Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 16 Electric Lighting Design)

C H A P T E R 16
Electric Lighting Design
the pre-design stage and considerations related

CONTEXT to the construction and occupancy phases of a
project. Daylight is a highly preferred means of
building illumination (see Chapter 10), yet most
16.1 BIG PICTURE buildings will require an electric lighting system
for use at night and to supplement daylighting. The
The design of an electric lighting system—in its electric lighting design process must acknowledge
most basic sense—involves the selection of lamps and link with daylighting efforts.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
and luminaires of adequate number that are The fundamentals of light, light measure-
placed in appropriate locations to meet the owner’s ment, vision, and visual comfort are discussed in
project requirements (OPR). Conformance to the Chapter 6. Electric lamp types and their plusses and
OPR for any proposed design solution can be evalu- minuses are discussed in Chapter 15. Luminaires
ated by manual or computerized analysis methods. and controls are also discussed in Chapter 15.
Prior to evaluation, any lighting proposal is simply These lighting system components can, to some
an untested design hypothesis. Usually, the best of extent, be selected independently of a holistic
Copyright © 2019. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
a range of potentially acceptable lighting solutions system proposal—but must always be respected as
is determined by both technical and aesthetic part of a larger system.
considerations. Manual (hand) methods are the focus of
This sounds like a reasonably simple process, discussion in this chapter. There are several
but unfettered by constraints it could easily reasons for this, even though manual methods are
involve hundreds of potential design options for increasingly less likely to be used in an office. First,
a single space. Consider the math when 4 lamp a manual method requires an explicit engage-
types are paired with 15 luminaire types in 20 ment with all important variables since they are
different spatial configurations (geometries and unavoidably seen in the equations that represent
surface reflectances). Design constraints are found the method. Second, computerized software is
in the OPR and in the designer’s preferences and often proprietary and set up as a black box—the
biases. Precedents can effectively serve to narrow workings of the software are often opaque. Third,
the range of options. there are many lighting design software packages
This chapter is centered on how a lighting available, each with differences from the others.
design proposal may be evaluated during the There are two key manual analysis methods:
design stage—prior to installation in a building. the zonal cavity method and the point-to-point
But it also addresses preparing for design during method. Both are discussed herein.
759
Grondzik, Walter T., and Alison G. Kwok. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/snulibrary-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5896255.
Created from snulibrary-ebooks on 2023-09-04 10:22:05.
760 CHAPTER 16 ELECTRIC LIGHTING DESIGN
16.2 PHILOSOPHY can be chosen and arranged in various ways to

complement the other architectural elements
Lighting design is a combination of art and science or to create dominant or recessive architec-
(“architecture” and engineering). There can be tural features or patterns. Fixtures may also
many solutions to the same lighting problem, be decorative and thus enhance the interior
all of which will satisfy the minimum project design. Accent lighting, directional lighting,
requirements, yet some will be dull and mundane, and other highlighting techniques increase the
while others will display ingenuity and resource- utilitarian as well as the architectural quality
fulness. The lighting designer should approach of a space.
each problem with an open mind, bringing to it 4. The lighting system must provide the proper
knowledge of current technology, as well as neces- luminous quality (glare control, color
sary background and experience. Rarely should rendering, etc.) and be deemed appropriate
an owner or designer be satisfied with a carbon by users.
copy system from a previous design. 5. The lighting outcomes must be efficient in
Because of the large number of interrelated terms of cost and energy use and respectful
factors that affect the perception and performance of resources. Cost should be life-cycle cost
of a lighting solution, no single proposed design (acquisition plus operation); energy should
can be claimed to be “correct.” For this reason, it consider both cost and resource consumption;
is not entirely desirable to solve a lighting problem resource-respectfulness should consider end-
using a step-by-step linear technique. Experience of-life and manufacturing.
has shown, however, that this is a good approach
for those who lack the experience necessary to On another level, the objective of lighting
envision an entire solution early and holistically. design is to meet the lighting-related owner’s
This chapter outlines a step-by-step process. project requirements (OPR) for a building. Devel-
opment of OPR during pre-design is mandatory on
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
16.3 LIGHTING DESIGN OBJECTIVES a commissioned project—but good practice for any
project. The purpose of the OPR is to delineate all
On one level, the objective of lighting design is to issues of importance to project success, set intents
create an effective, efficient, and pleasing lumi- for these issues, and establish criteria (design
nous environment. That these outcomes—en- targets) for each intent. These targets are then
compassing the utilitarian and the aesthetic—are used for evaluation during design, construction,
and occupancy.
not contradictory, is demonstrated by thousands

of great lighting designs. Light can and should With these considerations in mind, a lighting
be regarded as an architectural material. Inter- design procedure can be laid out—keeping in mind
estingly, many graduate architects have entered that the suggested order of steps is not necessarily
practice without ever designing an electric lighting the same for each lighting problem. Since many
system for any studio project—thus never experi- lighting design factors are closely interrelated, it is
menting with this valuable luminous material. often necessary to address several stages simulta-
Some underlying architectural lighting design neously before arriving at a decision.
objectives are: The lighting design approach explained in this
chapter is analytic; that is, the design procedure
1. Illuminance should be adequate for effective establishes requirements primarily in numer-
viewing of the specific task involved; on a ical form and then considers lamps, fixtures,
task-by-task basis. fixture locations, and so on, to arrive at a design
2. Variation should be provided for because this solution. In an alternative approach, frequently
is desirable to avoid monotony and to create referred to as brightness design, the designer links
perspective effects; but this variation should surfaces on a proposed plan/section of a space
respect acceptable luminance ratios. with desired luminances established by a mental
3. Lighting equipment should be unobtrusive, but picture (or other means) and designs the lighting
not necessarily invisible. Fixtures (luminaires) accordingly. This approach, which can be very
PRE-DESIGN PHASE 761
effective, is highly intuitive and requires consider- The building commissioning process requires
able prior experience on the part of the designer. that a document called the Owner’s Project
For this reason, and because of the hands-on, Requirements (OPR) be developed during
trial-and-error fieldwork involved in the approach, pre-design. The OPR will describe what success
it cannot be given adequate justice in a textbook will look like in the occupied project—from the
and is not presented here. owner’s perspective. In the absence of an OPR, the
designer’s perspective will be substituted. One of
the strongest—and most challenging—elements
of the commissioning process is OPR development.
PROCESS Preparation of a good OPR is best practice for any
project—commissioned or not.
16.4 OVERVIEW (a) Lighting OPR
Table 16.1 presents a simplified overview of The owner’s lighting project requirements for a
a recommended lighting design procedure. proposed building capture all the issues, intents,
This simplified overview does not presume a and criteria related to lighting that matter to
commissioned project, not does it assume that the the owner. Because an owner is typically not a
integrated design process will be used. The “who trained designer, the design team will ensure that
is involved” list would be accentuated by the use of the owner’s wishes are augmented by considera-
commissioning and integrated design. tions of codes, standards, and current practices.
Further discussion of numerous lighting design
considerations is found in Section 16.6 below.
16.5 PRE-DESIGN PHASE Lighting design issues. These are simply nouns
that identify things related to lighting that should
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
A successful pre-design phase effort is essential to be considered during the design process. Typical
a successful lighting design. Project aspirations, lighting issues include first cost, operating cost,
constraints, targets, and biases must be enunci- appropriateness, flexibility, energy efficiency,
ated in pre-design. If they are not (if left to the greenness, maintainability, appearance, durability,
design phase), then the lighting design will usually and the like.
reflect only the wishes of the design team—and not Lighting design intent. The purpose of a lighting
those of the client. Historically pre-design has led design intent is to convert each identified issue into
to development of a program or brief that outlines a general direction to be pursued on the project.
project requirements. This is still a common This may sound simplistic but qualifying an issue
approach. Unfortunately, many programs are at can lead to interesting discussions between a client
best rough outlines of owner expectations—often (or user) and the design team—which become
unsupported by specific design criteria. more interesting when quantified as criteria.
TABLE 16.1 Overview of the Lighting Design Process

Project Phase Key Activities Who is Involved Comments
Pre-Design Develop lighting OPR Client, users, architect, OPR (or equivalent) is essential to
engineer, lighting designer success
Design Select approach Architect, engineer, lighting A system is proposed, evaluated,
Select components designer tweaked, reevaluated, and then
Analyze proposal put into contract documents
Evaluate proposal and
iterate as needed
Construction Verify submittals Lighting designer Site observation is beneficial
Verify installation
Occupancy Tune systems Lighting designer, owner, users Close the design loop by confirming
Do a POE in the field that OPR are met
Assist owner
Examples of lighting intents (related to three solution that will likely meet the client’s needs and
of the issues noted above) are: aspirations. Schematic design is typically used
to test the feasibility of the conceptual design
• Low first cost (or perhaps regional-average first proposal by carrying out more detailed design
cost) explorations. In design development, contract
• Code-minimum energy efficiency (or perhaps documents (including drawings and specifica-
exceptional energy efficiency) tions) are prepared. These contract documents, if
• Easily maintained (or perhaps maintained with faithfully executed by the contractor, will deliver
some difficulty) the owner’s project requirements (and more).
This discussion does not formally subdivide
Lighting design criteria. These convert the the design phase. Suffice it to say that design is
direction suggested by design intents into specific iterative and evolves into ever more detailed explo-
design targets (desired destinations). Criteria are ration, analysis, and documentation. Some of the
usually quantitative and numeric but can be non- more common lighting design tasks are presented
numeric—such as three photographic examples herein—not necessarily in the order in which they
of luminaires that would be considered project- would be conducted on every project. For example,
appropriate. Examples of criteria related to energy lighting design for one hypothetical classroom
(note the range of possible targets) might include: might start with selection of a lamp/luminaire,
while design for another classroom might start
• Code-minimum lighting power density (LPD) with selection of a light distribution approach.
• LPD 10% less than code minimum Surfaces other than the working plane must
• LPD 20% less than code minimum always be considered as part of the lighting system.
• Lamp luminous efficacy of 80 or more The ratio of vertical illuminance to horizontal illu-
• Lamp luminous efficacy of 100 or more minance of a chosen lighting system determines
• Luminaire TER value of 40 or greater wall luminance, which in turn greatly influences
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
the overall impression of spatial brightness. The

chromaticity of room lighting depends primarily
(b) Integrated Design
on the lamp but secondarily on the luminaire and
The implementation of an integrated design surface reflectances. A “white light” source can be
process should bring more people to the table tinted slightly by the use of a colored reflector in
earlier than in the historic relay-race type of the luminaire; the effect on luminaire output of
design process. During the pre-design phase it such a decision must be considered. In the case of
should be possible for the project lighting designer semi-indirect and indirect lighting, the same effect
(let’s assume a specialty consultant) to readily can be accomplished by the use of colored ceiling
interact with (and seek advice from) the project and upper wall surfaces, which serve as secondary
architect, electrical engineer, interior designer, reflectors and become an actual luminous source
green building specialist, contractor, and owner’s for the room.
operating personnel. This should lead to a more
well-rounded lighting design outcome. The same
would be true on a commissioned project, where (a) Light Distribution Approach
the pre-design commissioning team would include This discussion is focused on electric lighting
the above players. systems. The descriptions apply directly to elec-
tric lighting—but are also generally applicable
to daylighting design efforts. There are four
16.6 DESIGN PHASE broad approaches to lighting a space in service
to visual tasks more complex than simple orien-
The “design” phase is typically divided into tation or spatial definition. These are described
subphases—often including conceptual design, here as uniform illuminance, local illuminance,
schematic design, and design development. The supplementary illuminance, and task-ambient
objective of conceptual design is to develop a design illuminance.
DESIGN PHASE 763
Uniform illuminance. This refers to a system of limited size located in a larger space. Such an
designed to provide uniform, and generally diffuse, approach would rarely be found acceptable in a
lighting throughout the area under consideration building due to glare caused by excessive contrast.
(a room or portion of a room). The methods by A desk lamp in an otherwise dark office is an
which this outcome can be accomplished are example of local lighting—potentially very energy
numerous. The key constraint is that the resulting efficient, while being visually ineffective due to
illuminance on the working plane must be reason- discomfort.
ably uniform. This type of light distribution is Supplemental illuminance. This illumination
appropriate for a variety of spaces—in partic- approach is used where some high-lux tasks are
ular those where the design task may be located found in a space with generally lower illuminance
anywhere on the working plane (such as a class- demands. Uniform illuminance is provided for the
room with movable desks or an open plan office). space in general but is supplemented with addi-
Lighting systems that deliver uniform illuminance tional light at the more demanding task locations.
tend to have a uniform physical presence. Track lighting for a bulletin board or pinup wall
Local illuminance. This approach to lighting is in a classroom is an example of supplemental
described primarily in contrast to uniform lighting. illuminance. See Fig. 16.1 for examples. Mixing
With a local system, light is only delivered to a task additional light into a space already lit uniformly
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 16.1 Typical supplementary lighting units for incandescent, CFL, and linear fluorescent sources. (Drawn by Kelli Kimura; © Alison
Kwok; all rights reserved.)
normally reduces glare potential by reducing

contrast.
Task-ambient illuminance. The term “task-
ambient” means different things to different
people. In this book it specifically refers to light 90-100%
delivered by a luminaire designed to provide both 0-10%
uniform and supplemental light components.
Often, such a luminaire is part of the furniture
layout of a space. Although not common, this
lighting approach can be architecturally inter-
esting (freeing the ceiling from luminaires) and Indirect lighting
may have some tax advantages.
These light distribution approaches are gener-
ally fully independent of lamp type or luminaire
type—apart from task-ambient illuminance.
Uniform illuminance, for example, can be provided
by LED, fluorescent, metal-halide, or incandescent
lamps installed in recessed, flush, or suspended LED lamp
luminaires.
(b) Light Delivery Options

Indirect LED
There are six broad categories of luminaires
(a)
based upon how lighting is delivered from the
luminaire into the space being lit. These are: 80% - 90% diffuse reflectance on ceiling and upper wall
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
min 18 in
(0.46 m)
indirect, semi-indirect, direct–indirect, general

diffuse, semi-direct, and direct. Each type is briefly
discussed below.
Indirect delivery. With this type of fixture,
min 8 ft (2.4 m)
between 90% and 100% of the light output (see

Fig. 16.2a) is directed toward the ceiling and
upper walls of the room (in other words, away
from the typical working plane near the floor). The

delivery is called indirect because practically all 40% - 60% reflectance on lower wall
the light output will reach a horizontal working (b)
plane only via reflection from the ceiling and
Fig. 16.2 Indirect lighting. (a) The luminaires deliver 90–100% of
upper walls. The ceiling/upper wall planes become their output above their own horizontal plane. The ceiling and
a secondary light source. If these surfaces have upper wall surfaces of the space are directly illuminated, and by
high-reflectance finishes, the room illumina- reflection become large secondary sources that illuminate the
space below. When properly designed, this type of installation
tion will be highly diffuse (shadowless). Because yields a substantially uniform bright ceiling. (b) Indirect delivery
the source must be suspended at least 12 in. of light to a space involves multiple reflections from multiple
(300 mm), and preferably 18 in. (450 mm) or surfaces and, if properly designed, provides nearly uniform,
glareless illumination in the room. This type of delivery is particu-
more from the ceiling (depending upon the fixture) larly useful in spaces with digital screens. (Drawn by Kelli Kimura.)
to avoid ceiling “hot spots,” this system requires
a minimum ceiling height of 9 ft, 6 in. (∼3 m).
If luminaires are correctly spaced, the resulting To avoid excessive luminance difference
illuminance is uniform, and both direct glare and between the luminaire bottom and its surrounding
reflected glare potentials are minimal. field (the ceiling plane), the luminaire can be
DESIGN PHASE 765
translucent on the bottom, the sides, or both.

