LEARNING UNIT 3:

AIR POLLUTION

3.1. Introduction
What you experience today as the atmosphere is a transient snapshot and the result of
its evolutionary history. Much of what we know now is based on scientific knowledge,
combined with established facts and even speculation. Scientists argue that the Earth
was formed around 4 600 million years ago by the gravitational accretion of relatively
small rocks and dust, within the solar nebula. The first evidence of single-celled life,
for which tiny concentrations of oxygen were a prerequisite, is shown in the fossil
record from around 3000 million years ago. Subsequently, the process of respiration led
to a gradual increase in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere. This in turn
allowed the development of ozone (O3), which is thought to have been a necessary
shield against solar UV. Subsequent evolution of the atmosphere has been dominated
by the balance between production and consumption of both Carbon dioxide (CO2) and
Oxygen (O2).

We commonly refer to the lower part of the atmosphere as “air”, which consist mainly
of nitrogen, oxygen and other gases, trace gases and particles. The composition of air
(even if suspected to major changes) is influenced by human evolution, in terms of
population growth and industrial, agricultural and household development. The energy
consumption and technical evolution related to these changes is the main cause of
manmade pollution, which causing modifies of the air quality, to an unacceptable
degree.

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 Learning Activity 3.1

Before reading any further, reflect on the following questions and jot down your
answers on the space provided below?

• What is “air pollution”?

• Why is it important for engineers to study air pollution?

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Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design and manufacturing
of combustion processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels.
Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and catalytic converters are used to remove the
following:
• particulate matter,
• nitrogen oxides,
• sulphur oxides,
• volatile organic compounds (VOC),
• reactive organic gases (ROG),
• other air pollutants from flue gases and
• other emissions into the atmosphere.

Engineers have developed air pollution dispersion models to evaluate the concentration
of a pollutant at a receptor, or the impact on overall air quality from vehicle exhausts
and industrial flue gas stack emissions.

3.2. Learning outcomes

On completion of this unit you should be able to:

• Define terminology related to air pollution
• Explain how air quality is degraded
• Discuss the effects of air pollution
• Discuss the methods of estimating air pollutant sources
• Discuss pollution reduction strategies and devices

3.3. Air and the atmosphere

Air is a precious resource that most of us take for granted. Pure air is a mixture of gases
that are invisible and odourless, such as:
• Nitrogen (78%),
• Oxygen (21%) and

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 • Combination of other gasses, such as argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour
(1%).
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the earth. It is the air we breathe,
the wind and rain, and the clouds in the sky. It is life- giving, retaining heat and blocking
out harmful rays (ultraviolet radiation) from the sun. The atmosphere is about 1 000 km
thick, and is made up of invisible layers that surround the planet. We live in the lowest
and thinnest layer, called the troposphere, which is only about 14 km thick.

The bottom 2 km of the troposphere is really our “home.” Most of the air and weather
are there, along with most air pollutants. 2 km isn’t very much. It would take just two
minutes to drive that distance, at 60 km per hour. Above the troposphere is the
stratosphere. This is the relatively quiet, stable band of air in which the ozone layer is
found and where our emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting substances go.
There is no exact point where the atmosphere ends; it just gets thinner and thinner, until
it merges with outer space.

Air pollution refers to the undesirable materials in the atmosphere that are either
injurious to the health of living organisms or/and otherwise harmful to the materials.
The pollutants are carried by winds from one place to another, washed down by rain
and settled or converted into other products by atmospheric reactions. As a result, the
air that surrounds us, which we inhale, contains undesirable substances that can be
injurious to our health, other living organisms (i.e., plants), materials of construction,
etc. Note that it is the fine size of these undesirable substances – particles or gaseous
molecules – that keeps them in the atmosphere over a long period of time.

The term “air quality” means the state of the air around us. Good air quality refers to
clean, clear, unpolluted air. Poor air quality is a result of a number of factors, including
emissions from various sources, both natural and manmade. Poor air quality occurs
when pollutants reach high enough concentrations to endanger human health and/or the
environment. Our everyday choices, such as driving cars and burning wood, have a
significant impact on air quality.

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3.3.1. Ambient Air Quality
Ambient air quality is the quality of outdoor air in our surrounding environment. It is
typically measured near ground level, away from direct sources of pollution.

3.3.2. Indoor Quality

Air pollution isn't only an outdoor problem. The air in enclosed spaces, such as homes,
schools and workplaces, can also be polluted, by pollutants that seep in from the
outdoors and pollutants emitted from indoor sources such as tobacco smoke, mould,
and chemicals released from synthetic fabrics, furnishings and household products. Air
pollution can be worse indoors than outdoors.

3.3.3. Degradation of Air Quality

Air quality is degraded when unwanted chemicals or other materials are released into
the air in large enough amounts to harm the health of people, plants and animals, and
the environment. The quality of the air depends on the amount of pollutants, the rate at
which they are released from various sources, and how quickly the pollutants disperse
or how long they are trapped in an area.

Air pollutants occur as gases or vapours, but some are very tiny solid particles, such as
dust and smoke. Pollutants are emitted by:
• natural sources, such as volcanoes
• human activity.

If air pollutants occur in an area with good airflow, they will mix with the air and quickly
disperse. If pollutants are trapped in an area, pollutant concentrations increase rapidly.
This happens when weather conditions, such as light winds and a temperature inversion
aloft and/or terrain features such as mountains limit the transport of pollutants away
from an area. The outcome is air pollution or “poor” air quality.

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Learning Activity 3.2
Read the scenario below and answer the question that follows on the space provided:

Scenario
Your roommate drops a bottle of foul smelling cologne in your small the spill, because
he thinks it will evaporate soon enough. Your roommate’s opinion is that opening the
door and window to create a wind current of 1 m3s-1 will quickly dissipate the cologne
smell .
You on the other hands is of the opinion that the air current is not much help in
removing the odour, and you insist that your roommate mops up the spill immediately.

Question
Between the two of you who is correct?

Feedback:
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3.3.4. Sources of Air Pollution
As a result of removal of natural vegetation, industrialisation and an increase in the
number of automobiles, the air over big cities is heavily contaminated with dust, smoke
and poisonous gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
Some of the major air pollutants are:
• carbon monoxide,
• excess carbon dioxide,
• sulphur dioxide,
• oxides of nitrogen,
• lower organic molecules,
• dust and
• smoke.

Pollution caused by human activities includes:

• Automobiles,
• Industries, and
• Thermal power plants.
Pollution caused by natural processes includes:
• Volcanic eruptions which release large amounts of gases and particulate matter
in the air;
• Forest fires which release CO2 and smoke;
• Decomposition of plant and animal residue;
• Pollen grains;
• Storms;
• Methane gas from marshes.
The contribution from the natural processes is within tolerable limits. The contribution
from man-made sources is much larger.

3.3.5. Types of Air Pollution

On the basis of particle size, there are three major categories of air pollutants:

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 • Gaseous pollutants consist of atoms and molecules and include harmful gases,
which can mix freely with air without settling down. Examples include:
o carbon monoxide,
o carbon dioxide,
o sulphur dioxide,
o hydrogen sulphide,
o nitrogen oxides, and
o hydrocarbons.
• Particulate pollutants include finely divided solids as well as liquids with a
particle size from 10-4 cm to 10-3 cm. Examples are:
o dust,
o smoke,
o clouds,
o fumes,
o mist, and
o smog.
• Aerosols are suspensions of fine particulate matter in the air. Their particle size
ranges from 10-7 cm to 10-4 cm. Aerosols can be either liquid or solid particles.
They are small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere for long periods
of time. Examples include:
o smoke,
o fine dust,
o fog, and
o clouds particulates.
They serve as collectors of chemically active sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
ozone, hydrocarbons and other pollutants and are serious health hazards.

3.4. Types of pollutants

Air pollution sources, whether natural or anthropogenic, are classified, according to the
common features they display. However, note that both the natural and anthropogenic
sources produce air pollutants of similar nature. For example, irrespective of whether

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the combustion occurs in a forest fire (i.e., natural source) or in a boiler producing steam
(i.e., anthropogenic source) small particles suspended in gases are formed. Furthermore,
similar particle-laden gas is produced when coal is burnt in a household grate. Air
pollutants are, thus, classified according to their nature and type, and under the
following two broad categories:
• primary pollutants and
• secondary pollutants.

3.4.1. Primary pollutants

These refer to pollutants that are directly emitted from a source, e.g., the exhaust of a
car containing oxides of nitrogen. It includes particulate pollutants such as fine particles
suspended in air or gas, and gaseous pollutants such as sulphur, nitrogen, carbon and
halogen containing compounds.

(a) Particulate pollutants

Particulate pollutants refer to finely divided particles that are more than 0.01 micron
(micro-meter) in size. These can be fine droplets of liquids as in fogs and mists or solid
particles like soot or those suspended in smoke. Table 3.1 below shows the various
types of air pollutants classified under the category of particulate pollutants.

The sources of these particulate pollutants include the following:

• Natural sources: Droughts and strong winds are important climatic factors that
affect the particulate concentration in the atmosphere. Droughts, for example,
reduce the vegetation cover and expose the soil to the full force of the winds. During
a storm, the particulate matter is lifted and carried over long distances. Also, wind
action over oceans and seas creates salt sprays. Particulate matter from forest fires
is mostly unburnt carbon and ash particles of size corresponding to the size of smoke
particles. Particulate matters of natural origin also contain silicates, carbonates and
organic materials such as pollens, seeds, fungi, micro-organism, etc.

