotor assembly: While the blade is removed, the rotor assembly
should be inspected for any signs of damage or wear.
5. Install the new blade: The new blade should be carefully installed into the rotor
assembly, making sure it is properly aligned and secured.
6. Reinstall the casing: Once the new blade is installed, the casing around the last
stage blade should be reinstalled.
7. Test the turbine: After the maintenance work is complete, the turbine should be
tested to ensure it is operating properly.
8. It is important to note that changing the last stage blade of a geothermal turbine
is a complex and potentially dangerous process that should only be performed by
trained professionals with the appropriate equipment and safety procedures in
place

In a geothermal power plant, there are multiple stages required to change a

double flash turbine into a single flash turbine. the following steps:

1. Evaluate the geothermal resource: The first stage is to assess the resource's
suitability for a single flash system. For geothermal resources that are available
and have temperatures exceeding 190 °C, single flash power plants are typically
regarded as the most cost-effective option.
 2. The quantity of power produced by the system in a flash system is significantly
influenced by the separator pressure, so find out what it is. To optimize the
design, the separator pressure should be established.
3. The flashing pressures must be determined since they have a big impact on the
double flash cycle. In order to improve the design, it is necessary to establish the
flashing pressures.
4. Remove one separator: In a double flash system, two flash separators are
employed to boost cycle output and produce more steam from the geothermal
liquid. One divider needs to be taken out in order to make it into a single flash
system.
5. To handle the decreased steam flow rate in a single flash system, the turbine
needs be adjusted. Redesigning the turbine blades to function at a reduced flow
rate is necessary.
6. Modify the generator: To meet the decreased steam flow rate in a single flash
system, the generator needs also be adjusted. A reduced flow rate should be
supported by the generator's design.
7. The steam that is exhausted from the low-pressure turbine will subsequently be
compressed and injected back into the ground in a single flash system. As a
result, the injection system must be modified to account for the reduced steam
flow rate.

Chapter 4

Design Comparative Analysis

This section involves the comparative analysis turbine blade material to be used
(Ferritic Steel and Titanium Alloy), the flashing systems (single and double flash
systems) and adjustment of the last stage blade height (either increasing or decreasing
the size).

Constraints

Turbine Blade Material

 Ferritic Stainless Steel

Ferritic stainless steels are basically alloys of iron and chromium containing 12-30% Cr.
These alloys are called ferritic alloys. The most used types are ferritic grades 405 and
430 stainless steel, which have a cubic volumetric center structure. With normal heat
treatment, its structure remains mostly ferritic. The desired properties are achieved by
adding carbide-forming and alloying elements that stabilize the ferrite structure, such as
molybdenum, aluminum, silicon, niobium, and titanium. These steels are ferromagnetic
and have high mechanical strength. With a carbon content of 0.02-0.2%, it is not
hardened by heat treatment and is easy to extrude. During cold forming, the ductility of
the material decreases, but the strength increases. The processes used on these steels
between 400 °C and 510 °C led to embrittlement, reducing the material's Charpy impact
strength. To overcome the ductility problem of standard ferritic stainless steels, new low-
carbon, low-nitrogen ferritic stainless steels have been developed and produced
commercially. It has the same corrosion resistance as nickel-containing stainless steel
but is economical because it does not require nickel as an alloying element. In any
event, ferritic stainless steels are less ductile, less notch sensitive, and less weldable,
making them more limited in use than austenitic stainless steels. Increasing the
chromium content improves moderate to good corrosion resistance. It cannot be heat
treated to increase its strength and is only used in the annealed state. Weldability is low.
It is less deformable than austenitic steel.

 Titanium Alloy

Titanium is considered one of the strongest metals. Its strength, heat resistance, water
resistance, salt resistance, and light weight make it an ideal metal for a wide variety of
uses. These applications range from jewelry and dental implants to airplanes and ships.
Pure titanium is strong and has excellent corrosion resistance. Titanium alloys exhibit
greater flexibility and formability than the metals with which they are combined, while
retaining the same strength and corrosion resistance. Therefore, titanium alloys have
more applications than pure titanium. There are 6 grades of pure titanium (grades 1, 2,
3, 4, 7, 11) and 4 types of titanium alloys. Titanium alloys typically contain trace
amounts of aluminum, molybdenum, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium,
manganese, iron, chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper.