Approximately 750 lux (75 fc) is the maximum
horizontal-plane illuminance attainable without
exceeding an overall ceiling luminance of about
2500 cd/m2 (730 fL)—a target limit for direct 60-90%
glare control. With practically no veiling reflec- 10-40%
tions, this illuminance is sufficient for all but the
most difficult tasks. The lack of shadow, the low
source brightness, and the highly diffuse quality
created by indirect lighting give a very quiet, cool
ambience to a space, suitable for private offices, Semi-indirect lighting
lounges, and waiting areas. Areas having specular
visual tasks, such as an office with digital screens,
use this system to great advantage. In such spaces,
indirect fixtures without luminous bottoms or sides
should be specified.
When properly designed, particularly when
the source of light is integrated with architectural LED lamp
coves (see Fig. 16.2b), the ceiling has a floating
sky quality, which is pleasant and can be used to
give an impression of height in a low-ceilinged Perforated slots
room. Another characteristic of indirect lighting is Semi-indirect LED
a loss of texture-read on vertical surfaces, which is
typical of fully diffuse lighting. Fig. 16.3 Semi-indirect lighting. (Drawn by Kelli Kimura.)
Indirect lighting is inherently inefficient,
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
because much of the useful light reaches the to be with indirect lighting. With both indirect
working plane only after at least two reflections— and semi-indirect delivery, it is often desirable
within the luminaire and off the ceiling/upper to add accent lighting or downlighting to break
wall. However, to a considerable extent this inef- the monotony inherent with these systems and
ficiency can be offset by the glare-free nature of establish visual points of interest.
the lighting—if the improved lighting quality The light in both indirect and semi-indirect
allows for a reduction in target illuminance. Also, lighting systems undergoes several ceiling and wall
architectural intent may override concerns about reflections before reaching the horizontal working
reduced efficiency. plane. Highly reflective surfaces are critical to
Semi-indirect delivery. With this system, system efficiency. The use of colored paints, partic-
between 60% and 90% of luminaire light output is ularly on the ceiling, can serve to tint the room
directed to the ceiling and upper walls. This distri- illumination slightly via selective absorption—to
bution is similar to that of indirect lighting, except either good or bad effect, depending upon the
that it is somewhat more efficient and allows space and color in question.
higher levels of illumination without undesirable Direct–indirect delivery. Direct–indirect delivery
brightness contrast between the luminaire and provides an approximately equal distribution of
its background, along with lower ceiling bright- light upward and downward, resulting in a fairly
ness. A typical fixture, illustrated in Fig. 16.3, bright ceiling and upper wall (Fig. 16.4). For
employs a translucent diffusing element through this reason, luminance ratios in the upper-vision
which the downward light component passes. The zone are usually not a problem. As the ceiling
ceiling remains the principal light source, and the is an important (although secondary) source of
diffuse character of the lighting remains. Direct room illumination, diffuseness is substantial, with
and reflected glare are both very low, as they tend satisfactory vertical-plane illumination.
than one with direct–indirect delivery due to the

darker walls in the latter.
The potential for both direct and reflected
glare can be minimized by avoiding exces-
40-60% sively bright luminaires and giving attention
40-60% to the positioning of sources and viewing angles.
Furthermore, because a luminaire (like any other
luminous source in the field of view whose lumi-
nance is higher than that of the average scene)
draws the eyes’ attention, care must be taken to
limit its luminance and to avoid disturbing fixture
Direct-indirect
patterns.
The efficiency of general diffuse and direct-
indirect systems is generally good. Both are well
applied in spaces requiring overall uniform illumi-
nance at moderate levels, such as classrooms, stan-
dard office work spaces, and merchandising areas.
LED lamp Semi-direct delivery. With this delivery, 60% to
90% of the luminaire output is directed down-
ward (or toward the work plane), with the
remaining upward component serving to illu-
Baffel
minate the ceiling (Fig. 16.6). If the ceiling has
Direct-indirect LED
a high reflectance, this upward component is
(a)
normally enough to minimize direct glare from
the luminaires, depending on eye adaptation level.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
The degree of diffuseness of illumination depends

largely on the reflectances of room furnishings and
of the floor. Shadowing should not be a problem
when the upward component is at least 25% and
ceiling reflectance at least 70%. With a lesser
upward component, this is essentially a direct
lighting system. Semi-direct light delivery is inher-
ently efficient. Reflected glare can be controlled by

(b) the methods discussed in subsection (h)—reflected
Fig. 16.4 (a) Direct–indirect lighting. Upper and lower room glare. With adequate wall illuminance, the quality
surfaces are luminous, but the center of walls is not because of of the light gives a pleasant working atmosphere.
the lack of horizontal light output from fixtures (b). Most of the Semi-direct delivery is applicable to offices, class-
light on the working plane comes directly from the luminaire.
(Drawn by Kelli Kimura.) rooms, shops, and other work areas.
Direct delivery. Essentially all the light from
a direct luminaire is directed downward (toward
General diffuse delivery. General diffuse fixtures the work plane). As a result, ceiling illuminance
(Fig. 16.5) distribute light in all directions, whereas is entirely the result of light reflected from floor
direct–indirect fixtures have little or no horizontal and room surfaces/furnishings. This delivery
component. Suspension distances for both types approach requires a light, high-reflectance, diffuse
should be adequate (generally not less than 12 in. floor—unless a dark ceiling is specifically intended
[305 mm]) to avoid excessive ceiling brightness as a way lower apparent ceiling height, to correct
and hot spots. a poorly proportioned room, or to hide unsightly
Because the impression of illumination piping or ductwork.
depends, to a large extent, on wall luminance The effect of direct lighting depends greatly
(because this is the surface we see most often), a on whether the luminaire light distribution is
space with general diffuse delivery appears brighter spread out or concentrated (Figs. 16.7 and 16.8).
DESIGN PHASE 767
40 - 60%
40 - 60%
General diffuse
(b)
General diffuse incandescent

(a)
Fig. 16.5 (a) General diffuse lighting. (b) Note that all room surfaces are illuminated and become secondary sources, although those
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
closest to the fixtures (ceiling, upper wall) are the brightest secondary sources. The primary source of illumination is the direct radiation
MENTAL SYSTEMS
from the fixture. The floor contribution to work plane illuminance is nominal due to its normally low reflectance.
20%
80%
10 - 40%
60 - 90%
Semi-direct
(b)
12%
(a)
88%
Luminous sides
semi-direct fluorescent
(c)
Fig. 16.6 Semi-direct light delivery provides its own ceiling brightness (a), with surface-mounted fixtures (b) or pendant/surface units
(c) as illustrated. Other characteristics are like those for direct delivery.
0% - 10%
90 - 100%
Direct lighting - spread (b)

(a)
0%
100%
Metal-enclosed
direct fluorescent (spread)
(c)
Fig. 16.7 Spread-type direct light delivery (a) illuminates all room surfaces except the ceiling, which is only illuminated by reflection
from the floor. Some diffuseness is evident. The most common fixture in this category is the direct fluorescent unit, either troffer-type,
recessed in the ceiling (b), or surface-mounted (c).
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
0% - 10%
90 - 100%
Direct lighting - concentrating (b)

(a)
0%
100%
Direct concentrating
(c)
Fig. 16.8 (a) With concentrated direct delivery, the floor is the only luminous surface (b) other than the ceiling fixture. Diffuseness is
absent. Walls are dark. Incandescent downlights (c) and, to a lesser extent, CFL downlights are of this type unless equipped with
spread-type lenses.
DESIGN PHASE 769
If spread, considerable diffusion of light results vertical-surface illuminance, is desired. A lighting

from reflections from the floor, furniture, and fixture with a black cone, a baffle, or another device
walls. The result is a working atmosphere with that is nonreflecting at the viewing angle, will
slightly darkened walls and ceiling. This type of appear dark even when operating. Installations
light delivery, which is represented by recessed providing high horizontal-surface illuminance,
fluorescent troffers installed in a suspended with no apparent source of brightness—such
ceiling, is common for general office lighting. as those using black-cone downlights—tend to
The luminaires develop a ceiling surface pattern be disturbing to our normal bright-sun-and-sky
with light and dark areas. The quality of the entire orientation and should be used cautiously and
system is generally not unpleasant. Although only in limited areas. This same comment, but to a
direct glare and veiling reflection issues may arise, lesser extent, is applicable to very-low-brightness
they can be controlled using proper luminance diffusers such as the parabolic wedge type (see Fig.
ratios, the use of low-brightness fixtures, and 15.36). Such fixtures at least have the redeeming
thoughtful arrangement of viewing positions. characteristic of low reflected glare potential,
When direct delivery fixtures are used in a uniform which is not the case with downlights. Architec-
pattern, viewing-location flexibility disappears, turally, the psychological impression of a space
and low-brightness luminaires and high ceiling without a visible source of light is gloomy and
reflectivity (or specialty diffusers, such as those cavelike. When very-low-brightness sources are
with a batwing distribution) are necessary. used, as in areas with lots of computer/TV screens,
Direct lighting gives little vertical surface this negative impression can be alleviated by the
illuminance, requiring the addition of perimeter addition of luminous surfaces in nonreflecting
lighting in many space types (Fig. 16.9). areas or points of light to add sparkle.
Concentrating downlights create sharp In summary, spread-type direct light delivery
shadows and a theatrical atmosphere that are is suitable for uniform lighting, whereas concen-
not appropriate to an office-type commercial trated direct light delivery (which reduces vertical
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
space. They can be used in restaurants and other illuminance) is appropriate for highlights, local
areas where a feeling of privacy, generated by and supplementary lighting, and private/intimate
limited-area horizontal illuminance and minimal situations.
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.9 Large-dimension lighting fixtures may be used in a low-ceilinged room if the apparent sizes of the units can be reduced. Here
at a mounting height of 7.5 ft (2.3 m), 4 ft × 4 ft (1.2 × 1.2 m) units are acceptable because the lattice on the face of each unit gives the
impression of reduced fixture size. Note also that the apparent illuminance in (b) is greater than in (a) although both are exactly equal
on the table surface because of the wall wash in the background. The eye perceives vertical surface illuminance more readily than
horizontal illuminance and retains the impression for the entire space.
(c) Illuminance Targets Several reservations about this process of

developing recommended task illuminances have
The lighting for many spaces is designed
been voiced by researchers. These will not be
primarily—although ideally not exclusively—to
addressed here, but they suggest that the IESNA
support successful accomplishment of one or more
illuminance recommendations are best seen as
defined visual tasks. This leads to a basic lighting
guidelines and not as set-in-stone doctrine.
design question: “How much light is needed for the
Visual task studies indicate that, assuming
visual task at hand?” This question is somewhat
good contrast, required luminances for various
difficult to answer because recommendations for
categories of tasks, are roughly as follows:
similar tasks vary by ratios as high as 10:1 among
countries with developed technologies. Since
Category of
the late 1980s an attempt to reach a degree of Visual Task Required Luminance cd/m2 (fl)
international standardization has been underway. Causal 10–20 (3–6)
The North American illuminance recom- Ordinary 20–100 (6–29)
Moderate 100–200 (29–58)
mendations (promulgated by the IESNA) were Difficult 200–400 (58–117)
originally analytically developed by extrapola- Severe Above 400 (117)
tion from extensive laboratory tests. These tests
determined the conditions under which small
differences in contrast could be detected for specific The dependence of required illuminance upon
degrees of accuracy, under variable task lumi- task reflectance (R) can be seen in the following
nance, size, and exposure time. The idea behind tabulation, which shows quantitatively the illumi-
the tests was that visual acuity could be defined as nance requirements in the previous categories for
the ability to distinguish differences in contrast. tasks of radically different reflectance.
Because of social and legal pressure for energy
efficiency improvements, IESNA has taken steps Required E luxa (fc)
Category of
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
toward the rationalization of its very influential Visual Task R = 50% R = 10%
illuminance guidelines. They include recogni- Casual 62–125 300–625
tion of fatigue and task familiarity as factors in (6–12) (28–58)
determining illuminance levels, in establishing Ordinary 125–625 625–3125
(12–58) (58–290)
lighting power budgets, and in setting energy Moderate 625–1250 3125–6250
standards that encourage the use of daylight and (58–116) (290–580)
Difficult 1250–2500 6250–12,500
the use of supplemental lighting as the preferred (116–230) (580–1161)
technique wherever high levels of task lighting Severe >2500 (230) >12,500 (1161)
are required. a Lux and fc values are rounded.
Illuminance and Luminance Before discussing
specific illuminance recommendations, it is good This illustrates that a single illumination
to understand the basis of their derivation, appli- target may be inadequate for an area containing
cability, and shortcomings. As noted previously, widely differing visual tasks. Note that a 10%
most of the IESNA task illuminance recommenda- reflectance makes all tasks difficult; and that
tions are derived by extrapolation from threshold casual seeing comprises only outline recognition.
contrast visibility tests. Assuming uniform, diffuse
Illuminance Criteria The design targets for
task reflectance and uniform illuminance, it is
illuminance found in an OPR should come from
simple to calculate required illuminance, since
a reputable source (association or organization)
luminance is simply the product of illuminance
that provides guidance for a range of tasks. In the
and reflectance. In SI units, L = E × R / π
US, this source is the Illuminating Engineering
where Society—which publishes consensus recommen-
L = luminance in cd/m2 dations gathered from scientific research and
E = illuminance in lux experience, tempered by concern for available
R = reflectance
technology, economics, best practice, and energy
In I-P units, fL = fc × R efficiency. Building codes in the US do not provide
DESIGN PHASE 771
actionable guidance on adequate illuminance for as schools, health-care facilities, hospitality and
anything beyond emergency egress. The recom- entertainment venues, libraries, manufacturing
mendations presented in this book are expressly for plants, offices, residences, retail spaces, sports and
North America. Many countries have their own recreation venues, transportation facilities, and
published lighting standards. A specific project places of worship. With qualitative and quantita-
should follow the recommendations in force in the tive lighting criteria, a detailed user’s guide offers
project locale. the designer assistance in developing appropriate
Illuminance criteria should be used only lighting solutions.
in conjunction with other relevant lighting Lighting plays an important role in the func-
criteria (e.g., illuminance uniformity, surface tional use and general enjoyment of libraries.
modeling, color rendering, glare potential). Three Table 16.3 includes a sample of the IESNA illumi-
factors will directly influence recommended nance recommendations for a library: targets for
illuminances: basic task characteristics, task horizontal surfaces (Eh ) and vertical surfaces (Ev )
importance, and observer characteristics (in the are organized by task and visual ages of the users.
form of “visual age”). IESNA provides illuminance As a lighting design progresses, thought must be
targets (Table 16.2) in a matrix organized with given to aspects of the visual environment beyond
these characteristics in mind. The illuminance illuminance. For example, a library circulation
recommendations range from 0.5 to 20,000 lux desk must be visible by patrons as well as provide
(5 to 2000 fc) in lettered categories (A-Y) that visual interest for the general public; the library
progress from less demanding, primarily exte- staff must be able to see certain areas of the library
rior lighting applications to highly demanding, without experiencing glare. These kinds of refining
primarily interior applications. details need to be considered.
Table 16.2 also reflects a task’s inherent
potential contrast, size, and reflectance; and the
(d) System Components
importance of speed and accuracy. Those engaged
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
with a task are estimated to be around 25 years Lighting system components are the elements
old. IESNA states that these illuminance recom- that enable design criteria (for illuminance, glare,
mendations are to be doubled if more than 50% of energy, chemical pollution, aesthetics, cost, etc.).
the occupants are more than 65 years old. Lamps and luminaires are key system compo-
For a space with several tasks of varying visual nents and are discussed in detail in Chapter 15.
difficulty, the designer is expected to design the Controls are another component, also discussed
lighting and controls so that disparate tasks are in Chapter 15. Beyond such hardware elements,
accommodated without overlighting. Overlighting the space itself is a major component in the oper-
is common when a uniform illuminance system is ation and success of a lighting system. Space
based on the most light-intensive task in a space; characteristics of importance to a lighting system
being incredibly inefficient and resource wasteful, include room dimensions and resultant propor-
intentional overlighting is strongly discouraged. tions, surface and furnishing finishes (especially
IESNA illuminance recommendations are reflectance), and the geometric interrelationship
not directly applicable to spaces in which a visual between elements. The role of these components
task is not the deciding factor in lighting design. will be seen in the discussion of the zonal cavity
Such installations include merchandising spaces, method described in subsection e below.
displays of all sorts, theatrical and artistic lighting,
mood lighting, safety lighting, light used as part
(e) Uniform Illuminance Calculations
of an industrial process, and so on. Code require-
ments would supersede IESNA recommendations, Lighting System Efficiency—Coefficient
but such conflict is rare. of Utilization Some of the lumen output of a lamp
The Lighting Handbook from IESNA includes is lost within a luminaire due to light absorption.
a robust range of recommendations for illumi- The luminous efficiency of a fixture, expressed
nances and other lighting considerations for a as a percentage, is the ratio of luminaire output
wide range of applications and buildings such lumens to lamp output lumens. This performance
TABLE 16.2 Recommended Illuminance Categories
Recommended Illuminance Targets lux (fc)