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 Type Description
Aerosols Particles dispersed in gases, dp < 0.01 m
Dusts Solid particle size > 1 m
Fog Dispersion of fine water / ice in air or gas visible to the eye
Fume Solid particles generated by condensation from volatile state; can be
accompanied by chemical reaction, dp < 1m
Haze Combination of water droplets, pollutant gas and/or dusts, dp < 1m
Mists Liquids, usually water, formed by condensation in process equipment
or atmosphere, normally obtained when direct contact occurs
between a gas containing pollutant or moisture and liquid/water, dp >
1m
Smog A term derived from smoke and fog. Now used loosely for other
combinations as well
Smoke Fine gas-borne particles as a result of incomplete combustion of
fuels, dp > 1m
Soot Particles of carbon or hydrocarbons or their agglomerates combined
with tar formed during incomplete combustion of fuels, usually,
liquid.
Table 3.1: Types of Pollutants: Particulate Category

• Anthropogenic sources: Particulate matters are mostly formed due to incomplete

combustion of fuels and left-over materials (e.g., ash), when fossil fuels are burnt
for power stations, internal combustion engines, household cooking, steam
generation, cement manufacturing, and disposal of solid wastes by incineration. (It
is not uncommon to see open burning of solid wastes, as the land available for
landfill is becoming scarce, even though there are adverse effects of particulate and
gaseous emissions due to this and other incineration methods.)

• Household sources: Burning of coal, wood and cow-dung and other non-
commercial sources of fuels for household cooking in urban and rural areas lead to

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 a lot of smoke. The situation becomes worse in winter or cold climates in many of
the developing countries, including India. Though the quantity of smoke generated
from individual households may be small, the combined effect can be substantial
and devastating.
Note that the combustion of bio-fuels such as firewood, cow-dung and crop and
wood residues for cooking is not very efficient, as the design of combustion units
leaves much to be desired. As a result, a very large proportion of unburnt carbon
particles are given out along with the combustion gas.
• Agricultural sources: Some agricultural crops, e.g., sugar cane, require burning of
unwanted undergrowth and leaves before harvesting. Smoke, char and unburnt
carbon particles appear in the atmosphere air.
• Industrial sources: The nature of particles from industrial plants depends on the
materials used, products produced as well as the manufacturing process. For
example, particle emission from cement factories contains calcium oxide,
hydroxides and trace quantities of silica, aluminates and unburnt coal, if coal is used
as fuel for the purpose of calcination. In metallurgical plants, particle emission may
contain heavy metal sublimates and silicates. Unburnt carbon and ash particles are
released, if coal is used for coking and reduction of metallic ores. Calcium hydroxide
is commonly associated with emissions from metallurgical units, as limestone is
widely employed to form slags with impurities in the ore. Other heavy metal
emissions associated with metallurgical plants include arsenic, iron, zinc, cadmium
and copper. You must, however, note that particulates vary from industry to
industry.

(b) Gaseous pollutants

Gaseous pollutants such as SO2, Cl2, NOx, mercury or organic vapour are miscible with
air in all proportions. Some of the gaseous pollutants are generated during combustion
and others from process industries. Let us now touch upon gaseous pollutants
containing sulphur, nitrogen and carbon.

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(c) Sulphur-containing compounds
The major sulphur-containing gaseous compounds in the atmosphere are:
• carbonyl sulphide (COS),
• sulphur dioxide (SO2),
• hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
• carbon disulphide (CS2), sulphates and
• dimethyl sulphide [(CH3) 2S].
The sources of sulphur-containing compounds are:
• combustion of fossil fuels and other organic matter,
• biological decay and
• reactions and sea sprays.

Sulphur dioxide, a colourless gas with a pungent smell, for example, gets readily
oxidised in the atmosphere to sulphur trioxide, which forms sulphuric acid with water.
Specifically, the ambient sulphur dioxide concentrations result from:
combustion of sulphur-bearing fuels,
smelting of sulphur-bearing metal ores,
• sulphuric acid plants,
• other industrial processes and
• volcanic eruptions.
It can have a residence period of 40 days and more in the atmosphere and can, therefore,
travel over long distances before removal occurs due to atmospheric reactions.
Depending upon meteorological conditions, air pollution resulting from SO2 sources,
can extend over distances of over 1000 km up to periods of several days.
Note also that anthropogenic emissions of SO2 represent an appreciable fraction of the
total flux of sulphur into the atmosphere.

(d) Nitrogen-containing compounds

The important nitrogen-bearing gaseous compounds are:
• nitrous oxide (N2O),

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 • Nitrogen oxide (NO),
• Nitrogen peroxide NO2 and
• NH3.
N2O is a colourless gas, emitted almost entirely through natural processes, principally
by the bacterial action in soil and by reactions in the upper atmosphere. Chemically, it
is inert at ordinary temperatures.
NO is emitted by both natural and anthropogenic sources. The principal anthropogenic
source of NO is the combustion of fuels at high temperatures.
NO2 is emitted, in small quantities, along with NO during combustion and is also
formed when NO gets oxidised to NO2 in the atmosphere. The sum of concentrations
of NO and NO2 is designated as nitrogen oxides (NOx) concentration. The atmospheric
distribution of NOx is highly non-uniform. Although about 90% of nitrogen oxide
gaseous compounds are produced by bacterial action, the contribution from
anthropogenic sources can be substantial at a local level.

(e) Carbon-containing compounds

These compounds can be categorised as follows:
• Organic carbon compounds: Organic carbon compounds, also called hydrocarbons,
are basically made up of carbon atoms in combination with hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, halogens, etc.
Note that there are over 60,000 hydrocarbons in use. The nature of carbon-carbon
bond and the presence of other atoms in the molecule govern the properties of
hydrocarbons. There is a large number of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such
as:
o ethylene,
o benzene,
o toluene, etc.,
They are emitted into atmosphere from petrochemical processing units, plastic
industries, solvent cleaning operation, etc. The solvents used in process industries
can be divided into the broad categories of:
o alcohols (e.g., methanol and isopropyl alcohol),

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 o ketones (e.g., acetone and methyl-ethyl alcohol),
o saturated hydrocarbons (e.g., hexane), aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene
and toluene),
o halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., tetrachloroethylene) and
o chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

• Inorganic carbon compounds: Carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO)
are the most abundant air pollutants present in the lower atmosphere. Carbon
monoxide is colourless, odourless and poisonous and is produced when there is an
incomplete combustion of a fuel. The highest concentration of CO is found in an
urban atmosphere where automotive traffic is the heaviest. Carbon dioxide, in
nature, is released into the atmosphere during respiration by living bodies and during
decomposition of organic matter. Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere
have been continuously increasing largely due to the combustion of fossil fuels (i.e.,
from cooking, steam-power generation, automotive, etc.), biomass and waste
organic matter.

• Halogen-containing compounds: There has been a considerable interest in halogen

compounds in the recent past. This stems from the fact that chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), used as a refrigerant in sprays, foam blowing and industries, are known to
deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. Halogens such as chlorine and bromine are
also critical constituents of pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and
industrial solvents.

CFCs are very stable compounds. It has been observed that the average global
concentration of all forms of CFCs, i.e., Freon-11, Freon-12, Freon-113 and Freon-22
are increasing rapidly, touching an annual growth of 10%.

3.4.2. Secondary pollutants

These refer to pollutants that are formed as a result of a subsequent reaction with a
primary pollutant, e.g., smog, which is formed when oxides of nitrogen combine with

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hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. When the primary pollutants interact or react
with one another or with other normal constituents present in the atmosphere, secondary
pollutants are produced.

As a result of complex chemical reactions between volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

and nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone, a principal component of smog is formed. Oxides of
nitrogen are generated entirely by transportation and industrial sources, while VOCs are
emitted from vehicles, industries and other establishments that use solvents during
refuelling operations. In the presence of sunlight, an irradiation of air containing
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides leads to:
• oxidation of NO to NO2;
• oxidation of hydrocarbons;
• formation of ozone.

Ozone concentration in the lower atmosphere ranges between 20 and 80 ppb. However,
in an urban area, this value may reach up to 500 ppb. The frequency and severity of
photochemical smog in an area depend upon its climate and topography. Towns and
cities with large populations and automobiles, light winds and sunny climates and
surrounded by hills possess ideal conditions for the formation of photochemical smog.
You should be able to distinguish lower atmospheric ozone from the stratospheric ozone
that provides the crucial, beneficial function of shielding the earth from the harmful
effects of ultraviolet radiation.

3.5. Estimation of Air Pollutant Sources

The aim of estimation of air pollution from different source groups such as
transportation, domestic fuel use, industry, municipal solid waste combustion, etc.,
is to follow emission inventory from year to year. An emission inventory is important
due to various reasons including the following:
• identifying an industry or source generating the largest quantity of air pollutants;
• limiting future growth in an area having high pollution;
• planning effective pollution control strategy for further growth;
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 • developing a basis for ambient air quality air gas emission standards;
• comparing the performance of existing manufacturing processes with the state
of art processes in terms of raw material utilisation and effluent gas emissions.

While making a pollution inventory, we must consider the following points:

• Description of the boundaries of the study area. For a factory, the description is
about the outer boundary, while for a city, it is about the physical features that
govern the movement of air (e.g., hills). For inventories on a natural scale,
national boundaries should be chosen.
• Identification of pollution sources and sinks. The sources can be large industries,
power stations, incinerators and residential areas that use coal, wood and other
biomass. Sinks refer to large water bodies, forest or plant cover, building
materials, etc.
• Collection of the emission generation rate of individual pollutants from:
published literature,
o fuel consumption rates,
o efficiency of control equipment,
o stack-monitoring data, etc.
In the case of backyard burning, data on biomass production rate and consumption,
solid waste generation, etc., would be useful. You should select compounds in the
emission inventory depending upon specific industrial activity in the area. Components
such as SO2, NOx, CO, suspended particles and lead are always included.
• Estimation of losses in sinks from absorption data in water and building
materials. Generally, these losses are quite negligible as compared to the
quantities generated. Scrubbing due to rain is similarly neglected, unless the
emission inventory is to be used to determine the impact of the emissions on
water bodies, vegetation and soil.
• Creation of a database on emission inventory. The database should be updated
continuously.
• Identification of factors affecting the quantities of emissions released from an
activity, industrial or any other. The factors include:
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 o source type,
o unit of activity,
o source size,
o process or design particulars,
o source age and technological sophistication,
o source maintenance and operating practices,
o type and quality of raw materials, type, design and
o age of control systems and ambient conditions.