The four grades of titanium alloys are Ti 6AL-4V, Ti 6AL ELI, Ti 3Al 2.5 and Ti 5Al-2.5Sn.

Ti 6Al-4V (Class 5)

Ti-6AL-4V is the most used titanium alloy. Therefore, it is commonly referred to as the
"workhorse" of titanium alloys. It is believed to account for half of the world's titanium
usage. These desirable properties make Ti-6AL-4V a popular choice in multiple
industries such as medical, marine, aerospace, and chemical processing. Ti 6AL-4V is
commonly used to manufacture:

• Aircraft Turbines

• Engine Components

• Aircraft Structural Parts

• Aerospace Fasteners

• High-performance auto parts

• Marine Applications

• Sporting Goods

 12Cr Steel into a Titanium Alloy:

Higher manufacturing costs:

Titanium steel is more expensive than the standard 12Cr steel that has been used for
blading for many years. This can result in higher manufacturing costs for the turbine.
According to Wood, the cost of titanium blades by themselves is only 10 to 15 percent
more expensive than the cost of steel blades, but the total cost of introducing titanium
blades into new designs or replacing steel blades in existing machines has been
estimated to be three times as expensive as using steel blades.

Low Damping Capacity:

Internal friction, also known as damping capacity, is a feature of a material that causes
resonant vibrations to weaken with time and limits the resonant amplitude of absorbed
vibrational energy. It is preferable for the structural components of a steam turbine to
have a high damping capacity since this property 5-36 helps to dissipate part of the
system's vibrating energy. It is especially preferred that turbine blade materials have a
good damping capability. Wood claims that one issue with using titanium alloy for blades
is that it has a rather limited dampening capability. Titanium's stated damping capacity
values range from 0.00015 to 0.014 (logarithmic decrement of decay, 6), while 0.001 to
0.005 is the more typical range.

Better Properties than 12Cr Steel:

Ti 6Al 4V is a specific type of titanium alloy known as the workhorse of the titanium
industry because it is by far the most common Ti alloy, accounting for more than 50% of
total titanium usage. It is an alpha+beta alloy that is heat treatable to achieve moderate
increases in strength. It is recommended for use at service temperatures up to
approximately 350°C compared to 12 Cr steel which is operational at service
temperature of 595°C. 12 Cr steel has higher density than Ti 6Al 4V with a density of
8000 kg/m3 compared to 4430 kg/m3 . Titanium alloy has higher ultimate tensile
strength than ferritic steel which has 1170 MPa compared to 480 MPa. Titanium alloy
also has higher yield strength with 1100 MPa compared to 310 MPa of 12 Cr steel.
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of 12 Cr steel has 220 GPa compared to 114 GPa.
Titanium alloy has a higher melting point with 1660°C compared to 1450°C. Titanium
alloy has lower thermal conductivity with 6.7 W/m-K than 12 Cr steel 26 W/m-K.

Single Flash System

Single Flash System Double Flash System

Steam production is lesser since there is The steam production is larger since it
 only one separator. has two separators.
Lower power output Higher power output
Lower production cost Higher production cost
Table 4.1: Constraints between Single and Double Flash Systems

Using a flash system, most of the energy is removed from the separator in the form of
brine (liquid) due to the poor vapor quality from the two-phase liquid after the expansion
valve. Single flash power plants are usually considered the most economical alternative
to geothermal resources available at temperatures above 190°C. Hot resources
produce more liquid and vapor under natural pressure conditions. In high-temperature
resources with a two-phase predominance, the geothermal fluid moves to the surface of
the wellbore as a mixture of vapor and liquid (brine). The process of separating steam
and brine takes place in either horizontal separators using gravity or vertical separators
using cyclone motion. The steam is then sent to a steam turbine and the saturated liquid
is used as a heat source for ORC in a flash ORC combined cycle plant (Gong et al.
2010). Alternatively, steam is injected into the turbine reservoir through aftertreatment.
injection well. Depending on resource conditions, dual flash (double flash) steam plants
are preferred over single flash steam plants. In fact, this is similar to a single flash
power plant, except he uses two separators to produce more steam. With two
separators, a two-stage steam turbine is used, one stage operating at high pressure
and the other at low pressure. With capacities ranging from 4.7 MW to 110 MW, dual-
flash power plants can generate up to 15-25% more power than single-flash power
plants. In a dual flash power plant, the saturated liquid leaving the first separator is sent
to the second separator at a lower pressure, thus producing more steam.