Visual Ages of Observers (years) where at
least half are
Some Typical Application and Task
Category <25 25 to 65 >65 Characteristics
INTERIOR and Aa 0.5 (.05) 1 (0.1) 2 (0.2) Dark adapted situations
EXTERIOR Ba 1 (0.1) 2 (0.2) 4 (0.4) Basic convenience situations
applications Very-low-activity situation
Ca 2 (0.2) 4 (0.4) 8(0.7) Slow-paced situations
Low-density situations
Da 3 (0.3) 6 (0.6) 12 (1.1) Slow-to-moderate-paced situations
Ea 4 (0.4) 8 (0.7) 16 (1.5) Moderate-to-high-density situations
Fa 5 (0.5) 10 (1) 20 (2) Moderate-to-fast-paced situations
Ga 7.5 (0.7) 15 (1.4) 30 (3) High-density situations
Ha 10 (1) 20 (2) 40 (4) Some indoor very subdued circulation
situations
Some indoor social situations
INTERIOR and Ia 15 (1.4) 30 (3) 60 (6) Congested and significant outdoor
EXTERIOR intersections, important
decision-points, gathering places, and
key points of interest
Some indoor social situations
Some indoor commerce situations
INTERIOR Jb 20 (2) 40 (4) 80 (8) Some outdoor commerce situations
and EXTERIOR Kb 25 (2.5) 50 (5) 100 (10) Some indoor social situations
applications Lb 37.5 (3.5) 75 (7) 150 (15) Some indoor commerce situations
Mb 50 (5) 100 (10) 200 (18.58)
Nb 75 (7) 150 (15) 300 (30)
Ob 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Pc 150 (15) 300 (30) 600 (60) Some indoor social situations
Some indoor education situations
Some indoor commerce situations
Some indoor sports situations
Qc 200 (20) 400 (40) 800 (80) Some indoor education situations
Rc 250 (25) 500 (50) 1000 (100) Some indoor commerce situations
Sc 375 (37) 750 (75) 1500 (150) Some indoor sports situations
Some indoor industrial situations
Td 500 (50) 1000 (100) 2000 (200) Some sports situations
Ud 750 (75) 1500 (150) 3000 (280) Some indoor commerce situations
Vd 1000 (100) 2000 (200) 4000 (380) Some indoor industrial situations
We 1500 (150) 3000 (280) 6000 (560) Some sports situations
Some indoor industrial situations
Some health care procedural situations
INTERIOR Xe 2500 (235) 5000 (470) 10000 (930) Some health care procedural situations
applications Ye 5000 (470) 10000 (930) 20000 (1860)
Source: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, The Lighting Handbook, 10th ed. © 2011; used with permission. The I-P unit
soft conversions were developed by the authors of this book.
a Orientation, relatively large-scale, physical (less-cognitive) tasks—visual performance is typically not work-related, but related to dark
sedentary social situations, senses of safety and security, and casual circulation based on landscape, hardscape, architecture, and people
as visual tasks.
b Common social activity and large and/or high-contrast tasks—visual performance involves higher-level assessment of landscape, hard-
scape, architecture, and people and can be work related.

c Common, relatively small-scale, more cognitive or fast-performance visual tasks—visual performance is typically daily life- and
work-related, including much reading and writing of hardcopies and electronic media consecutively and/or simultaneously.
d Small-scale, cognitive visual tasks—visual performance is work- or sports-related, close and distant fine inspection, very small detail,
high-speed assessment and reaction.

e Unusual, extremely minute and/or life-sustaining cognitive tasks—visual performance is of the highest order in respective fields of health
care, industrial, and sports.
DESIGN PHASE 773
TABLE 16.3 Library Facility Illuminance Recommendations
Recommended Maintained Illuminance Targets Lux (fc)

Horizontal (Eh ) Targets Vertical (Ev ) Targets
Visual Ages of Observers (years) where Visual Ages of Observers (years)
at least half are where at least half are
Application
and Tasks Notes Category <25 25–65 >65 Category <25 25–65 >65
Book Lending—Book Stacks
General3 Eh @ floor of book O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)

stacks proper
Shelving @ 2’6” Eh and Ev @ front P 150 (15) 300 (30) 600 (60) O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)
(760 mm) AFFa face of shelving
Lending Desk
Self-servicea Eh @ 2’6” (760 mm) P 150 (15) 300 (30) 600 (60) M 50 (5) 100 (10) 200 (20)
AFF; Ev @
5’ (1.5 m) AFF
Staffeda Eh @ 2’6” (760 mm) R 250 (25) 500 (50) 1000 (100) O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)
AFF; Ev @
5’ (1.5 m) AFF
Periodicals
Shelving @ 1’0” Ev @ front face of M 50 100 (10) 200 (20)

(305 mm) AFF shelving
Computer CSA/ISO Type I and II P 150 (15) 300 (30) 600 (60) M 50 (5) 100 (10) 200 (20)
Centera positive polarity
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
screens. Eh @ 2’6”
(760 mm);
Ev @ 4’ (1.2 m) AFF
Reading Areas
Grand Reading Eh @ 2’6” (760 mm) R 250 (25) 500 (50) 1000 (100) O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)
Rooma AFF; Ev @
4’ (1.2 m) AFF
Stack Reading Eh @ 2’6” (760 mm) R 250 (25) 500 (50) 1000 (100) M 50 (5) 100 (10) 200 (20)
Areasa AFF; Ev @
4’ (1.2 m) AFF
Study Carrelsa Eh @ 2’6” (760 mm) R 250 (25) 500 (50) 1000 (100) O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)
AFF; Ev @
4’ (1.2 m) AFF
Tables and Eh @ 2’6” (760 mm) R 250 (25) 500 (50) 1000 (100) O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)
Chairsa AFF; Ev @
4’ (1.2 m) AFF
Special Collections
Archival Storage Eh and Ev @ 3’ P 150 (15) 300 (30) 600 (60) M 50 (5) 100 (10) 200 (20)
(910 mm) AFF
Rare Books Eh and Ev @ 3’ P 150 (15) 300 (30) 600 (60) M 50 (5) 100 (10) 200 (20)
(910 mm) AFF
Source: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, The Lighting Handbook, 10th ed. © 2011; used with permission. The I-P unit
soft conversions were developed by the authors of this book.
a Combination of daylighting and electric lighting strategies can be employed to achieve target values during daylight hours. Daylighting
may require unconventional approaches.
metric, while useful for cross comparisons of like by a uniform illuminance lighting system. The
luminaires, is only a part of overall lighting system purpose of the zonal cavity method is to determine
efficiency because a luminaire when installed in a how many lighting fixtures are required to deliver
specific room takes on a performance that depends design illuminance to a space. One of the nice
on the characteristics of that room. things about the zonal cavity method is that it lays
To illustrate, consider the case of a large room out all the variables that affect the performance
with a high, dark ceiling. Using a high-efficiency of a uniform lighting system—for inspection and
(say, 80%) indirect lighting fixture in such a consideration by the lighting designer. As opposed
room, most of the light directed upward would be to black-box software-based analysis approaches,
absorbed by the ceiling, and the delivered illumi- this hand calculation method is an open box.
nance on the working plane would be very low. Understanding the design variables that impact
If, however, the same room were illuminated with system performance, and the general magnitude
50% efficiency direct-lighting fixtures utilizing the of such impacts, is very valuable to a lighting
same lamps, the illuminance on the working plane designer.
would be considerably higher than in the first case. A number of calculation methods are avail-
Similarly, considering a small room with dark able to address different design situations. Calcu-
walls and ceiling, lighted either by diffuse lighting lating the non-uniform illuminance provided by
or direct lighting fixtures of the same wattage and point, line, or area sources is covered later in this
efficiency, the horizontal-plane illumination is chapter. Surface luminance calculations are also
higher for the direct units because of the large loss discussed later in this chapter.
of the horizontal and upward components of the Before beginning a detailed description of
diffuse lighting on the walls and ceiling. the zonal cavity method, a general discussion of
Fixture efficiency alone is not sufficient to precision is in order. The precision of any calcu-
evaluate a lighting system; the overall luminous lation cannot exceed the precision of the input
efficiency of a particular luminaire in a particular data. There is no point in working to three decimal
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
space is necessary to fully appreciate how well places if the data driving the analysis are accurate
light source lumens are being used by a space. to only one decimal place. The zonal cavity method
This value, since it describes the utilization of of illuminance estimation is full of assumptions
lamp/fixture output in a specific space, is known and estimates. Among these are:
as the coefficient of utilization (CU). CU is defined as
the ratio of lumens reaching the horizontal work 1. It is assumed that the space is empty; this is not
plane to generated lumens. As each luminaire has normally the case.
a different CU for each different space in which 2. It is assumed that all surfaces are perfect
it might be used, a system of standardization has diffusers; this is not the case.
evolved utilizing room cavities (explained later) 3. All surface reflectances are estimates, usually
of certain proportions and with various surface with an accuracy of no more than ±10%.
reflectances. Coefficients of utilization are then 4. Maintenance conditions are prognoses of
computed and tabulated as shown in Table 16.4. future actions, at best ±10% accurate.
The CU values given in this table are for generic 5. No allowance is made for deviation of the
fixture types only; in an actual job, luminaire data performance of an installed product from its
from manufacturers should be used. To summa- design specification.
rize, CU is a performance factor that combines
fixture efficiency and interroom distribution (as Any attempt to reduce the looseness of these
affected by room proportions, mounting height, approximations and assumptions would compli-
and surface reflectances). cate the calculation process and would serve
little purpose for this type of calculation. For this
The Zonal Cavity Method This (also called reason, the procedure presented herein introduces
the lumen method) is a hand calculation procedure some approximations (which are justified) in the
for the analysis of average illuminance provided interest of simplification. These approximations
Trim Size: 8in x 10in
k Grondzik463085 c16.tex V1 - 08/13/2019 6:36 P.M. Page 775
TABLE 16.4 Coefficients of Utilization for Three Typical LED Luminaires

Luminaire Type Photometric Distribution RCC→ 80 80 80 70 70 70 50 50 50 30 30 30 10 10 10
RW→ 50 30 10 50 30 10 50 30 10 50 30 10 50 30 10
RFC→ 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
RCR↓ WDRC↓
a. direct 0 119 119 119 116 116 116 111 111 111 106 106 106 102 102 102 ——
1 107 103 100 105 101 99 101 98 96 97 95 93 93 91 90 0.301
2 96 90 85 94 89 84 91 86 82 87 84 81 84 82 79 0.288
3 86 79 74 85 78 73 82 76 72 79 75 71 77 73 69 0.270
4 77 70 64 76 69 64 74 68 63 72 66 62 70 65 61 0.255
5 69 61 55 68 61 55 66 60 55 64 59 54 63 58 54 0.242
6 63 55 49 62 54 49 60 53 48 59 52 48 57 52 47 0.227
7 57 49 43 56 48 43 54 47 42 53 47 42 52 46 42 0.214
8 51 43 37 50 43 37 49 42 37 48 41 37 47 41 37 0.204
9 46 38 32 45 38 32 44 37 32 43 37 32 42 36 32 0.194
10 42 34 29 41 34 29 40 33 28 39 33 28 38 32 28 0.184
b. direct-indirect 0 105 105 105 96 96 96 79 79 79 64 64 64 49 49 49 ——

1 93 89 86 85 82 79 70 68 66 57 55 54 44 43 43 0.138
k 2 82 76 71 75 70 66 62 59 56 51 48 46 40 38 37 0.130 k
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
3 72 65 60 66 61 56 55 51 48 45 42 40 36 34 32 0.121
4 64 57 51 59 53 48 50 45 41 41 37 34 32 30 28 0.114
5 57 49 44 53 46 41 44 39 35 36 33 30 29 26 24 0.108
6 51 43 38 47 40 35 40 34 30 33 29 26 26 23 21 0.101
7 46 38 32 42 35 30 36 30 26 29 25 22 23 21 18 0.095
8 41 33 28 38 31 26 32 27 23 26 22 19 21 18 16 0.090
9 37 29 24 34 27 23 29 23 20 24 20 17 19 16 14 0.086
10 33 26 21 31 24 20 26 21 17 21 17 15 17 14 12 0.081
c. indirect 0 100 100 100 89 89 89 68 68 68 48 48 48 31 31 31 ——
1 88 85 82 78 76 73 60 58 57 43 42 41 28 27 27 0.058
2 78 72 68 69 65 61 53 50 48 39 37 35 25 24 24 0.057
3 69 62 57 61 56 51 48 44 41 35 33 31 23 22 21 0.054
4 61 54 48 55 49 44 43 38 35 31 29 27 21 19 18 0.051
5 54 47 41 49 42 38 38 34 30 28 25 23 19 17 16 0.049
6 49 41 36 44 37 33 34 30 26 25 23 20 17 16 14 0.046
7 44 36 31 39 33 29 31 26 23 23 20 18 16 14 13 0.044
8 39 32 27 36 29 25 28 23 20 21 18 16 14 12 11 0.042
9 36 29 24 32 26 22 25 21 18 19 16 14 13 11 10 0.041
10 32 26 21 29 23 19 23 19 16 17 14 12 12 10 9 0.039
Abbreviations: RCC = effective reflectance of ceiling cavity; RW = average reflectance of wall surfaces; RFC = effective reflectance of floor cavity; RCR = room cavity ratio; WDRC = wall direct radiation
coefficient
These values and images were extracted by the authors from data generously provided by TRILUX gmbH & Co. for the following luminaires: type a-direct: ArimoS Sky; type b-direct-indirect: LuceoS H1-L;
and type c-indirect: Parelia H-L.
775
k
are noted wherever used. This is not an argu- Another equation for maintained illuminance
ment for inaccuracy or sloppiness—but rather for (E) as calculated by the zonal cavity method is,
realism. therefore,
lamp lumens × CU × LLF
E= (16.5)
Calculation of Horizontal Illuminance by the area
Zonal Cavity Method The zonal cavity method is
where E is lux if area is expressed in square meters,
a hand calculation procedure for determining the
or footcandles if the area is in square feet.
average maintained and initial illuminance (in foot-
candles or lux) on a horizontal working plane in Lamp lumens is the total output of the lighting
a room. The method presupposes that luminaires system proposed for the space and is equal to:
will be spaced such that uniformity of illumination number of fixtures × lamps per fixture
is provided, so that an average calculation will have
validity. The method is founded on the fact that 1 × initial lumens per lamp (16.6)
lux of illuminance is 1 lumen incident on 1 square The relationships can be restated as
meter of area (1 footcandle incident on 1 square
foot), that is, number of luminaires × lamps∕luminaire
× lumens∕lamp × CU × LLF
lumens E= (16.7)
lux or (fc) = (16.1) area
area m2 (or ft2 )
or, conversely, solving for the number of lumi-
As explained previously, the ratio of lumens naires required to achieve a target-maintained
reaching the working plane in a specific space to illuminance E:
the lumens generated by the lamps in the lighting
system is the coefficient of utilization, CU. Or number of luminaires =
E × area
lumens falling on the working plane (16.8)
lamps per luminaire × lumens
= lamp lumens × CU (16.2) per lamp × CU × LLF
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
For large areas, a sometimes-useful value is

MENTAL SYSTEMS
Therefore,
lamp lumens × CU the area successfully illuminated per luminaire:
illuminance E = (16.3)
area area per luminaire =
lamps per luminaire × lumens per lamp × CU × LLF
The coefficient of utilization is extracted from E
tables provided by the manufacturer of a selected (16.9)
luminaire by a technique known as the zonal For instance, it may be more convenient to
cavity method. In the absence of project-specific CU know that to maintain, say, 60 fc (650 lux) within
data, a rough approximation can be made for LED a space with a given luminaire and lamp, that
fixtures by using the three generic fixture types in 70 ft2 (6.5 m2 ) per luminaire will work than it is to
Table 16.4. know that for an 18,000-ft2 (1672-m2 ) floor, 257
The illuminance value calculated by fixtures are necessary. The former value allows the
Equation 16.3 is the average initial illuminance. establishment of a layout a pattern, say 7 ft by 10 ft
This initial illuminance is reduced by the effect of
(2.1 m by 3.0 m); the latter value is too large to be
temperature and voltage deviations, dirt accumu-
lation on luminaires and on room surfaces, lamp immediately useful.
output depreciation, and other factors. These
effects are collectively referred to as the system Estimation of Light Loss Factors Light loss
light loss factor (LLF): factor is an interesting concept that seems to be
uniquely applied to lighting system design. The
maintained E = initial E × LLF (16.4)
basic idea is simple: system performance will
The procedures used to estimate the various deteriorate over time as the effects of entropy kick
light loss factors, and establish an overall LLF, are in. What makes estimating LLF for a project inter-
explained in the following section. esting is that these effects occur in the future—and
DESIGN PHASE 777
are generally out of the direct control of the Luminaire surface depreciation. This LLF is propor-
building design team. Whether an owner cleans tional to age and depends upon the type of
luminaires every 3 years, 6 years, or never is not surface involved. The designer must estimate
a design decision. Yet this owner choice will affect this factor based upon knowledge of the lumi-
lighting system performance. One work-around naire materials as specified for the project. In
for the disconnect between design and opera- general, higher quality fixtures will have lower
tions is the development of an owner’s manual losses. This is a nonrecoverable factor (distinct
that describes design assumptions and recom- from dirt depreciation) and represents a reduc-
mends owner actions that would conform to tion in material reflectance or transmittance
those assumptions. Not to attempt to make this that can only be mitigated by replacement or
connection would be professionally irresponsible. resurfacing.
Light loss factors for a given project typi- Components. Losses due to system components may
cally include both recoverable and nonrecoverable include ballast factor, ballast-lamp photometric
elements. Recoverable losses can be reversed factor, equipment operating factor, and lamp
or mitigated by maintenance; nonrecoverable position (tilt) factor. Air troffers also introduce
cannot. As discussed under lumen maintenance a thermal adjustment factor. In the absence
controls, recoverable losses increase over time (as, of project-specific data for these component
for example, luminaires collect dirt and lamps factors, use a combined value of 0.92.
age). These slowly increasing loss factors decrease
the amount of light that can be delivered to the In the absence of reliable data for any of
task surface. Maintenance actions (such as lens the foregoing nonrecoverable factors, experi-
cleaning or wall surface touchup) can reverse ence suggests using an overall nonrecoverable
the reduction in light delivery and thus increase factor—representing the product of factors a × b ×
illuminance. c × d—of 0.88.
The total LLF for a lighting application is the Recoverable light loss factors include:
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
product of the individual factors. This is an impor-
tant consideration—three LLF values of 0.9 each Room surface dirt depreciation. Lighting approaches
(reasonably high values) collectively lead to a total that depend heavily on light reflected from
LLF of 0.73 (which represents a 30% reduction room surfaces, such as indirect distribution
in available lumens). The overview that follows systems, are more seriously affected by dirt
includes approximations. For more precise data, than systems that deliver most of their light
see the IESNA Lighting Handbook (2011). directly. Assuming a 24-month cleaning cycle
Nonrecoverable light loss factors include: and normal conditions of cleanliness, use the
appropriate LLF value from the following list.
Luminaire ambient temperature. Light output from Alter the chosen base factor for differential
a lamp can vary from cataloged data when conditions such as infrequent maintenance
the lamp is operated at other than its design and unusual cleanliness or dirtiness.
temperature. The extent of variation depends
Direct lighting: 0.92 ± 5%
on the lamp type. With normal indoor instal-
Semi-direct lighting: 0.87 ± 8%
lations (where human thermal comfort is a
Direct–indirect lighting: 0.82 ± 10%
concern), use a value of 1.0 for this LLF—that
Semi-indirect lighting: 0.77 ± 12%
is, there is no depreciation. For other ambient
Indirect lighting: 0.72 ± 17%
conditions, refer to technical data on the
luminaire involved. Lamp lumen depreciation. This loss factor (LLD)
Voltage. When a lamp operates at its rated voltage, depends upon the type of lamp used and the
use a value of 1.0 for this LLF. Details of lamp facility’s replacement schedule. Lamp lumen
sensitivity to voltage, which varies across lamp depreciation values are based upon lumen
types, are given in Chapter 15. output at rated lamp life; the rated life of the
lamp types listed below vary widely, thus these luminaire design, dirt conditions in the space,
values may not truly represent apples-to-apples and maintenance schedule. The luminaire
comparisons. Use the following values when maintenance category for a specific fixture is
project-specific data are unavailable: obtained from the manufacturer. The type of
dirt condition is determined by considering the
space and its functions. Assuming a 12-month
Group Replacement
Replacement on Burnout cleaning schedule and normal room cleanli-
Incandescent 0.94 0.88 ness, choose a base value from Fig. 16.10 and
Tungsten–halogen 0.98 0.94 adjust it to match the anticipated conditions of
Fluorescent 0.90 0.85
Mercury-vapor 0.82 0.74 dirt and maintenance. The categories indicated
Metal–halide 0.87 0.80 correspond to those used by the IESNA.
High-pressure sodium 0.94 0.88
LED 0.94 0.87
Total LLF is the product of all the depreciation
factors:
Burnouts. This loss factor accounts for lamps that LLF = a × b × c × d × e × f × g × h (16.10)
produce no output but have not been replaced
(burnouts that remain in place). LLF depends For example, a fluorescent air troffer in a
upon building maintenance schedules and regularly maintained group-lamp-replacement,
method of lamp replacement. The impact of a air-conditioned office might typically have an LLF
burnout also depends greatly upon the number of 0.8. The same fixture in the same setting, but
and distribution of lamps in a space. Use the where walls and the fixture are cleaned only when
following values as a general rule: burned-out lamps are replaced, would typically
have an LLF of 0.55. Thus, if in the first case the
Group replacement procedures: 1.0 maintained illumination is E fc, in the second case
Individual replacement on burnout: 0.95
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
it is 0.55/0.80 or 0.69 E fc, that is, a reduction of