Companies and industries use data from emission measurements for permits and
compliance audits. These audits are used for determining the effectiveness of control
equipment, the design of pollution control strategies and the implementation of waste
minimisation and pollution prevention programmes. The audit involves sampling and
testing procedures and physical and chemical measurements.

The first step in planning an emissions testing program is to define its objectives. The
objectives dictate the accuracy of the data needed. Therefore, the conditions of a testing
programme includes the following:
• Stream—this testing condition designates whether sampling is performed
directly at the point where the pollutant is generated, such as valves, pumps,
compressors or on ambient air.
• Frequency— this testing condition designates whether samples are taken
periodically or continuously.
• Method—this testing condition designates whether standardised reference
methods are used to analyze for a particular compound or if a customised method
must be developed.
• Location—this testing condition designates whether samples are taken from the
field to a laboratory or tested directly in the field.

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3.5.1. Measurement, Sampling, and analysis of pollutants
(a) Ambient air quality measurement
Ambient air, i.e., the air we breathe and the gases that are produced as a result of an
activity may contain pollutants that are harmful to us and therefore, it is necessary that
we measure their quality.
Note that the measurements of air or gases coming out from a source are referred to as
source measurements and the corresponding concentrations as effluent concentrations.
The ambient air quality measurements are used to:
• determine areas and time periods when the levels of pollution exceeds the
acceptable values;
• evaluate parameters for air pollution modelling;
• establish and evaluate control measures.

Devices or instruments used for ambient air quality monitoring vary, ranging from
unsophisticated grab sampling devices to monitoring networks with telemetry and
computer control for measuring and correlating meteorological parameters with the
concentration data.

Sampling scheme
Any air pollution measurement involves the following two main aspects:
(i) Obtaining a suitable representative sample.
(ii) Determining correctly the concentration of a given pollutant.

A typical air pollution sampling scheme, irrespective of whether it is for ambient

monitoring or for source sampling, has some common features as shown in Figure 3.1
below:

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Figure 3.1: Ambient air measurement

As Figure 3.1 implies, the air containing the pollutants enters the sampling train and
passes through a sample collection device (e.g., filters, impingers and impactors.) The
collection device removes the pollutants, physically or chemically from the air stream
and holds the polluted air for later analysis or allows the pollutants to be analysed
together with collection.

Many sampling schemes use the collection devices that remove the pollutants from the
air for analysis later. Consider the following in this context:
• In the wet chemical method for sulphur dioxide, the pollutant (i.e., sulphur
dioxide) is held by means of a chemical reaction for further analysis
subsequently.
• In the iodometric method, the sample collection device is a bubbler containing a
standard solution of iodine and potassium iodide. The high volume sampler for
total suspended particulate matter (TSP) uses a filter as a sample collection
device. The sample is retained in the collection equipment, which is then
removed from the sampling train. The sample is subsequently processed for
analysis.

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To move the air by suction through the sample collection device, air movers (see Air
movers section below) are used. They are usually placed after the sample collection
device. We can easily calculate the volume of air sampled by multiplying the flow rate
with the time of sampling.

Air movers
The primary purpose of an air mover is to create a flow of air that will allow either the
direct analysis of pollutants in the air or the capturing of the pollutants in the collecting
device for subsequent analysis. The capacity of air movers varies in terms of cubic
centimeters per minutes. The required flow rate of the air mover is often determined by
the sensitivity of the method employed for analysis. For example, if an analytical
method requires 1ug of the pollutant to be obtained for the desired precision and if the
air contains 1ug/m3 of that material, a sample size of 1m3 will be required. The
necessary flow rate of the air mover can be collected from the available sampling time
and the sample volume required. Thus, if 1m3 of air has to be moved or sampled in a
period of 1 hour, an air mover of 1m3/hr capacity will be required.

The rate of air-flow dictates the selection of an air mover. In other words, the sample
collection device, the connecting tubes and other fittings offer resistances to the air to
flow through them. An air mover should, therefore, be able to develop sufficient
pressure head to overcome these resistances in order to accomplish efficient sample
collection.

Measurement of air-flow rate

The air-flow measuring device can be broadly classified into the following three
categories:
(i) Volume meters: These measure the total volume (V) of the air or gas passed
through the meter over a specified period of time. If the time period, measured
by a watch or timing device is, t, the flow rate can be calculated by:
Q = V/t
(iii) Flow rate meters: These directly measure the flow of the air or gas.
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 Note that we need to calibrate these meters before use.
(iii) Velocity meters: These measure the linear velocity of the gas in the channel.
The flow rate can be calculated by multiplying the linear velocity with the area
of the channel through which the gas or air flows.
We will discuss these three air-flow measuring devices, next.

Volume meters
As mentioned, volume meters measure the total volume or mass of the air that passes
through them in a given time. The commonly used volume meters included the
following:
(i) Spirometer: This consists of a cylinder of known volume, closed at one end with
the open end submersed in a circular tank of a liquid, usually water. The cylinder
can be opened or closed to the atmosphere with the help of a valve. As the cylinder
is lowered into the water, it displaces the air and causes it to be discharged from
the cylinder. We can, thus, regulate the rate of discharge of air. The volume of air
passed through the Spirometer can be calculated by:
V =  d2 h/4
where V = the volume of the air that passes through the Spirometer, d = diameter
of the cylinder and h = vertical displacement of the cylinder.
(ii) Displacement bottle: This consists of a bottle filled with water or some other
liquid and a tube through which the air can enter the bottle. As the liquid in the
bottle is siphoned or drained out, the air gets drawn in to take its place. The volume
of the gas sampled is equal to the volume of the liquid displaced.
(iii) Orifice meter: This consists of a thin plate having one sharp-edged circular hole
fixed in such a way that the hole is coaxial with the pipe. Two pressure taps, one
each on the upstream and downstream of the orifice plate, measure the pressure
loss across the orifice by means of a manometer, pressure gauge or a differential
pressure electrode device. The pressure loss so measured can be related to the rate
of flow of the gas. A watch jewel,a small bore tubing or specially fabricated plates
or tubes with small holes can be used as an orifice.

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(iv) Soap-film meter: This consists of a graduated glass tube closed at the bottom and
open on the top. It has two openings at the bottom, one for air or gas entry and
other for inserting a closed rubber bulb. A liquid soap solution of a proper
consistency is filled in at the bottom of the closed end of the gas tube,
approximately up to the two openings. Squeezing the rubber bulb will form a soap
film that travels up the glass tube at a velocity depending upon the airflow rate.
The time required for the film to travel to a given height can be noted and the flow
rate calculated. The soap-film meter is invariably used in laboratory conditions
and for calibrating other flow meters.
(v) Dry-gas meter: This consists of two bellows that are alternately filled or
emptied. Sets of dials are actuated that display the volume of the air passed. A
stopwatch can be used to time the duration of the flow of a given volume of air.
(vi) Wet-gas meter: This consists of chambers mounted around a central shaft. Some
of these chambers are completely immersed in water, thereby sealing the rotating
chamber. Entrapped air passes through the water-filled section, as the shaft rotates,
and is released above the surface of water by means of a valve at the top of the
assembly. The rotating shaft activates an index dial that displays the air volume as
a function of the number of revolution of air-filled chambers of known volume.
Timing of the air volume with a stopwatch will help us arrive at the flow rate.

Flow rate meters

The most widely used flow rate meters are:
(i) Rotameter: This is a most widely used field and laboratory device for the
measurement of gas-flow rate. It consists of a vertical graduated tube, slightly
tapered from top to bottom, and a float. The gas or air passes up through the tube,
and the measure of flow rate is calculated by the float position in the glass tube.
(ii) Mass-flow rate meter: This works on the principle that when a gas passes over a
heated surface, heat is transferred from this surface to the gas. The amount of
electrical current required to keep the surface at a constant temperature is a
measure of the mass-flow rate of the gas going past the heated surface. Mass-flow
rate meters are used both in field and laboratory. Calibration, however, has to be

22
 done with the same gas as in actual use because different gases have different
thermal properties.

Velocity meter
The most widely used velocity meter is a pitot tube. We can experimentally determine
the velocity of a gas at a given point in a channel with the use of a pitot tube. Pitot tubes
are used extensively to measure air-flow in effluent stacks.

(b) Sample Collection

The air or gas containing the pollutant is passed through a collector that retains the
pollutants for subsequent analysis. The methods of collection used for a gaseous
pollutant such as sulphur dioxide and an organic vapour are different from those used
for particulate matter. In this section, we will discuss some of the sample collectors used
both for gaseous pollutants and particulate matter.

Gaseous air pollutants

The common gaseous air pollutants are SOX, NOX, O3, H2S, HCl, hydrocarbons and
other vapours, and we can use the following methods for their collection:
(i) Absorption in reagent solution: Absorption of gaseous pollutant in reagent
solution is probably the most frequent method employed to collect the gaseous
pollutants. The collection takes place either through solubility or by chemical
reaction. The reagent is normally in specially designed bottles called impingers
through which the sampled air is made to pass in the form of finely divided
bubbles. As a rule, we must employ an excess of the reagent especially in cases
where the time of sampling is large.
(ii) Adsorption on solids: Hydrocarbons and other higher- boiling pollutants are best
adsorbed on solids such as activated carbons, alumina or silica gel. Large total
surface of the adsorbed, high concentration of materials to be adsorbed as well as
low temperature favour extent and rate of adsorption. The sampled air is passed
through a packed column containing finely divided solid adsorbent. If possible,

23
 the column may be maintained below room temperature by means of cooling water
or dry ice bath.
(iii) Condensation at lower temperature: We can condense out the gaseous
pollutants in air by passing the sampled gas through series coils immersed in
containers (e.g., cryogenic containers) cooled by freezing mixture. We can employ
liquid air (-1470C), nitrogen (-1950C), oxygen (1830C), octane-dry ice (-800C), ice-
salt mixture (-160C) or ordinary ice for cooling purpose.
(iv) Grab sampling: A collection of a small but a representative air sample using an
evaporated flask or an inflatable bag constitutes grab sampling. Grab sampling is
usually taken at a particular location and time within a few seconds up to a minute
or two. They are usually taken in one of the following ways:
• using an evacuated container;
• purging or displacing the air;
• displacing the liquid;
• inflating a plastic bag;
• using a syringe;
• using an adsorbent cartridge.