 Based on the Table 4.1, single flash system is only comprised of one separator,
turbine, condenser, condenser pump, and reinjection pump while the double flash
system consists of two separators, throttling valve, turbine, condenser,
condenser pump, and reinjection pump. The single flash system produces less
steam than the double flash system since it only has one separator. Double flash
system is less economical than the single flash system since it utilizes two
 separators, more piping, and the operation and maintenance is much more
expensive. Secondary flash process is valuable since the use of second pressure
drop supports the production of extra vapor from the separated liquid exiting the
separator. Furthermore, the coupled turbine generator produces additional power
due to the supply of low-pressure steam coming from the low-pressure separator.

 Another constraint for the double flash system is about the environmental effects.
Since the double flash system produces more steam, it has detrimental effects
on the solar system and adds pollution to the surroundings.

 Manufacturability is harder than the single flash system. During the addition of
the separators and piping, other parameters will also be adjusted to its standard
specifications.

Last Stage Blade Height

 Designing the Last Stage Turbine Blade for long life

Due to the strong centrifugal forces at work, mechanical constraints are particularly
crucial in the development of new, longer LSBs. The primary constraint on blade length
is the allowed tensile radial stress value. Larger stresses and variations in dynamic
frequencies must be accommodated in the mechanical design of longer LSBs. It also
must consider how the rotor and blade are connected, how vibration is reduced, and
how leakage losses are minimized by using blade shrouds and span dampers. The
turbine's operation under moderate stress with a prudent overspeed margin is the
designer's ultimate objective.

FIGURE 2

 Higher Erosion Effects

Most problems occur in the last rows of the moving blades towards the periphery, where
the steam wetness and blade tip speed are highest.

 Effect of Steam Inlet Pressure on Steam Path Wetness

The likelihood for erosion increases as size increases due to higher steam input
pressure and higher wetness in the steam route through the turbine. Figure 1 compares
two turbine expansion lines on the Mollier diagram, ignoring any decrease brought on
by inter-stage drainage, to demonstrate this. Turbine A, which has a greater steam input
pressure than turbine B, exhausts at 17% wetness as opposed to 16% for turbine B
when both turbines are operating at the same exhaust pressure.

 Effect of Exhaust Pressure on Steam Wetness

Size increase through reduced exhaust pressure causes the steam route through the
turbine to be moister, increasing the likelihood for erosion. This is seen in Figure 2,
which shows that, when inter-stage drainage is ignored, a decrease in exhaust pressure
from 0.12 bara to 0.08 bara is followed by an increase in wetness from 16% to 17%.

 Effect of Increase of Steam Flow

In direct proportion to steam flow, output rises. If size is increased, this leads to a higher
mass flow of droplets or higher blade tip velocities, increasing the possibility for erosion.

 Increased Losses from Steam Wetness

The easiest technique to account for wetness losses is to lose 1% of stage efficiency for
every 1% of mean stage wetness (Craig and Cox, 1971). This method may be used for
low pressure circumstances when geothermal turbines are present.

Trade-offs
Turbine Blade Material

 Cost - it is normally more expensive than ferritic steel, but it is less expensive to
maintain, and it is for long-term uses.

 Machinability - Because of its increased strength, titanium alloy is more difficult to

create complicated forms and tight tolerances than ferritic steel.

 Availability - Titanium alloy materials are more difficult to get than ferritic alloy
materials since they are less frequent, but they are a better alternative for
applications requiring a significant quantity of material.

Double Flash System

 The researchers decided to utilize the conservative and aggressive design

strategy. The researchers are willing to utilize a system that is much expensive to
gain more power output and increase the efficiency of the overall system. If
possible, the 55 MW maximum capacity of Geysers Geothermal Power Plant
may increase to 68.75 MW or approximately equal to 70 MW. The researchers
also reduced the consideration on the environmental effects of since the double
flash system may produce huge amounts of steam that may contribute to air
pollution.