MENTAL SYSTEMS
31% because of poor maintenance.

Luminaire dirt depreciation. The luminaire dirt When a detailed determination of LLF is not
depreciation (LDD) factor depends upon possible, use the factors described in the section
Category I Category II
15% or more
uplight = open
Semi-direct Semi-direct. If surface mounted add 5%
or louvered
Free lamps Large louver
Bare lamps 1 in. or
Strip more
0.88 ± 0.10 0.90 ± 0.08
Category III Category IV

Less than 15% Direct
Semi-direct. If surface mounted add 3% uplight = open Closed top recessed
or louvered Surface-suspended
Louver less Open-louvered
than 1 in. Lighted ceiling-louvered
0.85 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.15
Category V Category VI
15% or more Totally direct
uplight Direct Totally indirect
add 5% Semi-direct Semi-direct
Enclosed recessed Lighted ceilings,
Surface suspended covers, urns
0.83 ± 0.10 0.78 ± 0.12
Fig. 16.10 The LDD factor is determined from the category of luminaire (which is an indication of its proneness to dirt accumulation)
plus knowledge of room ambient conditions.
DESIGN PHASE 779
zonal cavity calculation by approximation (they are Using the above information, the applicable
somewhat conservative). CU can be selected from tables (either Table 16.4
for a small sample of LED fixtures or from manu-
Determining the Coefficient of Utilization
facturer’s data) and the zonal cavity formula
The coefficient of utilization (CU) numerically (Equation 16.8) applied to arrive at average illumi-
connects a particular luminaire/lamp combi- nance. A step-by-step explanation of the method
nation to a particular space by relating the plus examples will demonstrate the procedure. The
luminaire’s light distribution characteristic to flow chart in Fig. 16.12 and the calculation form
in Fig. 16.13 will be of great help in understanding
the room dimensions and surface reflectances.
the procedure.
To account for luminaire mounting height and
its relationship to the working plane, the room is STEP 1. Establish dimensional data for the room.
conceptually divided into three cavities: a ceiling Room length, width, and height are determined
cavity above the fixture, a floor cavity below the by the architectural design process. In offices,
working plane, and a room cavity between these schools, and many other occupancies, the work
two (Fig. 16.11). Knowing or assuming the major plane is typically 30 in. (760 mm) above the
surface reflectances, effective reflectances of the floor finished floor (AFF). In shops, 42 to 48 in. (1066
and ceiling cavities can be obtained. An effective to 1220 mm); in a carpet store at floor level. The
reflectance accounts for the effects of interreflec- location of the working plane and placement of
tions within a cavity and for differences in wall the lighting fixtures relative to the ceiling plane
versus floor/ceiling reflectance values. will determine the three h terms, representing the
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
ρ CC Ceiling cavity (CC)
hCC ρC
Luminaire Luminaire Luminaire
Luminaire plane
hRC
ρW ρW
Room cavity (RC)
Work plane
ρ FC Floor cavity (FC) hFC ρF
Legend:
ρ C = ceiling reflectance
ρ CC = ceiling cavity reflectance
ρ W = wall reflectance
ρ F = floor reflectance
ρ FC = floor cavity reflectance
h = height in feet or meters
hRC = height of room cavity (etc.)
Fig. 16.11 Room cavities as used in the zonal cavity method.
The basic expression for a cavity ratio (CR) is:

Data
hCC hRC hFC area of cavity wall
ρC ρW ρF CR = 2.5 × (16.11)
area of work plane
In a rectangular space, the area of a given cavity

Calculate wall is h × (2l × 2w) or 2h(l + w); therefore,
RCR CCR FCR
2.5 × 2h(l + w)
CR = (16.12)
area of work plane
or
No Yes
CCR = 0? l+w
CR = 5h × (16.13)
l×w
For other than rectangular rooms, the area can be
calculated as required by geometry. For instance, in
Calculate ρCC = ρC
ρCC a circular room, the cavity wall area = h × 2πr and
the work plane area is πr2 . Thus,
2.5 × h × 2π r 5h
CR = = (16.14)
π r2 r
For each of the cavities in a rectangular room
No Yes the cavity ratio is calculated as:
FCR = 0?
Room cavity ratio
l+w
RCR = 5hRC (16.15)
l×w
Calculate ρFC = ρF
ρFC Ceiling cavity ratio
l+w
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
CCR = 5hCC (16.16)

l×w
Floor cavity ratio
Calculate
CU1 l+w
FCR = 5hFC (16.17)
l×w
Because the three cavity ratios for a given
space are related, once one has been determined,
No ρFC = 20%? Yes
the others can be obtained by adjusting for cavity

height
hCC
CCR = RCR (16.18)
hRC
Calculate CU = CU1 hFC
CU FCR = RCR (16.19)
hRC
Fig. 16.12 Zonal cavity method flow chart. and
hCC
CCR = FCR (16.20)
hFC
heights of the zonal cavities. Estimate the initial STEP 3. See Table 16.5 and Figs. 16.12 and
reflectances of major room surfaces (selecting 16.13. Obtain the effective ceiling cavity
reflectances that conform to those suggested by reflectance (ρCC ) from Table 16.5 using the
the values in Table 16.5 is fine for preliminary expected ceiling surface reflectance as ρC and the
design). Fill in the information in a sketch, as in wall reflectance (ρW ) from step 1. If the lighting
Fig. 16.13. fixtures are surface-mounted or recessed, then
STEP 2. See again Fig. 16.13. Determine the CCR = 0 (there is no cavity) and ρCC is equal to the
three cavity ratios of the room by calculation. reflectance of the ceiling surface plane.
DESIGN PHASE 781
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 16.13 Zonal cavity method calculation form. (Courtesy of IESNA.)
TABLE 16.5 Percent Effective Ceiling or Floor Cavity Reflectance (𝛒CC , 𝛒FC ) for Various Reflectance
Combinations
Percent Ceiling ρC
or Floor
Reflectance ρF : 90 80 70 50 30 10
Percent Wall
90 70 50 30 80 70 50 30 70 50 30 70 50 30 65 50 30 10 50 30 10
Reflectance ρW :
Ceiling or 0 90 90 90 90 80 80 80 80 70 70 70 50 50 50 30 30 30 30 10 10 10
Floor Cavity 0.2 89 88 86 85 79 78 77 76 68 67 66 49 48 47 30 29 29 28 10 10 9
Ratios—CCR 0.4 88 86 83 81 78 76 74 72 67 65 63 48 46 45 30 29 27 26 11 10 9
or FCR 0.6 88 84 80 76 77 75 71 68 65 62 59 47 45 43 29 28 26 25 11 10 9
0.8 87 82 77 73 75 73 69 65 64 60 56 47 43 41 29 27 25 23 11 10 8
1.0 86 80 74 69 74 71 66 61 63 58 53 46 42 39 29 27 24 22 11 9 8
1.2 86 78 72 65 73 70 64 58 61 56 50 45 41 37 29 26 23 20 12 9 7
1.4 85 77 69 62 72 68 62 55 60 54 48 45 40 35 28 26 22 19 12 9 7
1.6 85 75 66 59 71 67 60 53 59 52 45 44 39 33 28 25 21 18 12 9 7
1.8 84 73 64 56 70 65 58 50 57 50 43 43 37 32 28 25 21 17 12 9 6
2.0 83 72 62 53 69 64 56 48 56 48 41 43 37 30 28 24 20 16 12 9 6
2.2 83 70 60 51 68 63 54 45 55 46 39 42 36 29 28 24 19 15 13 9 6
2.4 82 68 58 48 67 61 52 43 54 45 37 42 35 27 28 24 19 14 13 9 6
2.6 82 67 56 46 66 60 50 41 53 43 35 41 34 26 27 23 18 13 13 9 5
2.8 81 66 54 44 66 59 48 39 52 42 33 41 33 25 27 23 18 13 13 9 5
3.0 81 64 52 42 65 58 47 38 51 40 32 40 32 24 27 22 17 12 13 8 5
3.5 79 61 48 37 63 55 43 33 48 38 29 39 30 22 26 22 16 11 13 8 5
4.0 78 58 44 33 61 52 40 30 46 35 26 38 29 20 26 21 15 9 13 8 4
4.5 77 55 41 30 59 50 37 27 45 33 24 37 27 19 25 20 14 8 14 8 4
5.0 76 53 38 27 57 48 35 25 43 32 22 36 26 17 25 19 13 7 14 8 4
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
TABLE 16.6 CU Adjustment Factors for

Effective Floor Cavity Reflectances Other
STEP 4. See Table 16.5 and Figs. 16.12 and Than 20% (Any Wall Reflectance)a
16.13. Obtain the effective floor cavity reflectance For 30% effective floor cavity reflectance, multiply the CU value
ρFC , as described in step 3 for ρCC . If the floor is the for 20% floor cavity reflectance by the appropriate factor from
the following table.
working plane, FCR = 0 (there is no cavity) and For 10% effective floor cavity reflectance, divide the CU value for
ρFC is equal to the floor surface reflectance. 20% floor cavity reflectance by the appropriate factor from the
following table.
STEP 5. Select the applicable CU from the manu- Percent Effective Ceiling Cavity
facturer’s data—using room-specific values for Reflectance, 𝛒CC
ρCC, ρFC, ρW, and RCR. Interpolation may be Room Cavity Ratio 80 70 50 10
necessary for project values that do not closely 1 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.01
match the values given in the column headers 2 1.06 1.05 1.03 1.01
3 1.04 1.04 1.03 1.01
in the CU table—for example when RCR is 3.3 4 1.03 1.03 1.02 1.01
or ρW is 40%. CU correction factors for ρFC other 5 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.01
6 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.01
than 20% (the standard value in CU tables) are 7 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.01
given in Table 16.6. Be wary of extrapolating 8 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.01
9 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
beyond the values given in published CU tables (for 10 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01
example, assuming a ρW of 75%); there is typically
a practical reason for the range of values given in Source: Extracted from the IESNA Lighting Handbook (1993);
reprinted with permission.
these tables. a For more precise data that address varying ρ
W values, see the
See Example 16.1 in the next section. current IESNA Lighting Handbook.
DESIGN PHASE 783
STEP 6. Calculate the required number of fixtures (b) Luminaire selection. Classroom lighting prece-
to provide the design illuminance. If this number dents suggest the selection of luminaires that can
is impractical, adjust it (for example, 21.3 fixtures provide:
would likely become 22 fixtures) and recalculate
the initial illuminance. Setting LLF to 1.0 allows Low direct glare potential (have a high VCP) because
schoolchildren spend a large proportion of their
calculation of initial illuminance; setting LLF to its
time in a heads-up position
actual project value will provide maintained illu-
Low potential for veiling reflections because much of
minance. Maintained illuminance should equal or
the seeing task involves high-reflectance mate-
exceed design illuminance for a solution that meets
rials, occasionally specular
the owner’s project requirements.
High efficiency to meet ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Stan-
Illustrative examples and shortcut methods
dard 90.1 and the expectations of many clients
are demonstrated in the following section. CU coef-
Minimal required maintenance in view of the limited
ficients are listed in Table 16.4 for three generic
operational resources available to many schools
LED luminaire types. Manufacturers can provide
CU data for their specific products. Although the 3.7 m ceiling height is adequate to
permit use of indirect lighting (e.g., luminaire type
c in Table 16.4) with all of its distinct advantages,
this approach is not chosen because:
EXAMPLE 16.1 Fig. 16.13 is a compact and useful
worksheet for zonal cavity calculations—using this The luminaire maintenance category is of concern
worksheet to track these examples is recommended. given the type of maintenance expected.
To simplify this example, it is worked using only Indirect lighting depends on a highly reflective
SI units; the exact same process would apply with ceiling, requiring yearly cleaning and repainting
I-P units. at intervals not exceeding 5 years; this is not
Given. Assume a classroom with dimensions generally the case in public schools.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
of (W × L × H): 6 m × 8 m × 3.7 m, in an elementary
school. Initial surface reflectances are: ceiling 80%, Considering the above, select luminaire type a from
entire wall 50%, floor 20%. (Note that the Fig.16.13 Table 16.4 as an initial informed trial fixture. This
worksheet can accommodate different reflectances selection would meet requirements 1 through 4.
for the upper, center, and lower wall sections.) Although its distribution curve (see Table 16.4)
The basic lighting objective is to provide adequate shows no upward component, some fixtures of this
illuminance using LED fixtures. Assume a yearly basic design have slots in the top of the reflector to
maintenance cycle, lamp replacement at burnout, provide a 5% to 10% uplight component. In prac-
proper voltage and ballasts, and a medium-clean tice, such a unit would avoid an excessively dark
dirt condition. ceiling and high luminance ratios between fixture
and background. The mounting height is assumed as
2.7 m to permit an uplight component. The recom-
SOLUTION mended maximum SC would be between 1.5 and
(a) Illuminance target. Refer to the IESNA Lighting 2.0. The work plane height is 750 mm.
Handbook, to establish an appropriate illuminance (c) Calculations.
target. For this example, 500 lux will be assumed. STEP 1. The information that should appear in the
Lines 1, 2, and 8 (the room sketch) of Fig. 16.13 can sketch in Fig. 16.13 is:
be filled in at this point.
Note: The daylight contribution in many class- hCC = 1.0 m hRC = 1.95 m
rooms can be considerable because of the hours hFC = 0.75 m l = 8m
ρC = 80% w = 6m
of space use. Daylight illuminance may frequently ρF = 20% ρw = 50%
exceed 500 lux, but to cleanly demonstrate the zonal
cavity calculation procedure, assume no daylight
contribution. This will be the case if the classroom is STEP 2. Determine the three cavity ratios as follows:
used at night and/or during early morning/late after- l+w
= 0.29
noon hours. An appropriate control scheme would l×w
be used to reduce overlighting from the electric l+w
RCR = 5hRC
system when there is a daylight contribution. l×w
RCR = 5 (1.95)(0.29) = 2.84 the design target) or whether 7 or 8 fixtures should