Grab sampling techniques are preferred to continuous sampling in certain situations.

Field condition where electricity and laboratory facilities are lacking often necessitates
this type of sampling. Also, when concentrations of pollutants vary considerably with
time, it may be necessary to adopt this method.

Having discussed sample collectors for gaseous air pollutants in the above subsection,
we will next consider sample collectors for particulate air pollutants.

Particulate air pollutants

Sample collectors for particulate air pollutants are required for the following two
situations:
(i) Ambient air measurement: This involves the measurement of particulate
concentration in the ambient air that people breathe.

24
(ii) Source measurement: This concerns the air or gas flowing in the channels or
stacks of an industry.

In what follows in this subsection, we will discuss the sample collectors for ambient air
measurement and source measurement.

Sample collectors for ambient air

The two commonly used ambient air samplers are:
(i) Dust-fall sampler: Particulate pollutants are divided generally into dust that
readily settles in air and dust that remains suspended as an aerosol. Particles larger than
10 microns are usually thought to be settleable while those smaller than 10u are usually
considered suspended. The larger particles include significant portion of particles from
natural sources whereas smaller particles are usually from anthropogenic sources such
as combustion or process losses. By simply placing an open container in an outdoor
area, we can collect particles of large size. Dust-fall collectors are usually made from
polyethylene, glass or stainless steel. A typical dust-fall container is constructed from
a plastic material of 20 to 33 cm high and 10 to 15 cm in diameter at the base, with a
slight inward taper from top to bottom. Occasionally, water containing an algaecides
(1mg copper sulphate/lit. of water) is added in the vessel up to 500ml to facilitate
retention of particles. In sampling larger areas, it is desirable to employ at least one
dust fall container for every 15 square kilometre. However, if the dust-fall sampling is
intended to measure the effect of an industry or industrial complex, containers of
similar shape and size should be placed as close as 30m apart.

(ii) High-volume sampler: The particles measured by the dust-fall collectors

represent only a portion of air-borne dust. They are large in size, generally, more than
10 microns. The particles that are less than 10 are more harmful when they are inhaled
through the respiratory system. They must, therefore, be collected. For high volume
sampling and collection, we use a single functioning unit that consists of a shelter and
filter assembly. The shelter allows an unrestricted access of ambient air from all
directions using a suction blower (e.g., air mover) of a known capacity. The air passes

25
through a glass fibre filter with 18 by 23-cm filter area at a flow rate of 1 to 1.7
m3/minute.

The flow velocity in the annular area between the roof cover and filter holder assembly
does not permit particles greater than 50 microns to enter the system. Metal ion content
of the glass fibres requires careful determination of a blank when the filter is used to
collect particulates for subsequent metal ion analysis. The high-volume sampler and
the collectors described above collect the suspended particles up to about 50 microns.
While such a measurement may be adequate for defining the total suspended matter in
the ambient air, it is not suitable for evaluating the potential health effects of particles
that are less than 10 microns size.
Recently, size selective inlets have been developed for high volume samplers to allow
the collection of only inhaleable particulate matter, i.e., particle inlets having a10
microns cut point. In high volume samplers, particles of more than 10 microns size get
separated out before the air goes through the filter.

Sample collectors for source measurement

The aim of particulate matter measurement in channels and stacks is to determine the
amount and the nature of pollutant contained in the gases emitted from a source. The
particles concentration data can be used to:
• determine compliance or non-compliance of standards;
• select and design air pollution control equipment;
• determine efficiency of processes and control equipment;
• determine emission factors for an activity or processes;
• suggest ways to improve the efficiency of controlling equipment.

To carry out a proper sampling and concentration measurement of an air pollutant

present in air/gas streams from an activity or industry, we must consider the following:
(i) Isokinetic sampling: For a gas sample to be representative of the duct stream,
it should have the density and concentration equivalent to the average values in
the main stream. When the gas is drawn into the nozzle of the probe with a

26
 velocity equal to the approach velocity, the gas-stream flow does not get
disturbed. This is called Isokinetic samplings. As per EPA, the nozzle or channel
velocity will be greater than and equal to 0.9 and smaller than and equal to 1.1.
We should ensure that during sampling the flow pattern of the main flow of the
gas in the channel is not disturbed by the presence of the nozzle and probe.
Therefore, we should choose a streamlined nozzle and probe, and the size of the
nozzle should be as small as possible, preferably between 3 and 6 mm.

(ii) Number and position of traverse point: A vertical section of channel duct or
stack should be chosen for particle concentration, as particles try to get
segregated in a horizontal section. Sites near the entry or exit, bends,
enlargements, concentration or pipe fittings such as valves etc., should be
avoided. And, no observation should be made within 3 cm from the wall of the
duct .The number of measurement or traverse points for ducts less than 1m is
recommended to be 7 or more. The cross-section of the duct should be divided
into equal areas equal to the number of traverse points chosen. The measurement
points should be located at the centre of those areas.

(iii) Concentration measurement: This can be done by using a sampling train

consisting of a nozzle, probe, particulate collector, flow measuring device and a
suction or vacuum-producing unit. There are a number of sampling trains in use
but the most commonly used are the ones recommended by EPA or their
modifications. The sampled particles are, therefore, directed towards heated and
cooled sections. The heated section consists of a filter holder, glass fibre filter or
an adsorption unit. Sometimes, a cyclone separate of a very small-diameter body
is incorporated to collect particles. The moisture content should be determined
preferably from dew point measurement but can also be determined dry and wet
bulb temperatures and hydrometric charts.

27
(c) Analysis of pollutants: analytical methods
We have discussed the measurement and sampling and now we look at the analysis of
these pollutants.
The collected gas sample can be of one of the following forms:
• Absorbed in a liquid, often with a chemical reaction.
• Adsorbed on a solid.
• Filtered of a filter.
• Quantity of air collected in a container or bag.

For some pollutants, the concentration can be measured easily. For example, by
gravimetric method, we can measure the concentration by direct weighing. In a higher
volume sampler, the weight of the filter is determined before and after a known volume
of the air has been sampled. We can express the concentration of the particulate
pollutants as ug/m3.

Other analytical methods include the following:

(i) Colourimetry: This is defined as an analysis in which the concentration of a
coloured substance is determined by measuring the light passing through it.
Colorimetric analysis is commonly employed for the measurement of sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
(ii) Coulometry: This is the mode of analysis in which the quantity of electrons
required to oxidize or reduce a substance is measured. Coulometric cells for
continuous measurement of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide have been
developed.
(iii) Chemiluminescence: This method of measuring ozone uses the reaction of
Rhodamine B impregnated on activated silica gel with ozone. A photo multiplier
tube detects chemiluminescence produced. The resulting photomultiplier signal
can be related to the incoming ozone concentration. Analysers based on
chemiluminescence that can measure ambient level of NO and NO2 are available.

28
(iv) IR and UV: In this method, infrared or ultraviolet radiation is passed through a
chamber containing the air sample. The dispersed radiation is then detected. CO
can be measured easily by means of an infrared spectrophotometer.
(v) Flame ionisation: Flame ionisation detectors have had a wide application as a
continuous monitor for hydrocarbon. The sample to be analysed is mixed with
hydrogen and passed through a small jet; the air supplied supports combustion. An
electrical potential across the flame produces an ionic current proportional to the
number of carbon atom.
(vi) Gas chromatography: This is a technique for the separation of closely related
compounds such as a mixture of hydrocarbon. The sensitivity of this method is
very high. It is particularly useful for the volatile organic compounds and toxic air
pollutants such as benzopyrene in the urban atmosphere.

3.5.2. Continuous Air Pollution Monitoring Instruments

Automated instrumental methods have assumed an increasing prominent role in
monitoring gaseous pollutants in air. The advantages of instrumental methods have
made many manual, older wet-chemical methods largely obsolete. Real-time data
output, in-site (at site) measurement and the ability to transmit data directly into
computers represent the major advantages of instrumental methods over manual
methods.

Optical techniques that measure spectroscopic properties of molecules provide the basis
for many air-monitoring instruments. The monitors utilise the characteristics of gaseous
pollutants that are relatively specific for the pollutants. Light scattering photometers
shown in Figure 3.2 below are also commonly used for continuous sampling of fine
particles present in the gases.

29
Figure 3.2: Light Scattering Photometer: An Illustration

The absorption of ultraviolet light by ozone and the absorption of IR light by CO, SO2,
NO and CO2 are the spectroscopic properties that are also used in many instruments. A
special remote sensing device has been recently developed to determine the
concentration of vehicular exhaust emissions. The components in the exhaust emissions
that can be measured in this device are hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. A schematic diagram of this instrument is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Remote Sensing System for CO and HC Emission

30
We can measure the absorption of beam of infrared light by the carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and the hydrocarbons present in the tail pipe gases. The infrared detector not
only measures the instantaneous emissions of the gases from the vehicle exhaust but
also determines the statistical account of the vehicle movement in a particular area. One
main limitation of the current remote sensing device is that it can undertake
measurements only in one lane at a time and require the vehicles to pass in a single file.
An ability of a particular pollutant to oxidise halogens has also been used in some
monitors. The electrical and magnetic properties of gases such as oxygen are also used
in pollution monitoring. Table 3.2 below gives a list of gaseous and the detectors that
have been used in some of the monitoring instruments:

Gas/gases Types of detectors

SO2, NO, NO2 UV- visible photometric.
SO2 Fluorescence
SO2, CO2 Infrared
NO2, NO. Chemiluminescence
SO2, NO, NO2, CO, O2. Polarographic
O2 Electrocatalytic,
Paramagnetic.
Hydrocarbons Flame ionization.
Table 3.2: Types of detectors used for gaseous pollutants

3.6. Effects of Air Pollution

3.6.1. Health effects
Exposure to air pollution is associated with effects on human health such as:
• pulmonary,
• cardiac,
• vascular, and
• neurological impairments.