Last Stage Blade Height

 The amount of LP modules will depend on the last stage blade that is chosen,
which will have an impact on the plant's capital and operating expenses. An extra
Low Pressure castings costs more in terms of building space, concrete, piping,
wiring, instrumentation, controls, and similar things in addition to the cost of the
turbine gear. The added hardware raises operational and maintenance costs as
well. Only a life-cycle cost study can accurately compare design alternatives.
Codes and Standards

 ASME PTC 22: This standard provides guidelines for testing the performance of
steam turbines used in power generation, including geothermal power plants.

 API 611: This standard provides specifications for general-purpose steam

turbines used in power generation, including geothermal power plants.

 IEC 60034: This standard provides specifications for rotating electrical machines,
including steam turbines used in power generation.

 ASTM E44: This standard provides guidelines for the performance testing of
steam turbines used in power generation, including geothermal power plants.

 ISO 9001: This standard provides guidelines for quality management systems,
which are important for ensuring that geothermal power plant turbines are
manufactured and maintained to the highest standards.

Chapter 5
 Recommendations, Conclusion and Final Design Summary

This section covers the researchers’ recommendations, conclusions, and final

design summary of the whole geothermal power plant. All the following
recommendations may be considered in continuing this research study. Conclusions
were taken from the results of the research study being conducted. Lastly, the final
design summary is the compilation of the new specification of the Geysers Geothermal
Power Plant.

Recommendation:

Based on the results of the development of the system of the powerplant, listed
below are the recommendations proposed by the designers:

 Other materials such as maraging steel and advanced high-strength steels

(AHSS) can be considered, but it will always rely on the specific needs of the
application, such as strength, corrosion resistance, temperature resistance, cost,
and other considerations.
 Evaluate the feasibility of converting the plant, taking into account factors such as
the availability and quality of the geothermal resource, the cost of the conversion,
and the potential increase in power output.
 Consider the benefits of hybrid power plants, which combine geothermal energy
with other sources of energy, such as fossil fuels or solar power, to increase
efficiency and reliability. For example, a hybrid power plant could use fossil fuels
to superheat the steam produced by the geothermal resource, increasing the
power output of the plant.
 In geothermal steam containing H2S, the durability limit of blade steels is much
lower than in air. One of the limiting considerations in the size of geothermal
steam turbines is the final row blade length.
 Consider enhancing and extending the life of geothermal steam turbines, such as
strengthening the 23-inch class final stage blades.

Conclusion:
 The goal of the research study was to improve the material for the turbine section
of the power generation system at the Geysers Geothermal Power Plant. Additionally,
by providing some possibilities, such as switching from a single to a double flash system
and increasing the blade height for the final stage. It has been demonstrated that
upgrading the material from chromium steel (12Cr) to titanium alloy (Ti-6AL-4V) will give
the turbine blades more benefit in terms of being anti-corrosive and more lasting due to
its higher strength and toughness. On the downside, it will be expensive and difficult to
manufacture, but it will guarantee extended maintenance, making it cost-effective. It is
important to assess the feasibility of the conversion, considering factors like the
availability and quality of the geothermal resource, the cost of the conversion, and the
potential increase in power output. For example, it is necessary to add equipment and
modify the existing plant when converting a single flash power plant into a double flash
power plant. The efficiency and dependability of hybrid power plants that use
geothermal energy in addition to other energy sources can also be improved. To make
sure that the conversion is effective, getting professional advice is advised. By
enhancing and improving the impacts of erosion and steam moisture losses, increasing
the blade height at the final stage can enhance performance and lengthen the life of the
turbine. The power output of the turbine is improved by all of these adjustments.
Overall, these changes will increase the longevity of the turbine blades, capture the
most energy possible from steam, and lessen the power plant's environmental effect.

Final Design Summary

This research study was conducted to emphasize the improvements made to the
selected geothermal steam powerplant. The following are the key findings of the study:

1. The Geysers Geothermal Steam Power Plant uses chromium steel (12Cr) in the
turbine blades and has a single-flash system, which prompted us to investigate
whether there would be any significance or development if the powerplant's last
stage blade height was increased.
 2. Titanium alloy (Ti 6AL-4V) outperforms chromium steel (12Cr) in terms of
strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and mechanical characteristics.

3. In comparison to a single flash system, a double flash system in a geothermal

power plant provides enhanced energy extraction, higher efficiency, better
resource usage, and contributes to sustainable power generation.

4. The replacement of the last stage blade height affects the steam input pressure,
exhaust pressure, and wetness of the steam channel. It also increases steam
moisture losses and enhances erosion effects.

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