be used. Eight fixtures would simplify luminaire
CCR = 5 (1)(0.29) = 1.46
layout in the ceiling plane but result in substantially
FCR = 5 (0.75)(0.29) = 1.09 more illuminance than required; an eight-fixture
layout might also better conform to the recom-
STEP 3. Obtain effective reflectances from mended SC limits for the luminaire. Perhaps a
Table 16.5. For ρCC use ρC = 0.8, ρW = 0.5, similar fixture with somewhat lower lumen output
and CCR = 1.46. could be used. Lighting design does not stop with
Thus, the fixture count.
ρCC = 0.61 The remaining lines of Fig. 16.13 can now be
STEP 4. To determine ρFC use ρF = 0.2, ρW = 0.5, completed.
and FCR = 1.09. Thus,
ρFC = 0.18 (by interpolation)
STEP 5. With a room cavity ratio of 2.84, the EXAMPLE 16.2 Assume a large business office,
CU for the selected luminaire—type a (direct with dimensions of (L × W × hung ceiling H) 60 ft ×
distribution)—can be extracted from Table 16.4 by 100 ft × 8 ft. Initial reflectances (ceiling, wall, floor)
interpolation. are 0.80, 0.50, and 0.30. Provide uniform illumi-
nance using LED fixtures. Lamps are replaced on a
𝛒w = 0.50 CU burnout basis, and the fixture is then cleaned.
𝛒CC → 0.70 0.61 0.50
SOLUTION
RCR
2.0 0.94 0.91 Because of the low ceiling height specified, a direct
2.84 ? luminaire (such as type a in Table 16.4) will be
3.0 0.85 0.82 required; this luminaire will be installed in the ceiling
plane and will have only a direct distribution compo-
The CU = 0.85. No correction from Table 16.6 is nent. A section through such a fixture, and its char-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
required, as ρFC is close to 20%. At this point, lines acteristic lumen distribution curve, are shown in
9 through 12 of Fig. 16.13 can be filled in. Table 16.4.
STEP 6. The LLF (see light loss factor subsection) Calculations. This example is developed using
is established by estimating items 13 to 20 in only I-P units; the procedure would be the same
Fig. 16.13. These are assumed as: using SI units. The working plane is taken as the
desktop height (i.e., 30 in. or 2.5 ft).
Items 13–16 (collectively) 0.88
Item 17 0.95 STEP 1. hCC = 0; hRC = 5.5; hFC = 2.5.
Item 18 0.85
Item 19 0.95 STEP 2. CCR = 0; RCR = 0.73; FCR = 0.33.
Item 20 0.80 STEP 3. ρW = 50%; ρCC = 80% (for a recessed or
Item 21: LLF = (0.88)(0.95)(0.85)(0.95)(0.80) = 0.54 surface mounted fixture there is no ceiling cavity and
the ceiling reflectance is ρCC ).
STEP 7. Complete the illuminance calculation.
A typical classroom normally consists of a student STEP 4. From Table 16.5, ρFC = 29%.
seating area and a teacher’s area. The illumi- STEP 5. For a RCR of 0.73 and a ρFC of 20%, the
nance requirement is approximately the same CU can be found by extrapolation:
for both, so the room can be treated as a single
entity for visual task purposes. Assuming 7900 RCR CU
lumens (at 4000K and 80 CRI) per luminaire, the
0 119
number N of luminaires required to provide design 0.73 ?
illuminance is: 1.0 107
N = (500 lx) (6 × 8 m) ∕ (7900 lm) (0.85) (0.54) For a RCR of 0.73, CU is interpolated from Table 16.4 as 110. Even
though this value is mathematically correct, it is physically
= 6.6
impossible. A luminaire cannot deliver more light than it produces.
The use of 6.6 fixtures is not possible, so the The problem in this case is that the CU tables for LED fixtures give
quirky results at low RCR values due to the procedures used to
designer would need to decide whether 6 fixtures develop the tables. As a workaround, it is suggested that a CU
would be adequate (this would provide a main- value of 95 (0.95) be used in this case—as a compromise between
tained illuminance of 455 lux—substantially below the data and reality.
DESIGN PHASE 785
STEP 6. From Table 16.6, the multiplier for ρFC = ρCC = 0.60 for a small room, that is, equal to or
30% (close enough to 29% to avoid interpolation) smaller than 12 × 12 ft (4 × 4 m).
is 1.085. 2. Assume that ρFC = 0.20.
STEP 7. Final CU = 1.085 (0.95) = 1.0 (rounded 3. Assume that LLF = 0.65 for good mainte-
down to not mess with the laws of physics). nance and dirt conditions, 0.55 for average
conditions, and 0.45 for poor conditions.
STEP 8. LLF following the steps in Fig. 16.13:
1.0 0.92
1.0 0.85
0.9 0.95 LLF = 0.54 EXAMPLE 16.3 Consider the classroom as in
0.92 0.88 Example 16.1, but by approximation.
STEP 9. Using the area per luminaire approach for 1. “Square” the room.
this large space: 8−6
WSQ = 6 + = 6 2∕3
area∕luminaire = (7900 lm) (1.0 CU) (0.54 LLF) ∕ 3
50 fc design target 2. Assume:
area∕luminaire = 85 ft
2 ρCC = 70; ρW = 50; ρFC = 20
An area of 85 ft2 per fixture feels excessive and might 3. Calculate RCR.
lead to non-uniformity of illuminance. As in Example
16.1 (the school classroom), finding an LED lumi- 10 × 1.95 19.5
RCR = = = 2.93
naire with lower lumen output would increase the 6 2∕3 6.66
required number of fixtures and decrease the area
4. Obtain CU from Table 16.4, fixture type a. CU =
served per fixture.
0.85 by visual inspection.
Zonal Cavity Calculation by Approximation.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
5. Calculate required number of fixtures (N).
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Even though zonal cavity calculations are reason-
ably straightforward, they can become tedious if N = (500) (6 × 8 m) ∕ (7900) (0.85) (0.55) = 6.5
more than a few rooms are involved. Two alter- Thus, the approximate result (6.5) is substantially
natives exist: to utilize one of the readily avail- the same as from the more detailed calculations
able computer programs (with an understanding (6.6). Next, consider the analysis in Example 16.2 by
of the impact of common design decisions on calcu- approximation.
lation outcomes), or simply to shorten the hand
calculations by using reasonable approximations.

Computer software is discussed in Appendix L. An
effective computational method using approxima- EXAMPLE 16.4 Consider the office as in
tions is demonstrated in this section, which is based Example 16.2, but by approximation.
upon a method developed by B. F. Jones. 100 − 60
1. WSQ = 60 + = 73 ft
A worksheet for illuminance calculation by 3
approximation is shown in Figure 16.14. Assume 2. ρCC = 80; ρw = 50; ρFC = 20
that all rooms are square. To enable this assump-
tion for a rectangular room, take one-third of the 10 × 5.5 55
3. RCR = = = 0.75
difference in dimensions and add this to the smaller 73 73
plan dimension to obtain an equivalent width w. 4. CU = 1.0 by inspection (eyeball interpolation);
The RCR for square rooms is: reduced to 0.95 as discussed in Example 16.2
10hRC 5. LLF = 0.55
RCR =
W 6. area/luminaire = (7900) (0.95) (0.55) ∕ 50 fc
Then assume: 2
= 82.6 ft
1. ρCC = 0.80 for a large room, that is, equal to or This approximate result (82.6) is within 5% of the
larger than 30 × 30 ft (10 × 10 m). more precise calculation result (85). Thus, these
ρCC = 0.70 for a medium room, that is, between simple approximations give answers sufficiently
30 × 30 ft (10 × 10 m) and 12 × 12 ft (4 × 4 m). accurate for most uses.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 16.14 Worksheet for illuminance calculation using an approximate zonal cavity method (based on a method developed by B. F.
Jones).
In conclusion, the following statements apply to calculation form is provided in Fig. 16.14 to assist
zonal cavity calculations: with this method.
2. For rooms where a high degree of accuracy
1. For preliminary and routine calculations involving is desired and actual reflectances are known,
rectangular rooms, with typical reflectances, use use the long method (Fig. 16.13) with visual
the assumptions listed previously. A simplified interpolation.
DESIGN PHASE 787
3. For rooms of unusual shape or rooms with initial and operating costs. These data clearly
special conditions, such as coffered ceilings, indicate the necessity for the lighting designer
mixed-material walls, and partial height parti- to have considerable influence on the selection
tions, use computer software. of room materials and finishes, a situation that,
4. For spaces in which several different solutions are unfortunately, does not usually occur.
to be explored, use computer software.
Modular Lighting Design. Numerous build-
Effect of Cavity Reflectances on Illumi- ings are designed around a modular system,
nance. The reflectances of the various room resulting in a need for flexible lighting that can
surfaces (cavities) have a marked effect on CU work with the module utilized. In such buildings,
because of the effect of reflection of light within once the general lighting scheme and lumi-
a room. To demonstrate this graphically, see naire/lamp are established, it can be convenient
Figs. 16.15, 16.16, and 16.17 for the impact of to draw a family of curves for the fixture chosen,
varying cavity reflectances on three common thereby facilitating the utilization of the modular
types of fixture distribution: semi-indirect, unit in various spaces. “Area” may readily be
direct–indirect, and direct (spread). As expected, replaced with multiples of modular areas, as
ceiling cavity reflectance has the most pronounced shown in Fig. 16.18.
effect with fixtures with an indirect component;
and floor reflectance the most impact with direct Design Aids. This term refers to the various
fixtures. Because lighting amounts to 3–5% of the curves, charts, plots, or tables—either prepared
total construction cost for many types of buildings, by the designer or made available by luminaire
a 20% differential in lighting fixtures can amount manufacturers—intended to simplify and speed
to as much as 1% of the total cost of a facility. This lighting design when using a particular lighting
amount would not only pay for higher-reflectance fixture. The reliability of data so obtained depends
finishes and materials but would also reduce both entirely on the manufacturer involved—so
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 16.15 Effect of surface reflectances on the CU of a luminaire with semi-indirect distribution. As expected, because the ceiling
becomes the secondary light source, its reflectance has the most pronounced effect. With this particular fixture having a 25%
downward component, the floor finish also has an appreciable effect, increasing the CU by an average of 10% for a 30% reflectance
floor. The effect of wall reflectance increases as rooms become smaller and the proportion of wall surface becomes larger. The change
in CU between a 30% and a 50% reflectance wall varies from 15% for a 400-ft2 (37-m2 ) room to 5% for a 4000-ft2 (372-m2 ) room.
(Redrawn with SI units by Lisa Leal.)
Room area (m2)

0 18 27 37 46 556574 92 185 278 371
Direct
Spread 0
0.7
Coefficient of utilization
30% Floor
100 Troffer with prismatic lens
0.6 16%
14% 10% Floor
0.5
S/MH = 1.3 10%
0.4
80% Ceiling
50% Wall
0.3
0.2
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1000 2 3 4
Room area (ft2)
(a) Fig. 16.17 Effect of surface reflectances on the CU of a luminaire

with direct (spread) distribution. Floor finish is most important,
with wall reflectance important only in small rooms. As these
fixtures have no upward component, all ceiling illumination is
derived from reflection. Thus, in a room with floor reflectance of
less than 20%, ceiling finish has no effect on room illumination.
disinterested party. A brief description of common

design aids follows.
Isolux charts. These charts, also called isofootcandle

charts, are based on diagrams traditionally
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(b)
supplied by manufacturers of street lights and
floodlights, but are equally applicable to interior
lighting. Their use is illustrated in Fig. 16.19.
The basic tool is an isolux diagram for a single
luminaire. This information is either calcu-
lated, measured from a full-scale mock-up
(the most accurate if not the most practical
method), or obtained from the manufacturer.

Since the relative positions of the source and
illuminated point are reversible—that is, if a
source at A causes illuminance E at point B,
then the source at B will cause the same illumi-
nance E at point A—placing the center of the
(c)
isolux chart at the point in question permits
Fig. 16.16 Effect of surface reflectances (a: floor, b: ceiling, c: direct reading of the illuminance contribution
wall) on the CU of a luminaire with direct–indirect distribution. of every other luminaire. It then remains simply
With such distribution, the effects of the ceiling and floor are
most pronounced, with an appreciable wall effect only in small to sum the individual contributions to obtain
rooms. (Redrawn with SI units by Lisa Leal.) the (scalar) illuminance at the desired point.
An example is shown in Fig. 16.19.
user beware. Major manufacturers can also Illuminance “cone” charts. When the light distribu-
provide computer analysis charts and tables based tion of a direct downlight is symmetrical, as is
upon proposed layouts submitted by a designer. generally the case, a cone (Fig. 16.20) can be
When using these aids, the designer must fully drawn showing the illuminance directly under
understand the input data that was used for an the fixture at various distances. The inscribed
analysis, as the fixture supplier is usually not a circles (implied) are defined by maximum
DESIGN PHASE 789
Room area, m2
9 46 93 186 372
Modules per fixture, 30 ft2 module (3 m2)

210 200 7
Luminaire “A” 11 1
180 mounting height = 8′6″ (3.0 m) 170 6
work plane = 2′6″ (0.76 m)
m2 per fixture m2
150 140 5
Watts per m2
ft2 per fixture
Watts per ft2

fc
50 x)
8 lu
120 (53 110 4
90 75 fc 22 2
lux) 80 3
(807
32 3
60 60 2
43 4
54 5
30 30 1 65 6
100 500 1000 2000 4000
Room area, ft2
Fig. 16.18 Modular design chart. For frequently used fixtures, this type of chart gives fixture requirements for various size rooms.
As seen from the y-axes, the results can be translated into number of modules and watts per unit area. (Redrawn by Martin Lee.)
Contribution
50
F1 F2 F3 F4 Luminaire (Lux)
100 F2, F3 75 × 2
F5, F8 50 × 2
F6, F7 225 × 2
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
200
MENTAL SYSTEMS
F5 F6 F7 F8 F9, F12 75 × 2
400 F10, F11 400 × 2
F13, F16 60 × 2
500
F14, F15 300 × 2
F9 F10 F11 F12
F18, F19 100 × 2
2570 lux total
F13 F14 F15 F16
F17 F18 F19 F20
Isolux lines
Fig. 16.19 The ellipses represent isolux lines for a single luminaire at a given height above the work plane. They are centered on the
point (the work area of a desk) for which the illuminance must be determined. The total illuminance at that point is the sum of the
individual luminaire contributions. The center of the luminaire is the point of reference. Therefore, when two or more isolux lines pass
through a fixture, its contribution is determined by the interpolated isolux line passing through its center. Note the symmetry around
the vertical axis, necessitating a plot of only half of the ellipses. Note that the chart could be plotted with isofootcandle lines.
analysis can give useful point-by-point illumi-

nance data plus projections of VCP and reflected
glare for selected work locations and viewing
directions.
Beam In addition, computer analysis gives the
Diameter Distance designer a degree of flexibility not otherwise
1.5′ 1859 2′ possible, in that:
1. The calculations are performed accurately and

2.1′ 465 4′
rapidly.
2. The designer is freed for other, less routine
work.
4.2′ 207 6′
3. The designer has the ability to change param-
eters repeatedly without making the analysis
5.7′ 116 8′ excessively burdensome, as would be the case
with hand calculations.
7.0′ 74 FC 10′ This last characteristic gives a designer great

flexibility. The ability to run a series of calcula-
Fig. 16.20 For downlights with symmetrical circular distribution, tions for a pendant fixture with varying pendant
a “cone of light,” as shown, can be drawn. The illuminance at
varying distances on the beam centerline directly below the
lengths, or to change paint colors and reflectances
luminaire is given in the center column. A circle with a for various surfaces, or to test different layout
circumference at which the illuminance is half of this maximum is patterns, gives the designer the opportunity to
drawn at each distance from the downlight (2 ft, 4 ft, etc.). The
numbers in the left column show the diameter of this (beam)
optimize (at least partially) lighting decisions.
In addition, a computer analysis can consider
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
circle. Similar diagrams are available in SI units. (Courtesy of

MENTAL SYSTEMS
Zumtobel-STAFF.) factors—such as first cost, energy use, operating

costs, and impact on HVAC systems—whose inter-
active complexity puts them well beyond the realm
of hand calculations. Several current lighting
illuminance at the center and half of this
analysis programs are described in Appendix L.
illuminance at the edge. This type diagram can
be used in the same fashion as the isolux chart
in the preceding section, except that only two (f) Nonuniform Illuminance Calculations
illuminances are given—at the center and on
Calculating Illuminance from a Point Source
the circumference. The basis of point source calculations is the inverse
Illuminance tables and charts. These take various square law:
forms, but all give specific illuminance data, cp
fc =
numerically, for specific points. The values are D2
obtained from a computer simulation or an where fc, cp, and D are footcandle illuminance,
actual test. Fig. 16.21 shows the illuminance candlepower intensity, and distance, respectively.
pattern on a wall produced by the wallwasher Refer to Fig. 16.22. The horizontal illuminance at
version of the downlight shown in Fig. 16.20. a point P as shown in Fig. 16.22 is:
The difference between the two fixtures is cp
horizontal E = cos θ
the addition of an interior reflector in the D2
wallwasher version. and the vertical illuminance at that same point is
cp
vertical E = sin θ
Computer-Aided Lighting Design. The use D2
of computers in lighting design is a practical However, because
necessity if detailed results are required or iterative H R
cos θ = and sin θ =
analyses performed. Furthermore, a computer D D
DESIGN PHASE 791
Wallwash Lighting
Data Chart
3′
ceiling 0′ 1′ 2′ 3′
1′ 38 38 38 38
3′′
2′ 44 44 44 44
Elevation
3′ 51 51 51 51
Wall
4′ 56 58 58 56
5′ 59 61 61 59
6′ 58 57 57 58
7′ 52 49 49 52
8′ 42 42 42 42
9′ 18 18 18 18
floor 33 33 33 33
Fig. 16.21 Addition of an interior reflector to the downlight of Fig. 16.44 converts it to a dual-purpose downlight and wallwash unit. In
this I-P unit example, the wall illuminances (in fc) produced by multiple units spaced 3 ft apart and ceiling-mounted 3 ft from the wall
are given in the chart. Similar charts are available for other luminaire spacings (and in SI units). (Courtesy of Zumtobel-STAFF.)
Because the candlepower intensity in the

Light source
direction of point P is taken from a candlepower
distribution curve, and θ is known, these expres-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
θ sions are readily usable. Very few commercial light
D
sources are actually point sources. However, when
Vertical
H θ the maximum dimension of the source is less than

five times the distance to point P, this method gives
satisfactory results. Note that these equations can
Horizontal
be used to calculate and plot isolux diagrams for
R P
point sources of the type shown in Figs. 16.20
Horizontal illuminance at point P and 16.21.