31
High-risk groups such as the elderly, infants, pregnant women, and sufferers from
chronic heart and lung diseases are more susceptible to air pollution. People living
with HIV disease are more at risk as well since people lose their immunity and become
susceptible to accurate and chronic disease. Children are at greater risk because they are
generally more active outdoors and their lungs are still developing. Exposure to air
pollution has the following effects:
• Acute effects (short-term): these are immediate and often reversible when
exposure to the pollutant ends. Examples: eye irritation, headaches, nausea.
• Chronic effects (long-term): these are not immediate and tend not reversible
when exposure to the pollutant ends. Examples: decreased lung capacity and lung
cancer.

Figure 3.4: Health Effects caused by Air Pollution

Table 3.3 summarise the sources, health and environmental effects of Pollutants. The
scientific techniques for assessing health impacts of air pollution include:
• air pollutant monitoring
• exposure assessment
• dosimetry
• toxicology
• epidemiology.

32
 Sources, Health and Environmental Effects of Air Pollution

Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare

Effects
Carbon Monoxide Colourless, Motor vehicle Headaches, reduced Contribute to the
(CO) odourless gas exhaust mental alertness, heart formation of smog.
attack, cardiovascular
Indoor sources diseases, impaired
include kerosene or foetal development,
wood burning stoves. death.

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Colourless gas that Coal-fired power Eye irritation, Contribute to the
dissolves in water plants, petroleum wheezing, chest formation of acid rain,
vapour to form refineries, tightness, shortness of visibility impairment,
acid, and interact manufacture of breath, lung damage. plant and water
with other gases sulphuric acid and damage, aesthetic
and particles in the smelting of ores damage.
air. containing sulphur.

Nitrogen Dioxide Reddish brown, Motor vehicles, Susceptibility to Contribute to the

(NO2) highly reactive gas. electric utilities, and respiratory infections, formation of smog,
other industrial, irritation of the lung and acid rain, water
commercial, and respiratory symptoms quality deterioration,
residential sources (e.g., cough, chest global warming, and
that burn fuels. pain, difficulty visibility impairment.
breathing).

Ozone (O3) Gaseous pollutant Vehicle exhaust and Eye and throat Plant and ecosystem
when it is formed certain other fumes. irritation, coughing, damage.
in the Formed from other air respiratory tract
troposphere. pollutants in the problems, asthma, lung
presence of sunlight. damage.
Lead (Pb) Metallic Metal refineries, lead Anaemia, high blood Affects animals and
element smelters, battery pressure, brain and plants, affects aquatic
manufacturers, iron kidney damage, ecosystems.
and steel producers. neurological disorders,
cancer, lowered IQ.

Particulate Matter Very small Diesel engines, power Eye irritation, asthma, Visibility impairment,
(PM) particles of soot, plants, industries, bronchitis, lung atmospheric
dust, or other windblown dust, wood damage, cancer, heavy deposition, aesthetic
matter, including stoves. metal poisoning, damage
tiny droplets of cardiovascular effects.
liquids.

Table 3.3: Sources, Health and Environmental Effects of Air Pollution

33
3.6.2. Economic effects
Poor air quality threatens our wellbeing and our long-term productivity. Apart from
direct health-related and other environmental issues, air pollution brings with it
economic losses. Some of these are:
• Direct medical losses
• Loss of productivity due to pollution-related illnesses
• Travel time losses due to reduced visibility
• Losses from repair of damage to buildings
• Increased costs of cleaning
• Losses due to damage to material and crops
• Negative impact on the quality of life
• Reduced tourism to the country
• Discouraging foreign investments

For example, experts calculated that California lost R280 billion in 2010 in health care
costs, school absences, missed work and lost income potential from premature deaths,
because of air pollution. We can only imagine the economic losses incurred by
developing countries such as China, where air pollution levels are among the highest in
the world. The effect of air pollution in Africa is also very high. In 2013, the economic
cost of premature deaths from household air pollution is estimated as USD 215 billion.
South Africa is also one of the developing countries with high air pollution levels. The
country is one of the top 20 countries with highest CO2 emission in the world due to
power generation from coal. There are different air polluted hot spot areas identified in
South Africa. For example, area in Mpumalanga is identified as the 2nd highest SO2
emission in the world.

Economic theory shows that for resources to be used and distributed efficiently, all costs
and benefits of an activity need to be adequately considered. The costs of air emissions
are usually external to the production and consumption decision-making processes, as
it is imposed on the wider community rather than the polluter. The presence of external
costs is a sign of market failure, which means that the social cost of an activity is greater

34
than the private cost. In such instances, decision-making is not based on full costs,
leading to inefficient use of resources.

Costs associated with motor vehicle use are an external cost. Examples include the costs
of congestion, noise, water and air pollution. If we had to pay the full cost of road
transport, including external costs, we might choose different forms of sustainable
transport or decide to travel less. Sustainable transport systems (such as electric or solar
cars) are highly recommended since it cover one of the UNGC principles (principle 9)
in the area of Environment (See UNGC principles on Environment). Economic
assessments of policy options must consider all costs and benefits of a proposal,
including external effects, such as air emissions. Costs or benefits are significantly
underestimated and the analysis is biased if external effects are not included.

3.6.3. Effects on plants

Air pollution has both long-term and short-term effects on plants.
Physical injury to leaves is the immediate effect of air pollution on plants as follows:
• Ozone produces a speckle of brown spots, which appear on the flat areas of leaf
between the veins
• Sulphur dioxide: creates larger bleached-looking areas
• Nitrogen dioxide: produces irregular brown or white collapsed lesions on
intercostal tissue and near the leaf edge
• Ammonia: cause an unnatural green appearance with tissue drying out

Particulate air pollution effects on plants and trees may be as follows:

• Blocked stomata
• Increased leaf temperature
• Reduced photosynthesis
• Reduced fruit set, leaf growth, pollen growth
• Reduced tree growth
• Leaf necrosis and chlorosis, bark peeling
• Acid rain (a product of air pollution) severely affects trees and plants as well.
35
3.6.4. Effects on animals
Probably one of the best examples is that of acid rain and how it affects freshwater
animal life. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are transformed in the atmosphere to
produce acid compounds – sulphuric and nitric acids. These compounds then fall back
on to the ground as particulates or raindrops – acid rain. So acid rain also falls on rivers,
acidifies them and destroys fish life in freshwater ecosystems. Pollution may also affect
animals through plants on which they feed.

Examples of air pollution effects on animals:

• Pea aphids feed on pea plants exposed to sulphur dioxide in the air. High
exposure to sulphur dioxide negatively affects the health of the pea plants, and
therefore, the health of the aphids as well.
• Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere which is eroded by some air pollutants, causes skin cancer
in wildlife.
• Tropospheric ozone damages lung tissues of animals

3.6.5. Local, and regional effects

Air pollution at these levels can affect adversely the health of people, animals and
vegetation as well as the non-living materials such as metals, marbles, etc. Further, it
hampers visibility, which has serious implications for flight movements, surface
transport and other day-to-day routines. In what follows in this subsection, we will
discuss the effects of air pollution on human health, vegetation, materials and visibility.

3.6.6. Continental and global effects

If the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere were perfect, the hot gases from the Equator will
rise up to a few kilometres and the cold air from the polar regions will move almost at
sea level towards the Equator. But, this is not so: the viscosity of gases, uneven land
surface, forces induced by the Earth’s rotation, uneven heating due to the Earth’s tilt
and water evaporation create a complex gas movement in the atmosphere that is
responsible for the Earth’s weather system. As a result of this weather system, changes
36
are brought about in the surrounding atmosphere with repercussions at the continental
and global levels. These include the following:
• Particulate matter adsorbs air pollutants, provides a nucleus for moisture to
condense and serves as a catalyst for oxidation of some gaseous pollutants.
• Moisture and water droplets absorb gaseous acid anhydrides such as carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen sulphide to form acidic
solutions. Carbon dioxide forms the weak carbonic acid, which gets easily
neutralised by the natural alkalinity present in most lakes and river waters.
Sulphur dioxide forms sulphurous acid that is initially a weak acid but in the
presence of trace quantities of metal pollutants and oxygen, gets oxidised to
sulphuric acid that is a strong acid. The acidic gas and solutions result in acidic
rain that increases the acidity of lakes and other water bodies to a point of killing
aquatic life. Similarly, acidification of soil results in death and destruction of
forests.
• Under extreme conditions, acid rains affect leaves, weaken and ultimately kill
plant life.
• Very tall stacks are used to disperse air pollutants at local and regional levels. As
a result, in some cases, the pollutants are transported over long distances across
the national boundaries. Due to subsequent ecological interactions in the affected
areas, the effects of air pollution at the continental level take long time to detect.
• Carbon dioxide and methane are the major sources for greenhouse effect and
global warming. These gases allow the solar radiation to pass through but trap
the low temperature radiation reflected from the Earth. Both of them are
generated from natural and anthropogenic sources including fossil fuels such as
coal, oil and natural gas. (However, note that alternative energy sources such as
solar energy, wind and biomass are being harnessed, to a limited extent, to meet
the current energy needs. But, there is a public resistance to nuclear power
development. Effective agreements to curtail carbon dioxide emissions may,
therefore, take a long time to materialise.)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) along with other solvents are considered
anthropogenic sources of chemicals responsible for thinning of the ozone layer.