CP × cos θ CP
EH = = cos3 θ
D2 H2
Vertical illuminance at point P

CP × sin θ CP EXAMPLE 16.5 Referring to Fig. 16.22 and the
EV = = sin3 θ
D2 R2 candlepower distribution curve of Fig. 16.23, find
the horizontal and vertical illuminance at point P,
Fig. 16.22 Relationship between intensity in candlepower (cp)
which is 10 ft below and 12 ft horizontally distant
and illuminance when the source can be considered a point
source—that is, when the inverse square law applies. The from the source. The same analysis process would
source’s major dimension must not exceed 0.2D to be apply if using SI dimensions.
considered a point source. Using feet yields fc; using meters
yields lux. (Redrawn by Martin Lee.)
SOLUTION
H = 10 ft R = 12 ft
at point P 12
θ = tan−1 = 50∘
cp 10
Horizontal illuminance ∶ 2 × cos3 θ
H sin θ = 0.766 cos θ = 0.643
cp
Vertical illuminance ∶ 2 × sin3 θ cp at 50∘ = 6600 (from Fig.16.23)
R
90° software that can handle detailed input for a

specific light source, without broad approxima-
80° tions, has made these manual procedures obsolete.
1500
When a point-by-point illuminance calculation
70°
is necessary, a computer analysis should be used.
3000 Alternatively, one of the graphic design aids
described previously, based on a specific light
Horizontal
4500 60° source, can be used.
(g) Average Luminance Calculations

6000
50° Knowing horizontal illuminance (as calculated
7500 by any of the methods described above) and the
reflectance of a horizontal, horizontal luminance
can readily be calculated. However, the impression
9000 40° of brightness in the visual environment is affected
more by vertical than by horizontal surface lumi-
0° 10° 20° 30°
nance. For this reason, it is important to be able to
Fig. 16.23 Typical candlepower distribution plot. estimate average vertical surface (wall) luminance
during design. Employing the same approach
used to calculate average horizontal illuminance
6600
Horizontal illuminance∶ × (0.643)3 = 17.5 fc would be nice. It is also beneficial to know the
102 average luminance of the ceiling cavity in a space
6600 as a means of evaluating the contrast between all
Vertical illuminance∶ × (0.766)3 = 20.8 fc
122 objects, including luminaires, that have the ceiling
cavity as background.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Calculating Illuminance from Linear Straightforward calculation of both wall and

and Area Sources. When a source is too large to ceiling cavity luminance (LW and LCC ) is possible
be considered a point source (as defined above), it is through the use of luminance coefficients that
referred to as either a linear source or an area source. are similar in concept and application to coeffi-
The direct component of the illuminance at a point, cients of utilization. Such coefficients are listed
resulting from such sources, can be calculated in Table 16.7 for several generic fixture types.
by manual graphical or analytical means, both For actual project calculations, obtain luminance
of which are based on an assumed distribution, coefficients from luminaire manufacturers (or
generally Lambertian (diffuse). Since most lighting utilize computer software). Average luminance
fixtures being used today do not have Lambertian calculation procedures are parallel to those for
characteristics (e.g., parabolic reflectors, prismatic illuminance.
diffusers), the results of such calculations are Average initial wall luminance in cd/m2 is
necessarily approximate. (Skylights and luminous calculated as:
ceilings do have a Lambertian distribution, and (lamp lumens)(wall luminance coefficient)
Lw =
for these sources these calculation methods give (π)(floor area in m2 )
(16.21)
reliable results.) In addition to the direct compo-
nent of illuminance, a reflected component must be Average initial ceiling cavity luminance in
added that depends on the point’s location in the cd/m2 is:
room and the room characteristics. The calcula- (lamp lumens)(ceiling cavity luminance)
tions involve charts, diagrams, and tables. A full (coefficient)
LCC =
description of these methods can be found in the (π)(floor area in m2 )
IESNA Lighting Handbook. (16.22)
Because these manual methods are labo- If area is expressed in square feet and π is omitted
rious and often not fully reliable, they are not from these equations, L will be expressed in foot-
presented here. The ready availability of computer lamberts.
DESIGN PHASE 793
TABLE 16.7 Wall Luminance Coefficients and Ceiling Cavity Luminance Coefficients for Typical
Luminaires
To obtain a luminance coefficient, follow the procedure detailed in conjunction with Table 16.4 for finding a CU.
More precise design data should be obtained from the manufacturers of the actual luminaires used.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Source: Data extracted, with permission, from the IESNA Lighting Handbook, Reference Volume (1993). Coefficients for fixtures 1, 3, 7,
28, 33, 35, and 42 have been rounded to two decimal places.
Notes:
1. Refer to the manufacturer’s catalog data for more precise values when a specific luminaire is proposed for use.
2. Multiply coefficients by 1.05 for three lamps and by 1.1 for two lamps.
To obtain maintained values, an LLF is intro- Reflected Glare. The causes of veiling reflec-
duced. It is calculated similarly to LLF for hori- tions are well understood; unfortunately, this does
zontal illuminance, except that room surface dirt not mean that solutions are simple. No known
loss values are as follow: lighting method or material will eliminate veiling
reflections. There are, however, several techniques
Wall Ceiling
to minimize contrast loss due to veiling reflections
Lighting System Luminance Luminance
Direct 0.82610% 0.75610% while maintaining adequate illuminance. These,
Semi-direct 0.8767% 0.82610% discussed in more detail below, are:
Direct–indirect 0.9265% 0.8568%
Semi-indirect 0.8767% 0.8867%
• Physically arranging sources, task, and
observer so that reflected glare is minimized.
Indirect 0.82610% 0.9065%
• Adjusting brightness (eye adaptation level) so
For ceiling-mounted or recessed luminaires, that objectionable brightness is minimized.
LCC is the average luminance of the ceiling between • Designing the light source so that it causes
luminaires. For pendant luminaires, the calculated minimal reflected glare.
LCC is that of an imaginary plane at the height of • Changing the task quality.
the luminaires. LCC is useful in determining the
Physical arrangement of lighting system
brightness ratio between a luminaire and the
elements. It can be challenging to arrange the
ceiling plane. The ceiling cavity, like the wall
lighting geometry to avoid sources of high lumi-
surface, is assumed to have perfect diffuseness—
nance, undesirable angles of reflection, and
making luminance independent of viewing angle.
specular tasks. This is often especially difficult
As an example, calculate the wall luminance
in offices, which frequently have both horizontal
of the office in Example 16.2. The photometric
and vertical work surfaces, the vertical being the
data in Table 16.4 do not include wall lumi-
specular surfaces of digital displays. This problem
nance coefficients because they are not normally
is widespread and can pervade the design of office
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
published by manufacturers. However, based on

lighting. Figures 6.30 and 6.32 show that in
other available data, a value of 0.22 for wall lumi-
a space using multiple sources, particularly in
nance is a good estimate given RCR, ρCC , and ρW
continuous rows, placing the work between rows
values of 0.66, 80%, and 30%, respectively. Initial
with the line of sight parallel to the long axis of
wall luminance is then:
the units is an effective technique. The offending
3200 × 0.22 zone for horizontal tasks depends upon the tilt of
LW = 2
= 22 fL = 75.5 cd∕m2 (16.23)
the desk. For a horizontal desk, the offending zone
32 ft
This is within the preferred range of 25 to 150 is forward of the desk, as in Fig. 16.24a; with a
cd/m2 (see Table 6.3). In actuality, the average wall tilted desktop, the offending zone may be behind
luminance would probably be higher because of the source, as in Fig. 16.24b.
the practice of placing the last row of luminaires Developing a geometric solution to mitigate
quite close to the wall. reflected glare potential presupposes a known
(during the design phase) and fixed furniture
layout. This may sometimes be the case but is not
(h) Evaluating Glare Potential
the norm. In the absence of such information,
Direct Glare. Control of direct glare (see two alternatives are possible: a uniform lighting
Chapter 6) is an architectural design responsi- layout with furniture adjusted to work with it, or
bility. The design solution is basic—avoid overly vice versa. A combination (compromise) of both
luminous (bright) light sources (typically a lumi- is the most practical approach. High-luminous
naire for electric lighting or a window/skylight for efficacy lighting systems have made ducted (air
daylighting). For electric lighting systems, control troffer) lighting fixtures less prevalent—thus prop-
of direct glare lies in the hands of well-designed erly designed, fixtures can be easily shifted. Such
products, well-selected by the lighting designer. mobility is enhanced by the great flexibility of
Information on control of luminaire luminance is lighting fixtures fed from ceiling plug-in raceways.
found in Chapter 15. Figure 16.25 shows such a rearrangement, which
DESIGN PHASE 795
Fig. 16.24 (a) If luminaires are kept out of the trapezoidal offending zone, contrast will be excellent. If the bulk of one or more
luminaires projects into this zone, especially into the critical zone, contrast will drop sharply. The dimensions shown are for a flat desk
3 ft × 5 ft (0.91 m × 1.5 m) and a 9-ft (2.7-m) ceiling height. (b) The dependence of the glare zone on table tilt is illustrated. The offending
zone becomes smaller as the table is raised, so that with a table near the vertical position, glare is all but eliminated. (Ross and
Baruzzini, Inc., 1975.)
for (and glare reduced) by increasing overall

non-glare illumination. Doing so simply makes
1 2 3 4 5 6 the task brighter in order to override the detri-
mental veiling reflection. The problem with this
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
solution, however, is that a large increase in
illuminance is required to overcome the glare.
This increase can, in many instances, be most
7 8 9 10 11 12
practically accomplished not by increasing
overall room illumination—which comes with
extremely high energy consumption—but by
adding supplementary lighting arranged as to
13 14 15 16 17 18
be free of reflected glare potential. Making the
supplementary source’s position adjustable (as in
Files Fig. 13.27b), accomplishes three things:
Ceiling runners
on 2-ft (610 mm) centers 1. Veiling reflections are overcome.
2. The high level of illuminance needed for
Fig. 16.25 An original uniform fixture layout utilized three rows of
six 2 ft × 4 ft (0.6 m × 1.2 m), four-lamp fixtures, giving a total load exacting tasks is provided with minimum
of 2880 W, a load density of 2.6 W/ft2 (28 W/m2), and a uniform energy expenditure.
illuminance of approximately 90 (raw) fc (900 lux). The original
3. The user is granted geometric control with
layout is shown dotted and numbered. A rearranged layout uses
13 fixtures (shown shaded) for a total of 2080 W, a load density of resultant better lamp placement, as well as
1.9 W/ft2 (20.5 W/m2 ), and more than 100 ESI fc (1000 lux) on each psychological satisfaction, which generally
work surface. In addition, five fixtures are saved. Note: This level
reduces worker complaints. (The best position
of illuminance is justified only for difficult visual tasks.
is generally to the left and slightly forward of
the task.)
results in saving five fixtures, a load reduction of
800 W, and an improvement in visibility. The effectiveness of a supplemental desk lamp
Control of area brightness and eye adaptation is demonstrated in Example 16.6, which revisits
level. Loss of visual contrast can be compensated the situation described in Example 16.4.
reducing luminaire luminance at that angle. This

EXAMPLE 16.6 Recalculate the contrast reduction can be accomplished in four ways:
of the ink-on-paper visual task of Example 16.4,
assuming that a desk lamp raises the illuminance 1. Dimming or switching lamps. Reducing the total
to 200 fc (2000 lux) and is positioned so as to be output of a fixture also reduces its output in
glare-free. Note: An adjustable lamp with 2 at 15-W
the critical portion of the ceiling glare zone and
fluorescent tubes would produce approximately that
can actually increase the ESI illuminance (by
luminance on a desk.
improving task contrast).
SOLUTION 2. Using luminaires with lower overall lumi-
Contrast from Equation 6.9: nance. Use a larger-area, low-output source
(Fig. 16.26) instead of a few small high-output
C = (LBD + LBS ) − (LTD + LTS )∖LBD + LBS sources. This will reduce the source luminance
where in the offending zone, while increasing the illu-
LBD = 200 fc × 0.71 = 142 mination contribution from outside the glare
zone—resulting in better contrast for the same
LBS = 2000 fL × 0.018 = 36 or lower illuminance. The disadvantage of this
technique is increased lighting fixture cost.
LTD = 200 fc × 0.038 = 7.6 3. Using a luminaire as a primary source to illu-
minate a large, low-brightness secondary source.
LTS = 2000 fL × 0.021 = 42
To overcome the cost disadvantage of multiple
and low-output, low-luminance sources, the ceiling
C = (142 + 36) − (7.6 + 42)∖142 + 36 = 0.72 can become a secondary source illuminated
by high-output indirect or semi-indirect
With this contrast (0.72), undesirable contrast fixtures. LED, fluorescent, or metal-halide
reduction from a no-glare situation has been lamps have high efficacy. Using this approach
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
improved from the original 47% reduction (0.947

requires a high enough ceiling height to permit
to 0.497) to a 24% reduction (0.947 to 0.72).
However, because a contrast reduction of even
suspending the luminaire while avoiding “hot
24% is unwanted, a change in task-source geom- spots” on the ceiling. The minimum suspension
etry or a change in source luminance would be length depends upon the luminaire character-
required, assuming that the task itself must remain istics and would normally be provided by the
unchanged. manufacturer. To ensure high system effi-
ciency, the ceiling should be painted with a
Control of source characteristics. The reflected high-reflectivity matte white paint and kept
light that causes loss of contrast is proportional clean. Results obtained from a semi-indirect
to luminaire luminance at the viewing angle installation using 1500-mA, very-high-output
of concern, and therefore may be reduced by lamps are shown in Fig. 16.27.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 16.26 A concentration of light in the glare zone (a) produces the largest amount of reflected glare. As the number of light sources
is increased (b) in the glare zone, and luminance is decreased, reflected glare is decreased. The least glare is from an all-luminous
ceiling (c), which also has the lowest luminance.
DESIGN PHASE 797
luminaires High reflectance

ceiling
8′ 6′ 24-in (610 mm) hanger
2.4 m 1.8 m
Diffusing sheet
1500-mA lamp
7.3 m
24′
Plastic lens
Observer cross section through fixture

position No scale
At observer position:
“Raw” illuminance = 59 fc, 635 lux
ESI = 68.5 fc, 737 lux
28′
8.5 m
Fig. 16.27 With a high-reflectance diffuse finish ceiling, this semi-direct perimeter lighting installation yields a higher ESI illuminance
than raw illuminance at the viewing location illustrated, indicating excellent contrast rendering. The plastic lens at the bottom of the
fixture provides perceived light source luminance and avoids the impression of gloominess, despite the satisfactory overall luminance
level. (From Sampson, 1970.)
4. Reducing the luminaire luminance only at the Source

offending angles. Because most horizontal task 45° - 85° ; direct glare zone
vision takes place between 20∘ and 40∘ from
the vertical, any fixture that emits little or no 30° - 60° ; relatively free of
both direct and
light below 40∘ from the horizontal cannot reflected glare
produce a veiling reflection, regardless of its
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
position in the field of view (Fig. 16.28). As a
result, luminaire manufacturers produce pris- 0–45°; 60°
reflected
matic diffusers which have diminished output
glare zone
below 30∘ and above 60∘ in order to minimize
both reflected and direct glare. Due to the char- 30° 45°
acteristic shape of their intensity distribution
0
curves, they are known as batwing diffusers.
For observers positioned so that their sight Fig. 16.28 Glare zones are 0∘ to 45∘ and 45∘ to 85∘ for reflected
lines are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the and direct glare, respectively. Therefore, a diffuser that
emphasizes the 30∘ to 60∘ zone will be least objectionable on
ceiling fixtures, lenses with linear (side-to-side) both counts.
batwing characteristics perform well. If the
observing position varies in aspect with respect
to the fixture, a radial batwing curve (in all task (in the visibility sense) than to change the
directions) is required. Note carefully that lighting system. Always cheaper, however, does
these diffusers have only limited usefulness in not equate to always possible. Nevertheless, task
reducing reflected glare with specular vertical contrast and specularity should be actively consid-
surfaces (digital display screens). Different ered and recommendations for improvements
types of diffusers and their characteristics are made to the client in the pre-design phase when
discussed in Chapter 15. owner’s project requirements are being adopted.
Changing the task quality. Reducing task spec-

(i) Qualitative Design Considerations
ularity is at least as effective a means of reducing
veiling reflections as changing the lighting system Size and Pattern of Luminaires. A luminaire
characteristics—if not more so. It is often cheaper, (or other luminous source) is often a point of
and always more energy efficient, to upgrade the visual attention because of its brightness. To the
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.29 (a) The suspended diffusive material of a luminous ceiling—when properly designed—allows the designer to hide piping
and ductwork, without affecting the ceiling’s light distribution. As a rule, if uniform illuminance is desired, the spacing (S) of the strip
fixtures should not exceed 1.5 times the height (H) between the fixtures and the diffusing element. (b) A luminous ceiling provides
low-brightness, highly diffuse, uniform illuminance, generally exceeding 500 lux (45 fc). Such a lighting approach is particularly useful
for specular tasks where supplemental lighting is impractical. To relieve the monotony of large, unbroken expanses, as in (a), designers
frequently use clearly defined diffuser panels, as shown.
extent that luminaires are numerous, large, very

bright, or arranged in striking patterns, attention
is drawn to them and away from other surfaces.
Color elements or accent lighting can also draw
attention. Some examples can demonstrate the
principles involved in design decisions regarding
(a) this issue.
Luminaire size should correlate with room
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
size and ceiling height. Fixtures larger than 2 ft ×

MENTAL SYSTEMS
4 ft (600 mm × 1200 mm) should not be used with

ceiling heights lower than 10 ft (3.1 m) unless
the apparent size of the fixtures can be minimized
through use of a surface pattern (see Fig. 16.9).
Transilluminated (luminous) ceilings (Fig. 16.29)
require a minimum height of 12 ft (3.7 m). When
(b) they are installed below this level, particularly

in large rooms, the effect is oppressive, as if the
sky were lowered onto the viewer. To offset this
effect, the use of colored, shaped, or dark panels
is of some help. In place of a luminous ceiling,
large-area, coffer-type fixtures can be utilized to
give the impression of depth (Fig. 16.30).
Regular fixture spacing is required to achieve
uniform illuminance. A regular spacing can be
used as a tool to accomplish an architectural
(c)
purpose, as shown in Fig. 16.31a–d. It is often
Fig. 16.30 Coffer-type light sources come in both standardized recommended that the pattern of lighting ought
(a) or custom-designed (b) sizes. Typical standardized coffers (a) to either reinforce an architectural form or remain
are large direct lighting fixtures that are generally available in 4-ft
(1.2-m) widths, and variable lengths. Custom-designed coffers (b)
neutral, rather than being at cross-purposes with
can be constructed in any shape or size. Both types of coffer can a dominant architectural pattern—unless that is
give an illusion of great depth and of a floating, illuminated the desired effect. If a strong architectural element
surface. (c) Multiple coffers create a dominant architectural
is absent, a dominant lighting pattern may be
effect, and when used in conjunction with skylights, can furnish
soft, glare-free illumination throughout the day and night. (Drawn desirable. Conversely, a strong architectural
by Alisa Kwok.) element can either be reinforced (Fig. 16.32a) or
DESIGN PHASE 799
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 16.31 (a) Longitudinal lines in the direction of the sight line increase apparent length, direct traffic flow, and decrease direct glare.
(b) Lines perpendicular to the line of sight shorten and widen a space but also increase direct glare. (c) Diagonal lines minimize
shadows and break rectangular patterns. (d) Rectangular pattern is architecturally dominant.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
utilized as the base for a neutral lighting pattern lighting system with supplemental lighting can
(Fig. 16.32b, c). be a viable solution (Fig. 16.36). The MAXXI:
Continuous-row luminaire installations, aside Museum of XXI Century Arts, in Rome, Italy,
from eliminating the dominant checkerboard features elongated slot fixtures that reinforce
effect of closely spaced individual luminaires, movement through space and skylights with
are also often cheaper. Coves and cornices give a controllable louvers to illuminate the gallery space
ceiling a floating feeling or lightness. Geometric (Fig. 16.37). Lighting patterns are often used as
patterns can be used to add interest or to break the formal directional markers. This is particularly
monotony of large areas, such as in department useful in transportation terminals, where signs
stores. Generally, downlights are not visually domi- only partially serve this purpose.
nant, and regularity of placement is not essential A frequently neglected consideration is the
(Fig. 16.33). However, when downlights are appearance of a luminaire when it is turned off.
surface-mounted (a generally inadvisable proce- With proper daylighting and energy-efficient
dure), the result can be far from visually neutral design, many fixtures can be turned off during
(Fig. 16.34). Nonuniform layouts with large the normal-use hours of a space. Low-brightness
fixtures can create problematic patterns since they sources will change least in appearance between
are often too large to be neutral—their nonunifor- the on and off states. The visibility and appearance
mity can create visual confusion (Fig. 16.35). The of luminaires in daylight, regardless of whether
only cure for this self-inflicted problem is to mini- they are illuminated, from inside or outside a
mize the source brightness by using low-brightness building, can be used as an advantage, as shown
luminaires. in Figs. 16.38 and 16.39.
In spaces where circulation is the primary
“seeing task,” but where there are isolated areas Patterns of Luminance. This term describes
requiring greater illuminance (such as waiting the patterns of light and shadow in a space
areas in transportation terminals), a perimeter that result from illumination provided by the
(a)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(b) (c)
Fig. 16.32 Lighting designs for various spaces with high ceilings. The fixtures in (a) and (b) follow structural beams. (b) Floor reflection
and daylight provide ceiling and wall illumination. (c) Lighting in this space was handled by recessing fixtures into the lattice ceiling
pattern. Metal-halide HID lamps and tungsten-halogen lamps were used. (a: by M. B. Warren; b by L. Reens; c: courtesy of
GTE/Sylvania, Inc.)
DESIGN PHASE 801
is the degree to which light is shadowless—and is

a function of the number of directions from which
light falls on a particular point and the difference
in intensities of light from these directions.
Perfect diffusion, rarely obtainable (or desir-
able), results from equal intensities of light arriving
from all directions—and yields no shadows. The
only naturally occurring example of perfectly
diffuse lighting is a daytime fog, which is a visually
disturbing condition for most, suggesting that
(a)
some directivity is desirable. Diffusion can be
judged by the depth and sharpness of shadows.
A room with well-diffused illumination, resulting
from multiple sources and high room-surface
reflectances, yields soft multiple shadows that
do not obscure visual tasks. Because purely
diffuse lighting is monotonous and not conducive
to extended periods of effective work, some direc-
tional lighting is often introduced as a complement
to diffuse general lighting—thus producing a
more stimulating environment via variations in
(b)
shadows and brightness. Where grazing angle
reflections are critical to the examination of
Fig. 16.33 Downlights are unobtrusive light sources. They can be texture or surface imperfections, highly direc-
spaced evenly throughout a room (a) or unevenly (b).
tional lighting is required. As seen in Fig. 16.40,
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
directional light is what creates shape and is
precisely the characteristic best used to influence
architectural space and form.
Various combinations of uplighting and
downlighting can be implemented, with each
arrangement producing its own shadows and
modeling, and each having a unique quality.
These patterns of light and dark and in-between

produce an overall ambience, as well as the subjec-
tive perceptions and observations of sociability/
isolation, clarity/fuzziness, spaciousness/crowded-
ness, simplicity/clutter, formality/informality,
boredom/excitement, definition/shapelessness,
and so on.
Points of interest and visual excitement
Fig. 16.34 The array of large, cylindrical, surface-mounted can be created by taking advantage of small,
downlights dominates the area’s appearance despite the high
ceiling.
high-brightness sources (usually called sparkle).
Lighting installations generally yield a sense of
vividness or activity proportional to the level
lighting system. A single light source may produce of illumination. This is not the case with very
sharp shadows, whereas a luminous ceiling or diffusely lighted areas, which, even at high illu-
a completely indirect illumination system may minances, are tedious. Small LED units, a brightly
produce almost completely diffuse light. Diffusion lighted, rough-textured wall, and pendant fixtures
(a)
(b)
Fig. 16.35 (a) The layout of the lighting fixtures is economical and may provide uniform illuminance. (b) The nonuniform layout lacks
integration with the functions below and may not provide the illuminance needed for the task locations.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 16.36 Cornices, valances, and coves act as luminous ceiling

borders. In large rooms, suspended coves achieve a uniform
ceiling brightness gradient and, when designed with a downward
component or combined with supplemental lighting as

illustrated, can create a pleasant, intimate atmosphere.
with pierced reflectors are some of the techniques

that can be used to create visual interest in a space.
Surfaces or points of high brightness can be
used to draw visual attention. This inborn human
response is used repeatedly to display merchandise.
The following are typically encountered reactions:
Fig. 16.37 Linear slot lighting emphasizes the curvilinear form of

• A 3:1 luminance ratio between object and the gallery, further reinforcing a directional flow of traffic through
surround will be noticed, but usually will not the space. (© Donald Corner; used with permission.)
affect behavior or draw attention.
• A 10:1 luminance ratio will attract attention Because areas of high luminance draw the eye’s
and, if the object is interesting, hold it. attention, the individual brightness sources in
• A 50:1 luminance ratio or higher will highlight the field of view produce a collective overall
the illuminated object, often to the exclusion of visual impression. If there is some form, order,
all else in the field of view. or pattern to the sources (as with a pattern of
DESIGN PHASE 803
(a)
Fig. 16.39 Electric lighting fixtures can be seen through the
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
glazing even during the daytime. (© Lee Eckert; used with
permission.)
cause discomfort due to the viewer’s inability to

(b)
locate the source of light.
Fig. 16.38 (a) Lighting can be utilized as a medium to connect (j) Other Evaluation Considerations
the inside and outside of a building. The simple maneuver of
continuing the lighting pattern beyond the window visually Codes, Standards, and Guidelines. Building
connects the inside and outside spaces. Care must be taken to
avoid a fixture placement that creates reflections in the glass. (b) codes are enforced by the AHJ (authority having
Also, because fixtures are readily visible even when unlit during jurisdiction; at a municipal, county, or state level).
daylight hours, their pattern can be accentuated and the A lighting design must comply with all applicable
resultant outline continued from the inside to the outside as an
architectural motif. (Courtesy of Welton Becket & Assoc.) code requirements. Standards and guidelines are
typically brought into a project through the action
of the owner (in the OPR) or design team (in
lighting fixtures), then the overall impression is
project specifications). Several entities beyond the
not disturbing—it can be thought of as visually
AHJ may provide input on lighting design, these
harmonious. If, however, bright sources are in
include:
disarray, they produce discordance in the eye
precisely as noise produces discordance in the
DOE—U.S. Department of Energy
ear. This visual “noise” is frequently referred to as
visual clutter and can be very disturbing. GSA—General Services Administration
Other subjective reactions to lighting on NFPA—National Fire Protection Association
which there is wide consensus are: (1) downlights ASHRAE—American Society of Heating, Refriger-
(and color highlights) increase feelings of relax- ating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
ation and comfort; (2) hidden-source indirect IESNA—Illuminating Engineering Society of
lighting and very-low-brightness lighting fixtures North America
Fig. 16.40 Totally diffuse lighting (a) destroys texture, whereas a combination of diffuse and directional lighting (b) produces the
required modeling shadows. (Courtesy of Holophane.)
Tasks. Identifying visual tasks is the key common equipment usage. Fortunately, many
to selection of appropriate illuminance values. multipurpose spaces do not have severe seeing
Factors to be considered beyond the general tasks.
nature and location of each task are its repetitive- The task variation referred to here is the vari-
ness, variability, who is expected to be performing ation that occurs in one very specific location, and
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
the task (specifically the likely physical condition of is not to be confused with task variation across
the user), task duration, cost of errors, and special an area, however restricted. Thus, a small private
requirements. Several of these factors have been office of, say, 8 ft × 8 ft (2.4 m × 2.4 m) has a desk,
discussed under visual acuity in Chapter 6. file cabinet, and circulation space, involving three
Multitasking. If there are several tasks to be tasks of differing but constant difficulty in one
performed at the same location and the most diffi- small space. The corresponding lighting solutions
cult one occurs infrequently, it may be reasonable for these lighting zones should vary with the
to provide supplementary portable lighting or even task severity.

to suggest moving the task to another location. If Task position. Recommended design targets
the most difficult task is the major task, the lighting represent the required illuminance on a defined
design should be based on it and provision made task, whether horizontal, vertical, or slanted.
for intensity reduction for less demanding work. As Design often focuses on a 30-in. (760-mm)
suggested by this discussion, illuminance within a high horizontal work surface. It may be helpful
building (or within a space) can vary with time and in the early design stages to understand the
with location. ratio of horizontal-to-vertical illuminance for
Variation in task difficulty is particularly various lighting system approaches. This ratio is
common in spaces in public buildings. A school approximately:
gym can be used for athletics, band concerts
(despite the acoustics), testing, and town Narrow distribution (direct and semi-direct) 3:1
meetings—activities with disparate lighting Wide distribution (direct and semi-direct) 2.5:1
requirements. In these and similar instances, it is General diffuse (indirect) 1.5:1
common practice to treat the space as essentially
four different spaces and to design a lighting Luminance considerations. Recommended
system appropriate for each, while maximizing design illuminance values assume adherence
DESIGN PHASE 805
to both recommended luminance ratios and normalizations). Basic illuminance recommenda-

surface reflectances. It is necessary to select—in tions are often established with this standard user
conjunction with the interior designer—finishes in mind. If there is likely to be a high percentage
and reflectances for surfaces within all illuminated of older workers, as is the case in certain building
spaces. If a dark wall finish with 10% reflectance space types or industries, illuminance should be
is chosen for a private office, the lighting designer increased. This compensates for the decreased
will need to compensate for this by additional wall ability of an aging eye.
lighting to maintain a recommended maximum Cost of errors. This task consideration involves
10:1 brightness ratio (see Table 6.7). Table 16.8 the economic trade-off between savings that result
lists the reflectances of some common interior from improved visual acuity (work accuracy) and
paint finishes. the cost of improved lighting to reach that higher
Viewing time. The length of time permitted accuracy. Performance can be brought close to
for visual task accomplishment is important to perfection, but the cost of so doing increases more
establishing design task illuminance values in rapidly than the proportional increase in perfor-
exacting work and production situations (data mance. Tasks where the costs of errors is a serious
entry, quality assurance, etc.). Compared to concern include inspection, proofreading, textile
moderately difficult tasks—requiring a luminance matching, very fine machining, and precision
of, say, around 170 cd/m2 (50 fL)—prolonged manufacturing. Lighting designed to meet normal
intensive or rapidly-changing tasks would require recommendations is usually presumed to provide
luminance (and thus usually illuminance) to approximately 90% accuracy.
be increased. Alternatively, the quality of light Special requirements. These may include any
could be improved by increasing daylighting or nonstandard task lighting requirement, such
improving task contrast (as a means of increasing as: need for a specific light-source color, direc-
acuity without increasing raw illuminance). tionality for shadowing, reflections needed for
Viewer condition. Since the age and other inspections, polarization, or control variations (as
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
specific characteristics of a worker/occupant are in a space with varied tasks or a varying daylight
usually not known during design, a “standard” factor). The physical dimensions of a task itself
person is presumed to be the viewer. This standard often create special requirements. Designers get
person is usually a college-age student (a willing used to a small object in the horizontal plane
audience for scientific studies and statistical because that is the normal office task. There
are exceptions, however, such as an easel, a
large machine, an inspection bench, or a cutting
table. Consequently, these special requirements