37
 CFC is widely used in households and industry as a solvent, a refrigerant and a
propellent. The control of CFC generation, development and use of replacement
chemicals have been subjects of international agreements. Thinning of ozone
layer allows a higher dosage of solar ultraviolet rays to pass through the Earth’s
atmosphere. (Note that ultra violet radiation is a major cause of skin cancer.)
• Air pollutants get deposited through dry and wet deposition. Wet deposition is
primarily the scrubbing effect of rain and condensation of water vapour, while
dry deposition is due to the settlement of fine particles on vegetation and ground
surfaces. Strong winds carry these air pollutants over long distances, across
national and continental boundaries.
• The content of carbon dioxide in the atmospheric air keeps on increasing with
the combustion of increasing quantities of fossil fuels at homes, in vehicles, for
power generation, in industries and others. Predictions have been made about the
increase of the Earth’s temperature due to the global warming effect of carbon
dioxide inputs into the atmosphere and about the change in weather patterns due
to heat transmission from the Equator to the poles. It is also predicted that
typhoons and cyclones will increase in their frequency and intensity. The level
of sea- water, similarly, is expected to increase which may submerge some of the
low-lying cities, islands and farms.

38
Learning Activity 3.3:

1. Discus the effects of air pollution on humans, especially on Pregnant women

and HIV carriers
2. Discuss the objectives of air pollution reduction measures
3. Explain what human activities contribute towards air pollution and what
their consequences are.
4. Discuss the programmes in South Africa that deals with air pollution that
will be infusing Africanisation.

Provide your answer on the space provided below:

___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________._

39
3.7. Legislation and Standards for Air Quality and Emission
In this Section, we discuss environmental legislation with particular reference to South
Africa: The National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act No. 39 of
2004), Standards And Regulations. This is a law regulating air quality in order to:
• protect the environment by providing reasonable measures for the prevention
of pollution and ecological degradation and
• securing ecologically sustainable development while promoting justifiable
economic and social development;
• set national norms and standards regulating air quality monitoring,
management and control by all spheres of government;
• provide specific air quality measures; and for matters incidental thereto.

Under this Act, air pollution” means any change in the composition of the air caused
by:
• smoke,
• soot,
• dust (including fly ash),
• cinders,
• solid particles of any kind,
• gases,
• fumes,
• aerosols and odorous substances.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards and regulations of South Africa is
regulated by the Air Quality Act (Act No. 39 of 2004), which is presented in Table
3.4.below.

(a) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Sulphur Dioxide (SO2).
Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Compliance Date
Exceedence
10 minutes 500 μg/m3 (191 ppb) 526 Immediate
1 hour 350 μg/m3 (134 ppb) 88 Immediate
24 hours 125 μg/m3 (48 ppb) 4 Immediate

40
1 year 50 μg/m3 (19 ppb) 0 Immediate

(b) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Compliance Date
Exceedence
1 hour 200 μg/m (106
3
88 Immediate
ppb)
1 year 40 μg/m3 (21 ppb) 0 Immediate

(c) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter (PM10)
Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Compliance Date
Exceedence
24 hours 120μg/m 3
4 Immediate – 31
December 2014
24 hours 75 μg/m 3
4 1 January 2015
1 year 50μg/m3 0 Immediate – 31
December 2014
1 year 40 μg/m 3
0 1 January 2015

(d) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Ozone (O3)

Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Compliance Date
Exceedence
8 hours (running) 120 μg/m (61 ppb) 11
3
Immediate

(e) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Benzene (C6H6)

Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Compliance Date
Exceedence
1 year 10 μg/m (3.2 ppb) 0
3
Immediate – 31
December 2014
1 year 5 μg/m3 (1.6 ppb) 0 1 January 2015

(f) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Lead (Pb)

Averaging Period Concentration Frequency of Compliance Date
Exceedence
1 year 0.5 μg/m3 0 Immediate

(g) National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Carbon Monoxide (CO)

41
 Averaging Period Averaging Period Averaging Period Averaging Period
Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Frequency of Frequency of Frequency of Frequency of
Exceedence Exceedence Exceedence Exceedence
Compliance Date Compliance Date Compliance Date Compliance Date
1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour
30 mg/m3 (26 30 mg/m3 (26 30 mg/m3 (26 30 mg/m3 (26
ppm) ppm) ppm) ppm)

Table 3.4: National Ambient Air Quality Standards and regulations of South
Africa is regulated by the Air Quality Act (Act No. 39 of 2004).

3.8. Pollution reduction

Prevention of air pollution from industrial operations starts within the industry or
factory. The following alternatives are available to prevent the emission of a pollutant:
• Selecting process inputs that do not contain the pollutant or its precursors
• Operating the process to minimise generation of the pollutant
• Replacing the process with one that does not generate the pollutant
• Using less of the product whose manufacture generates the pollutant
• Removing the pollutant from the process effluent

Removing pollutants involves simply substituting materials which perform equally well
in the process but which discharge fewer harmful products to the environment. This
method of reducing air pollution reduction usually produces satisfactory control at a
low cost.
Typical examples:
• Substituting of high-sulphur coal with low-sulphur coal in power plants. This
substitution requires little technological change but results in a substantial
pollution reduction.
• Changing to a fuel such as natural gas or nuclear energy can eliminate all sulphur
emissions as well as particulates and heavy metals. Natural gas is however more
expensive and difficult to ship and store than coal. Industry also prefers the

42
 known risks of coal pollution than the unknown risks of nuclear power. Coal
gasification also greatly reduces sulphur emissions.
• Substituting gasoline with ethanol or oxygenated fuels in internal combustion
engines. This substitution reduces the O3 pollution in urban areas.
• Alternative energy sources, such as wind or solar power, are being explored and
are becoming economically feasible.

3.9. Prevention of Air Pollution

3.9.1. Concepts and Approach of Source Reduction
As you know, prevention is better than cure. It is, therefore, in our best interest to
prevent air pollution from different activities than to take remedial measures at the end.
To achieve prevention, it is incumbent on us to design our operations and processes in
such way as to prevent leakages of solvents, gases, etc., from process lines, pumps,
vessels and reactors. Raw materials, including hazardous, should also be carefully
handled and unnecessary build-up of inventory avoided. In addition, we should employ
efficient technology, use raw materials that contain low impurities, produce less side
products, carry out all operations efficiently and recover, recycle and reuse (3 R’s) all
materials so that no or minimal quantities of materials are left out in the air or
wastewater.

Clearly, it is the preventive measures we take that help prevent pollution. Emissions of
air pollutants, for example, can be reduced by various means including the following:
(i) Eliminating the pollution source (e.g., shutting down the offending system
or relocating it).
(ii) Modifying the source of pollution by incorporating technological changes
so that the released constituents are less harmful or in smaller quantities.
(iii) Recycling and reusing the released materials after they are recovered.
(iv) Capturing the released materials for discharge into well-managed
wastewater or solid waste disposal facilities.
(v) Capturing the released materials and converting them into less harmful
species.

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 (vi) Destroying the offending air pollutant.

Of the options listed above, we will touch upon the first three options that help reduce
the quantity of pollutants before they are sent to the end-of-pipe pollution control
system.
Note that the options at (iv) to (vi) are the so-called end-of-pipe control methods. End-
of-pipe treatment methods are those that remove pollutants at the end of process
operations and not during the processing of materials. For example, the removal of
particles from gases using a bag or fabric filter; (which are later sent to a landfill site)
or adsorption of an organic solvent on activated carbon, (which can be later destroyed
by combustion).

3.9.2. Approaches to Source Reduction

There are different ways to prevent pollution through process changes, raw material
changes, operational changes and add-on controls.

(a) Process changes

We can effect process changes either in an existing facility or in a new design.
Generally, the strategies of process changes involve the following:
• selecting a process that has the least potential for air pollution;
• avoiding leakages and spillages by proper containment of the process
streams;
• minimising the quantities of the different effluent streams;
• segregating emission streams for recovery and reuse of materials;
• providing necessary measuring instruments for the determination of
pollutant concentrations;
• anticipating and providing for accidental losses of materials.

There are many instances where a reduction in air pollution has been achieved by
modifying the processes. Some of them are given below:

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(i) Paint industry: When factories that used huge quantities of paints on their goods
(e.g., automobiles, refrigerators, etc.) were asked to limit their hydrocarbons
emissions, they switched over to water-based paints for some of their applications,
reducing thereby the hydrocarbon emissions problem.

(iv) Copper smelters: In the past copper smelters used reverberatory furnaces,
which produced high volume and low-concentration SO2 waste gas. They have
now given way to smelting processes that give lower-volume, higher
concentration SO2 containing gases. If the concentration of SO2 is above 4% by
volume, we can produce sulphuric acid economically. Therefore, smelters that
extract metals from sulphide ores (e.g., copper, zinc, lead, etc.) have used this
recovery process economically, reducing thereby the air pollution problem at the
same time.
Note that coal-fired electric power plants cannot recover sulphuric acid
economically because in their case the SO2 concentration is very low (i.e., less
than 0.1 percent by volume).

(v) Open burning: Municipal or industrial wastes, when burnt open, give out air
emissions that are bad smelling and harmful to health. By burning them in closed
incinerators that have much better predrying, heat conservation and fuel-air mixing,
we can reduce the volume of air emissions.

(vi) Basic oxygen process (BOP): BOP in steel making, as compared to the earlier
open-hearth furnaces, gives out gas emissions that are more concentrated and lower
in volume flow rates. We can, therefore, recover useful materials from these gases
quite readily and recycle or reuse them.

(vii)Sulphuric acid plants: Most of the earlier sulphuric acid plants were designed for
about 98.5% conversion. In economic terms, this was considered an optimum level
of conversion, but then it led to the concentration of SO2 in the stack gases upto
2500 ppm, which is very high from the pollution point of view. The DCDA

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 (double-conversion double absorption) technology not only helps reduce the
concentration of SO2 in the emission gases to 500 ppm and less but also increases
the plant output considerably.

(viii) Chlor-alkali industries: The earlier mercury-cell chlorine-caustic soda plants

are giving way to the diaphragm-cell plants due to the toxicity of mercury in the
ventilation air.

(ix) Oxygenated compounds: When added to the motor fuels (about 2%) oxygenated
compounds change the combustion process, enough to lower carbon monoxide
emissions significantly.

(x) Fluorescent light: The use of high efficiency fluorescent lights in place of
incandescent lights is a process change that can reduce overall emissions. A lower
consumption of electric energy for the same amount of light means that less fuel is
used in power stations and hence lower overall gas emissions.

Note that any process change in any application that tends to reduce the consumption
of energy, fuels or raw materials eventually reduces the air pollutant emissions).

(ix) By-product recovery: In some processes, the by-product recovery helps to collect
the pollutant and use it than to discard it into air. Generally, we can reclaim the
pollutant only if its concentration is high. Past experiences of recovery of materials
that would otherwise pollute the atmosphere include the following:
• Hydrogen sulphide gas from pesticide industry, which has been successfully
absorbed in caustic soda solution to give NaSH, that acts as a reducing agent
in dyes manufacture.
• Sulphur dioxide in a dye intermediate industry has been successfully used to
form ammonium sulphite, which can in turn be used for the production of dye
intermediates. In another application from an inorganic chemical industry,
sulphur dioxide was purified, liquefied and stored.

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 • Nitric acid is produced by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia and absorption
of NO2 in chilled water. As the residual concentration of the oxides of nitrogen,
NOx (i.e., NO + NO2), was still very high (upto 2000 ppm), the gases were
absorbed in NaOH solution to produce sodium nitrite/nitrate. It was, therefore,
possible in this case to produce useful substances, solving at the same time the
problem of air pollution.

(b) Raw material changes

Raw material changes, which include material substitution and material purification,
help produce less quantity of pollutant and may result in a waste that is less hazardous,
while ensuring that the quality of the product remains unaffected. Consider the
following examples in this context:
• A large part of the reduction in sulphur dioxide emissions accomplished by the
electric power industry has been the result of switching over to low sulphur fuels.
That is to say, low sulphur coal has replaced high sulphur coal and natural gas has
replaced coal. Greater reliance will also be needed in future on desulphurisation of
fuels than that at present.
• Switching vehicles from gasoline or petrol to compressed natural gas (CNG) has
contributed to reduced vehicular air pollution emissions. And, an addition of
oxygenated compounds to motor fuels (about 2%) changes the combustion
enough to lower CO emissions significantly.

Emissions from fuel oil combustion depend upon the composition of the oil, the type
and size of the boiler and the level of equipment maintenance. Kerosene gives out lower
particulate emissions than fuel oils. Sulphur oxides are largely dependent on the sulphur
content of the fuel and are not affected by the boiler size, burner design, etc. On an
average, more than 95% of sulphur appears as SO2, 1-5% as SO3 and 1-3% as particulate
sulphate. The SO3 readily reacts with water vapour to form sulphuric acid mist.
Nitrogen oxides are formed from the combined nitrogen in the fuel and thermal fixation
of nitrogen with oxygen in the combustion air.

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Natural gas is considered a clean fuel with no particulate or sulphur dioxide emissions
at normal operating conditions. There is an increasing pressure on motor vehicle
manufacturers to develop vehicles that are powered by energy sources other than petrol.
The ultimate aim is to reduce CO2 and volatile organic compounds (VOC) and the
green-house gases and to generally reduce dependence on crude oil. Various estimates
have been made of how effectively different fuels would contribute towards reducing
these gaseous pollutants.

It is estimated that the use of electric automobiles could reduce hydrocarbon and carbon
monoxide emissions. However, the emissions of oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide
and particle matter would increase by at least 55%, 500% and 400%, respectively, due
to the essentially increased electric power production for recharging of batteries in the
vehicles.

The ultimate case of raw material changes or material substitution occurs when a
substance is banned. DDT, for example, was banned and other insecticides were
developed in its place. Now, the emphasis is on eliminating chlorofluoro carbons
(CFC’s) that have been widely used as refrigerants and propellants. We seek to reduce
these and other solvents that affect ozone depletion. About 1.5 million tons per year of
chlorinated hydrocarbons are used in the world. They possess properties that make them
suitable for a host of industrial applications. They are non-inflammable and have boiling
points near the room temperature. The environmental regulations related to the
prevention of smog formation, ozone depletion and global warming require their use in
reduced quantities. Notable successes in reducing emissions by material substitution
have also been due to replacement of solvent-based cleaning and coating materials with
water-based ones.
(c) Operational changes
Operational changes can be broadly classified as follows:
(i) Operational settings: These involve changes in the way the process equipment
operate including adjustments to parameters such as temperature, flow rate,
pressure and residence time. These changes often represent the easiest and least

48
 expensive ways to reduce waste generation. Additional controls and/or automation
will result in better monitoring and adjustment of the operating parameters. Human
error can be reduced as a result of automation.
(ii) Equipment changes: These can reduce waste generation either by including
additional operations or by replacing out-of-date operations. Many equipment
changes can be simple and very inexpensive (e.g., installing better seals to
eliminate leakage, putting drip pans to collect leaking material for collection and
reuse, etc.). Another modification may be to increase the agitation rate and alter
temperatures to prevent the formation of deposits, etc.
(iii) Procedural changes: These include loss prevention, improvements in material
handling, improved management practices, better production schedule,
segregation of gas streams and improved personnel deployment. These often
require very little capital cost and result in better return on capital. Loss prevention
can minimise wastes by avoiding spills of volatile materials and their leaks from
equipment. Some of the potential sources of material loss are: loading, storage and
processing. A most effective way to reduce the amount of waste generated through
spills is to take ample precautionary measures, ensuring that spills never occur in
the first place. We should handle the waste and manage it like a misplaced
resource. It should not be contaminated further before it has been processed for
recovery of useful materials for recycle or reuse.
(iv) Inventory management: This includes inventory control and material control.
Inventory control involves techniques to reduce inventory size and hazardous
chemical use while at the same increasing inventory turnover. For example,
purchasing only the exact amount of raw materials needed for a set period of time
is the key to proper inventory control. Another step in establishing a proper
inventory control system is to develop review procedures for all materials
purchased. Material control involves employing methods to reduce raw material
and finished product loss and damage during handling, production and storage.
We should pay the attention it deserves to this aspect of inventory management.

49
(v) Waste stream segregation: This includes the separation of hazardous and
recoverable wastes from the combined gas waste-stream. This increases
recoverability and decreases the volumes and the disposal costs.
(vi) Changes in production schedule: These can reduce, for example, the frequency
of equipment and tank cleaning in batch production runs. To reduce cleaning
frequency, batch sizes should be maximised or batches of one material should be
followed by the same or similar product so that no solvent cleaning is required
between batches.
(vii) Location of new projects: It is difficult to move an existing plant buperiodocated
where the emissions do not affect thickly populated areas. This reasoning forms
the basis of industrial zoning and land-use planning. If a region has a severe
problem of pollution due to a given pollutant, we should not generally allow a new
source of that pollutant in the same region. This should be the practice even if best
of controls are available to control the air pollutant because even a well-controlled
new pollution source can add to the current problem of pollution. If, for example,
a new coal-fired power plant is desired to be built in India, no useful purpose will
be served in trying to get air pollution permissions to build it in or near a major
city. Instead, we should look for a location away from major population centres
and promise to incorporate all available effective air pollution control equipment.
Air pollutants are generally diluted with atmospheric air using very tall stacks.
However, note that by dilution, we are still keeping the pollutants in the air at low
concentrations and not removing them. Even though it is not an effective way to
reduce air pollution, it still plays a major role in the air pollution control regulation
in India. It is the final step, after all the possible preventive approaches,
recovery/recycle methods and control equipment have been considered or actually
employed.

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Learning Activity 3.4:
1. Discuss the objectives of air pollution reduction measures
2. What are the challenges and opportunities for the use of electrical
automobiles in South Africa.
3. Discuss the strategies for reduction air pollution in South Africa.

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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3.9.3. Pollution reduction devices

Pollution control systems are highly required at the current stage of global pollution
increase. Pollution reduction devices remove or reduce air pollutants through the use of
one or more of the following processes:
• Combustion - destroying the pollutant
• Conversion - chemically changing the pollutant to a less harmful compound
• Collection - removing the pollutant from the waste air before its release into the
environment and atmosphere

Some of the air pollution control devices include: Scrubbers, Air Filters, Cyclones, Gas
cleaners, Gravity Chambers, Precipitators, Biofilters, Oxidizers, Incinerators, Reactors,
etc. In this lecture, some of the most important pollution control devices are presented.
Other devices can be referred from standard text books.

(A) Scrubbers
Scrubbers are most commonly used air control devises in manufacturing and processing
industries. Industrial air scrubbers employ a physical process to remove particulates and
gases from industrial emissions (such as smokestack exhaust) before they are released
into the atmosphere. There are two main categories of scrubbers: dry and wet scrubbers.
Dry scrubbers – also referred to as a dry adsorption scrubbers. A neutralizing chemical
agents (such as sodium bicarbonate) will be injected dry into the emission stream and
the gaseous pollutants undergo a chemical reaction, thereby either neutralizing the
pollutants or converting them into innocuous substances. Once the chemical reaction
is completed, the filters within the scrubber chamber will be collected and the waste
removed the spent agents from the cleaned emission gas. In some cases, the collected
agents can be washed and reused for future dry scrubbing processes. Wet scrubbers –
also referred to as a wet adsorption scrubbers or wet collectors. They use liquids (usually
water) to collect and remove water-soluble gas and particulate pollutants from industrial
emissions. There are different types of wet scrubbing equipments available, such
as venturi, packed bed (or packed tower), and bubbling wet scrubbers.

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(B) Air filters
These are devices used to remove air pollution in residential, commercial and industrial
areas. They are used to improve air quality within the work environment owing to their
higher removal efficiency (>99%). They employ a specific type of filtration media
(fabric, sintered metal, ceramic, etc) to collect and remove dry particulates and
contaminants dust, pollen, microbes, chemicals, etc) from air passing through them.
There are several types of air filters available For industrial applications, including
HEPA filters, fabric filters, and cartridge dust collectors. HEPA filters are usually
utilised in industries, also known as high-efficiency particulate air filters. They employ
fiberglass filter mats to mechanically remove airborne particulates (pollen, smoke, dust,
and bio-contaminants, etc) from within the work environment.

(C) Mechanical Collectors or Cyclones

Cyclones are similarly to air filters, separate dry particulate matter from gaseous
emissions. But unlike air filters which employ filtration media, cyclones utilize
centrifugal/inertia force of the particles for the collection and removal of particulates.
The particles separate from the gas stream due to their inertia force. The gas stream is
forced in cyclonic manner because of their mass, which cause them to move towards
the vortex of the cyclone (Figure 3. 5).

Figure 3.5: Top inlet large diameter cyclone (source: Kakkar and Kaushik, 2007)

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(D) Gas Cleaning Equipment
Industry controls air pollution with equipment that removes contaminants at the end of
the manufacturing process. These devices have two basic characteristics:
• The size and cost of the equipment increases with the volume of gas cleaned per
unit of time, and the cost of removing a contaminant rises exponentially with the
degree of removal.
• The degree of pollutant removal is described as collection efficiency, while the
operating cost depends on the pressure drop across the unit and its flow capacity.

(E) Biofilters
These are devices which uses microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi) to degrade
and remove water-soluble compounds. They destroy the pollutants to reduce their
amount. They have high removal efficiency (98%).

(F) Settling Chambers

Settling chambers are used by industry for removing solid or liquid particles from
gaseous streams. Settling chambers have the advantages of simple construction, low
initial cost, low maintenance, low pressure drop and simple disposal of collected
materials.

A settling chamber is simply an expansion chamber in which gas velocity is reduced,

allowing time for particles to settle out under the action of gravity. That is why they are
also called gravity settlers. The settling chamber, however, is generally limited to the
removal of particles larger than about 40-60 μm diameter. Today's demands for cleaner
air and stricter emission standards have relegated the settling chamber to use as a pre-
cleaner for other particle control devices.

Advantages and disadvantages of settling chambers

Advantages:
• Low Capital Cost

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 • Very Low Energy Cost
• No Moving Parts
• Few Maintenance Requirements
• Low Operating Costs
• Excellent Reliability
• Low Pressure Drop
• Device Not Subject to Abrasion
• Provides Incidental Cooling of Gas Stream
• Dry Collection and Disposal
Disadvantages:
• Relatively Low PM Collection Efficiencies
• Unable to Handle Sticky or Tacky Materials
• Large Physical Size
• Trays in Multiple-Tray Settling Chamber may Warp

Types of settling chambers

There are two types of settling chambers: simple expansion and multiple-tray.
• Simple expansion chambers - shown in the figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Simple expansion settling chamber

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The unit is constructed in the form of a long horizontal box with a gas inlet and outlet
and dust collection hoppers. The particle-laden gas stream enters the unit at the gas inlet
and flows into an expansion section. Expansion of the gas stream causes the gas velocity
to be reduced to the chamber velocity. As the gas flows through the chamber, particles
in the gas stream are subjected to the force of gravity and settle into the dust collection
hoppers. The principal parameters that control collection efficiency are the settling time
of the particles and residence time in the chamber.
Theoretically, a settling chamber of infinite length could collect even very small
particles. The collection hoppers located at the bottom of the settler are usually designed
with positively sealing valves and should be emptied as the dust is collected to avoid
re-entrainment problems.

• Multiple-tray settling chamber - also called the Howard settling chamber is

shown in the Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Multiple-tray settling chamber

Several collection plates are introduced to shorten the settling path of the particles and
to improve the collection efficiency of smaller particles. The gas must be uniformly
distributed as it flows through the passageways created by the trays. Uniform
distribution is usually achieved by the use of gradual transitions, guide vanes and
perforated plates or screens. Principles governing particle collection in a settling

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chamber Understanding the principles governing particle collection in a settling
chamber begins by examining the behaviour of a single spherical particle in the chamber
(Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9: A single spherical particle in a settling chamber

Particle settling behaviour

The gas velocity is assumed to be uniform throughout the chamber, and the particles
move horizontally at the gas stream velocity, vg. The particle also has a downward
vertical velocity as a result of the effect of gravity.

Suppose a particle enters the chamber at a height, hp. The particle must fall this distance
before it travels the length of the chamber, if the particle is to be collected.

The Reynolds number at chamber conditions is very high, indicating very turbulent
conditions. Instead of particles settling directly into the hopper, they may settle a short
distance, encounter a turbulent eddy, and be carried back upward to begin settling again
as the eddy velocity decreases. The general form for determining collection efficiency
when the flow is turbulent is:

(3.1)
Where, i = collection efficiency for one size particle (fractional) and for a simple
settling chamber:

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 (3.2)
Where, tr = chamber residence time, tsi = particle settling time

The chamber residence time is determined from the gas velocity and the chamber
length:

(3.3)
Where, L = chamber length (m), vg = gas velocity (m/s)
The gas velocity is determined from the gas flow rate and the width and height of the
chamber.

(3.4)
Where, Q = gas flow rate (m3/s) W = chamber width (m) H = chamber height (m)

Substituting Equation 3.4 in Equation 3.3 gives:

(3.5)
The particle settling time is determined from the particle terminal settling velocity
and, in the worst case, the chamber height:

(3.6)
Where, H= chamber height (m), vt = particle terminal settling velocity (m/s)

Substituting Equations 3.5 and 3.6 into Equation 3.2 and then substituting that into
Equation 3.1 gives:

(3.7)

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To expand the applicability of Equation 3.7 to multi-tray settling chambers, add the
parameter Nc, the number of parallel passageways through the chamber. For a simple
settling chamber, Nc is one. For a multi-tray settling chamber, Nc is the number of
trays plus one. The final relationship for the efficiency of a settling chamber then
becomes:

(3.8)

Assume the following: The terminal settling velocity of a particle is in a laminar

region (Rep<1) is given by (Cc is assumed to be 1):

(3.9)
Where, vt = particle terminal settling velocity (m/s) g = acceleration of particle due to
gravity ρp= particle density (kg/m3); μg= gas viscosity (kg/m.s); dp= physical particle
diameter (m)

Particles that are smaller than 100 μm generally fall into this region. However, the linear
relationship for drag coefficient can be extended into the transition region, up to a
particle Reynolds number of about 5- 10, without introducing significant error. This
allows Equation 3-9 to be approximately applied to particles larger than 100 μm.
Substituting Equation 3.9 into Equation 3.8 give the collection efficiency relationship
for particles in the laminar region.

(3.10)
The design variables for a settling chamber include the length, width and height of the
chamber. These parameters are chosen by the equipment manufacturer to remove all
particles above a specified size. The chamber design must provide conditions for
sufficient residence time to capture the desired particle size range. This can be

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accomplished by keeping the velocity of the gas through the chamber as low as possible.
If the velocity is too high, dust re- entrainment will occur.

In settling chamber design, the velocity at which the gas moves through the chamber is
usually called the throughput velocity. The velocity at which settled particles become
re-entrained is called the pickup velocity. In order to avoid re-entrainment of collected
dust, the throughput velocity must not exceed the pick-up velocity. Typical pickup
velocities: Aluminium chips - 4.30 m/s Lead oxide - 7.60 m/s Limestone - 6.40 m/s

Example 3.1:
Calculate the collection efficiency of a 75 μm diameter particle in a simple
settling chamber 3 m wide by 3 m high by 10 m long when the gas velocity
through the chamber is 1.5 m/s. Assume a particle density of 1922 kg/m 3 and
gas stream conditions of 20°C and 1 atm.

Solution
Calculate volumetric flow rate

Q = v g WH= (1.5) ( 3)( 3) = 13 .5m 3 / s

Calculate collection efficiency

3.10. Summary
Air pollution affects our vegetation, agriculture, and is hazardous to our lifestyles and
health. Air pollution has been linked to increases in medical costs and a depreciation in
quality of life and poses significant global threats in the form of global warming and
ozone depletion. In this unit we discussed the degradation of air quality and the effects
of air pollution.

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Learning Activity 3.5:
1. Discuss how to enhance the efficiency of settling chamber
2. Discuss the difference between:
• oxidizers and reactors
• biofilters and inclinators

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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References
1. Air pollution course, The Commonwealth of Learning 1285 West Broadway,
Suite 600 Vancouver, BC V6H 3X8 Canada.
2. Berthouex, P.M., Kurki-Suonio, I., Noll, K.E. and Ouano, E.A.R. 1995. Air
Pollution Control, UNESCO Series of Learning Materials in Engineering
Sciences.
3. Department of Environmental Affairs, 2009. National Environmental
Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act No. 39 of 2004) National Ambient
Air Quality Standards.
4. Faith, W.L., 1959. Air pollution control, John Wiley and sons, Inc., New
York.
5. LIPTAK, B.G. & LIU, D. H. F. 1999. Environmental Engineers' Handbook.
ISBN: 9780849321573.
6. Metcalf and Eddy, I. 1991. Wastewater Engineering Treatment, Disposal, and
Reuse. New York: McGraw-Hill.
7. Water Environment Federation. 1995. Pollution Prevention and Waste
Minimization Digest. Alexandria, Va: Water Environment Federation.

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