TABLE 16.8 Approximate Reflectances for may arise:
Paints
1. Large tasks. With large tasks, the angle of view
Medium-Value Colors Reflectance (%)
may vary from 20∘ to 70∘ from the vertical,
White 80–85 resulting in radically changing reflection
Light gray 45–70
Dark gray 20–25 (glare) angles and reflection patterns.
Ivory white 70–80 2. Three-dimensional tasks. These tasks shadow
Ivory 60–70
Pearl gray 70–75 themselves, particularly when containing
Buff 40–70 undercuts and reveals. An architect’s model
Tan 30–50 shop presents such tasks. When it is necessary
Brown 20–40
Green 25–50 to see into an opening, an intense narrow light
Olive 20–30 beam is required.
Azure blue 50–60
Sky blue 35–40 3. Tools. Tools cast shadows below and in front
Pink 50–70 when lighted from above and behind. A fabric
Cardinal red 20–25
Red 20–40
cutter must see ahead of and below the cutting
machine.
4. Nonhorizontal tasks. These must be analyzed can be readily adjusted to reflect the effect of
for the plane in which they stand. The a proposed lighting system on building costs
ratio between horizontal and vertical illu- and, in particular, on HVAC first cost and
minance can vary between 1.5:1 and 3:1, operating costs. It is incorrect to artificially
depending upon the lighting system. This separate design/cost of a lighting system from
variance can have a pronounced effect on the design/cost of the HVAC system, with which it
selection of a lighting system and its spatial intimately interacts.
arrangement.
5. Task observed from various positions. There are The lower the lighting system energy use,
instances in which a fixed task is observed from the lower the building operating cost. Daylighting
several angles, such as a drawing in a confer- can radically impact the operation of an electric
ence room, a wall display, or a sculpture. Illumi- lighting system, and, thus, lighting energy use
nation design must be adequate for all viewing and cost. Only a well-integrated software analysis
angles. program can handle the complexities of daylight
affecting electric lighting through control logic
and the impact of those interactions on HVAC
Costs. This is a particularly difficult item system operation, energy, and cost.
for a novice lighting designer because it requires
experience in the field and an acquaintance
Lighting Power Budget. The requirement
with commercially available equipment. Also,
to establish a project lighting power budget in
the inevitable trade-offs between first cost and
accordance with specified procedures has been
operating cost cannot be made intelligently
long incorporated into the building codes of most
unless the project cost structure is clearly
U.S. states and many countries. The U.S. standard
understood. The following guidelines may be of
that establishes lighting power budgets is ASHRAE
assistance both in avoiding unpleasant surprises
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Standard 90.1, Energy Efficient Design of New

when a job is estimated and in preparing cost
Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings,
analyses:
which is updated on a three-year cycle to match
the ICC building code cycle.
1. Decide at the outset what cost criteria will be
The purpose of a lighting power budget is not
applied—that is, the relative importance of first
to dictate a design solution. Instead, the purpose
cost, operating costs, annual owning costs, and
is to set a maximum permissible lighting power
collective life-cycle costs.
budget within which the designer is free to do

2. Trade-offs are necessary between first cost and
as he/she deems most appropriate in the project
operating costs. For example, high luminous
context. Outcomes are set, not methods.
efficacy lamps typically cost more than lower
Table 16.9 provides examples of lighting
efficacy products (the same pattern is true of
power density (LPD) values (using the building
ballasts and luminaires), but can reduce oper-
area method) from five recent editions of ASHRAE
ating costs.
Standard 90.1. The values show the differences in
3. Manufacturers’ catalog items are always
“expectations” between various space types and
cheaper than custom items; off-the-shelf
also show a clear trend of increasing stringency
components can be estimated more readily and
over a decade-long period.
scheduled with more confidence.
4. Compare the annual owning costs of alterna-
tive systems or methods. Merging of these data Energy. Energy considerations must infuse
into life-cycle cost comparisons is straightfor- every aspect of the design process. Some back-
ward (see Appendix J). ground is in order to place the subject of lighting
5. The impact of lighting energy on the operating system energy in proper perspective. Best current
cost of the entire building must be studied and estimates indicate that lighting consumes approx-
an apportionment of costs determined. The imately 25% of the electric power generated in the
only practical means of accomplishing this is United States. In terms of resources, this amounts to
by using a computer simulation. Simulations approximately 4 million barrels (462,500 kL) of oil
DESIGN PHASE 807
TABLE 16.9 Evolution of Lighting Power Density Values for Selected Space Types
SPACE TYPE 2016 LPD LIMIT 2013 LPD limit 2010 LPD limit 2007 LPD limit 2001 LPD limit
Dormitory 0.61 W/ft2 0.57 W/ft2 0.6 W/ft2 1.0 W/ft2 1.5 W/ft2
Hotel 0.75 W/ft2 0.87 W/ft2 1.0 W/ft2 1.0 W/ft2 1.7 W/ft2
Office 0.79 W/ft2 0.82 W/ft2 0.9 W/ft2 1.0 W/ft2 1.3 W/ft2
Retail 1.06 W/ft2 1.26 W/ft2 1.4 W/ft2 1.5 W/ft2 1.9 W/ft2
Source: Reprinted with permission; ©ASHRAE, www.ashrae.org. ASHRAE Standard 90.1–2016, ASHRAE Standard 90.1–2013, ASHRAE
Standard 90.1–2010, ASHRAE Standard 90.1–2007, and ASHRAE Standard 90.1–2001.
For LPD values in W/m2 , multiply the given values by 10.76.
per day. The same sources indicate lighting energy lighting levels is not advisable because of the
usage percentages by occupancy as approximately: increased first cost and the psychological impetus
to operate at maximum levels. Another solution is
Residential 20% to use fixed luminaires for general low-lux lighting
Industrial 20% and supplementary lighting where needed. Also:
Retail 20%
Schools and offices 15% 1. Place tasks with similar lighting requirements
Outdoor and other 25% in the same general location.
2. Place the most severe seeing tasks at the best
In commercial buildings, lighting consumes daylighting locations.
about 20–30% of electric energy; the percentage is 3. If possible, improve the quality of difficult visual
greater in residences and lower in industrial facil- tasks. This is more economical in terms of
ities. A reduction of 40–50% in lighting energy energy-use than providing additional light.
is attainable through judicious design. Trans- 4. The advantages of nonuniform lighting
lated into resources, such a reduction can readily increase as the space between workstations
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
amount to more than 1 million barrels (115,630
MENTAL SYSTEMS
increases.
kL) of oil per day. Few will deny that such a goal 5. When using a task-based design approach, keep
is well worth the effort. In a mechanically cooled in mind that a nonuniform ceiling layout may
building, every 1.0 W/ft2 (10.7 W/m2 ) reduc- give a chaotic appearance to a space. There-
tion in lighting energy will result in at least a fore, the preferred approach is to use uniform
1.25 W/ft2 (13.5 W/m2 ) energy savings. Offices ambient lighting and localized supplemental
and schools can be well lit with less than 1.5 W/ft2 lighting.
(16.1 W/m2 ).
Resources to assist in reducing lighting energy Use effective, high-quality, efficient, low-
consumption are numerous. For specific lighting maintenance, thermally controlled luminaires.
system energy design targets and details, refer to “Effective” means providing useful light while
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 (ASHRAE, 2016), the minimizing direct glare. In cases where much of
range of Advanced Energy Design Guides published the viewer’s time is spent in a head-up position,
by ASHRAE (various dates), and LEED (USGBC, as in schools, or where the viewer can compen-
2018). For lighting effectiveness guidelines refer sate for veiling reflections, the design should lean
to The Lighting Handbook (IESNA, 2011). toward achieving high visual comfort probability.
Conceptual approaches to energy-conscious Where work and viewing position are fixed, and
lighting design include: most of the viewer’s time is spent head-down, the
Design lighting for the expected activity. It is design should lean toward low reflected glare. The
energy-wasteful to light any surface to a higher following should also be kept in mind:
illuminance than required. Nonuniform lighting
is recommended where high illuminance levels are 1. A high-quality luminaire is made with perma-
required for selected tasks in multitask spaces. One nent finishes such as Alzak® or multi-coat
way to accomplish this for areas where an exact baked enamel or the high-quality permanent
furniture layout is not available is to use readily aluminum finishes currently available. This
movable fixtures. Providing overall high-lux illu- ensures that its performance after 8 to 10 years
mination with a provision to switching to reduced of service will be comparable to the original.
2. An energy-efficient luminaire is one with a high maintenance should be on a fixed schedule.

efficacy (LER/TER). Higher LER/TER (as with The power of a low LLF (light loss factor) to seri-
CU) translates directly into effectiveness at ously reduce maintained illuminance shows
lower energy cost. the importance of reducing the impact of this
3. A low-maintenance luminaire will remain clean variable to the lowest reasonable condition—
for extended periods and is designed so that first cost and energy costs both benefit.
reflecting surfaces can be easily and rapidly 5. A thermally controlled luminaire controls the
cleaned without demounting. Enclosed fixtures heat generated by the light source (Fig. 16.41).
should be gasketed. Nongasketed units collect The importance of this effect depends upon
and retain dust, thus causing rapid lumen the type of HVAC system, the lighting heat
output depreciation. load, and the types of fixtures being consid-
4. Relamping should be simple and rapid to ered. The regular use of electronic ballasts and
encourage group relamping programs that high-efficacy lamps has reduced the impact of
are energy-efficient and cost-effective. A 20% this issue over the past decade. Heat dissipa-
increase in maintained light is possible if lamps tion from LED fixtures, however, should follow
are replaced at the end of their useful life—that manufacturer recommendations.
is, when output is down to 70% of initial main- 6. Use efficient light sources and accessories. The
tained lumens—and if fixtures are cleaned ready availability of high-efficacy, high-color-
and maintained on a fixed schedule. No cost rendering-index (CRI) lamps has made this far
trade-off is generally involved because peri- less problematic than previously. The primary
odic maintenance and relamping is normally cost trade-off for non-LED lamps is between
cheaper than one-at-a-time maintenance and high-CRI sources and low-CRI sources. The
burnout replacement, and yields 20% higher cost differential is not huge. LED lamps are no
average lumen delivery. Fixtures in relatively longer considered cutting edge and most new
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
inaccessible locations such as high ceilings commercial projects are using LED sources as
must be designed for low maintenance, and the efficient source of choice.
50% 75%
Plenum above ceiling

Hung ceiling Louver
50% 25%
100%
100%
(b) (c) (d)
(a)
Fig. 16.41 Method of fixture installation controls the transfer of heat from a luminaire. (a) Suspended units transfer all heat to the
space while remaining fairly cool. (b) Surface-mounted fixtures also transfer all heat to the space but, because of blocked transfer
upward, run hot. (c) Completely enclosed recessed units transfer about 50% of their heat to the plenum. (d) Open-louvered, baffled
units transfer about 75% of their heat. When they are ducted, heat transfer upward can be as high as 85%.
DESIGN PHASE 809
Spill light and borrowed light are often in this book. A brief summary of recommended
neglected sources. For example, clerestory fenes- reflectance ranges is:
tration along corridors between offices can take
advantage of borrowed office light to provide Ceilings 80–92%
adequate corridor lighting. Walls 49–60%
Select an appropriate lighting system. There Furniture, office machines, and 25–45%
are six broad approaches to light delivery from equipment
Floors 20–40%
a luminaire, each with its particular applica-
bility. In addition, luminaires must be carefully
In addition to producing higher illuminance
located to provide uniformity of lighting, where
levels in a room, high reflectances minimize
applicable, and effective delivery of supplemental
uncomfortable luminance ratios between, for
lighting. When using indirect luminaires, correct
instance, a luminaire and upper wall, or task and
spacing and hanging distance will avoid ceiling
background. Suggested maximum luminance
“hot spots,” which can cause direct and reflected
ratios are as below. These are maximum values, and
glare. Properly designed indirect lighting allows ratios above these limits should be accepted only
flexible use of a space, in that users are not forced with excellent justification.
to face in any particular direction in order to
avoid direct or reflected glare caused by fixtures.
1. Between task and near surround—3:1
The mounting height of suspended fixtures must 2. Between task and immediate area—10:1
be coordinated with cavity sizes and finishes to 3. Between luminaires and their background—
decrease unnecessary light loss and maximize 20:1
coefficient of utilization. 4. Anywhere in the normal field of view—40:1
Use daylight, and use it properly. Daylight
must be considered as a basic light source that Other lighting design recommendations. Many of
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
is subject to both weather variations and time these ideas are from ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Stan-
variations. A three-shift industrial plant cannot dard 90.1:
use daylight on all shifts, but it can for at least
one shift—lighting design should address this 1. Buildings shall have some form of automatic
fact. Part of proper daylight design is control of lighting shutoff control.
window luminance, which can cause severe and 2. Where applicable, occupancy sensors and auto-
even disabling glare. A corollary of excessive lumi- matic daylight compensation controls should
nance is excessive heat gain—both of which are be used.

manageable with common manual and automatic 3. Separate spaces must have separate controls.
control devices. Window control devices should 4. Enclosed rooms should have controls that allow
be designed to reflect light back into a space at for at least two lighting levels.
night to avoid light loss through transparent 5. Where supplemental lighting is used, in order
windows. to avoid uncomfortable luminance ratios, the
Use energy-efficient lighting control strategies. ambient level should not be lower than a third
The subject of lighting control, including manual of the task level.
and automatic switching, dimming, sensing, and 6. Accent lighting should not exceed five times the
intensity control, is covered in Chapter 15. Proper ambient lighting level. In merchandising areas
design of controls can reduce energy consump- where contrast between ambient and task levels
tion over a noncontrolled installation by as much is critical, ambient levels should be reduced as
as 60% without reducing lighting effectiveness. much as is practical.
Appropriate controls are mandated in ASHRAE 7. Before specifying superreflective aluminum in
Standard 90.1. luminaires, establish that the high reflectance
Use light finishes on ceilings, walls, floors, and will be maintained in the application being
furnishings. This point is repeatedly emphasized considered and that recommended luminaire
maintenance procedures can and will be become dominant visual elements when they
implemented. create meaningless scallops, spots, irregular
8. Utilize low-energy/low-maintenance exit gradients, points of sparkle, or focus on objects
signage where permitted by local codes; such better left un-highlighted. Even though this
equipment is readily available. is neither intended nor desired, it is common.
Unscalloped, even-gradient wall illumination
The energy-efficiency benchmarks in ANSI/ is readily accomplished with linear sources,
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 are updated with elliptical reflector lamps, or with lumi-
on a regular basis. The current version should naire reflectors, if proper luminaire spacing is
always be used for design. The accompanying utilized.
User’s Manual (ASHRAE, 2011) is a valuable 5. Concentrated pools of light, in a space with
supporting document to assist with interpreting overall low ambient light, can create isolated
and implementing Standard 90.1. pockets of illumination—often perceived as
spatially differentiated areas. This can be
Other Considerations. Because the pheno- advantageous in restaurants and work or
menon of vision, as affected by lighting, is the school areas, where definition of individual
core of lighting design, it is appropriate to present “territories” in a single large space is desired.
some miscellaneous observations that are not
necessarily covered elsewhere in this chapter.
(k) Construction Documents
1. As shown in Figs. 16.31a and 16.31b, the The final product of the design phase of a lighting
impression of room length and width can be project is construction documents. These consist
emphasized by the direction of lines of lighting. of the drawings and specifications necessary to
An even wall wash of light can also be used to ensure that the contractor can construct the
shorten and widen a hallway or corridor.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
lighting system as envisioned by the designer.

MENTAL SYSTEMS
2. As seen in Fig. 16.2, the character of a wall, in The drawings are used to convey physical loca-
the line of sight, can affect the room’s apparent tions, quantities, and identifying characteristics
size. Light and low-chroma, high-value paint of lighting system components. Reflected ceiling
hues can be used to expand a space; conversely, plans and details are common drawing elements.
darker-hue paints and a lack of luminance can Specifications are used to describe lighting system
be used to contract it. component and installation quality.
3. Vertical surface illuminance should be approx-
imately 25–35% of horizontal illuminance

for a space to appear dimensionally undis- 16.7 CONSTRUCTION PHASE
torted. Because high luminance attracts the
eye, fixtures with sparkle draw the eye away During the construction phase of a project, the
from the walls and thereby shrink the space’s lighting system will be installed. It is common
horizontal dimensions. for the lighting designer to review submittals
4. As shown in Figs. 16.30c, 16.31c and d, 16.33, (shop drawings, cut sheets) and provide some
and 16.34, luminaire patterns can be domi- site observation—both efforts to help ensure
nant (i.e., can become a focus of attention) by that what was designed is what is installed. On
virtue of their size or arrangement. The same is a commissioned project, lighting system submit-
true of wall-lighting patterns to an even greater tals, installation, operation, and controls will
extent, as walls are always in the direct line of be verified by the commissioning team—with the
sight. Therefore, the lighting designer should objective of assisting the owner in reaching his/her
remember that wall lighting patterns can lighting OPR.
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 811
16.8 OCCUPANCY PHASE References and Resources

ASHRAE. 2016. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
Historically, owners were generally left to their 90.1-2016, “Energy Standard for Buildings
own devices during the post-construction period Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings.” Atlanta,
(when the owner occupies and uses a building). GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
This should not be the case. As a minimum the and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
lighting designer must prepare a user’s manual ASHRAE. 2017. Standard 90.1 User’s Manual.
to assist the owner with operation and mainte- Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating,
nance of the lighting system. This manual might Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
describe how daylighting compensation controls Inc.
are intended to function or what maintenance ASHRAE. Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small
schedule was assumed for cleaning of lighting Office Buildings. Atlanta, GA: American Society of
fixtures or relamping—among other useful items Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
of information. Engineers, Inc. (part of a series of guidelines with
Some lighting elements may need to be tuned various dates dealing with various building types
at two efficiency levels—30% and 50%). https://
to provide operational outcomes in accord with
www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/aedgs
the OPR. Complex lighting controls almost always
IESNA. 2011. IESNA Lighting Handbook, 10th ed.
need to be adjusted in order to work properly.
New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of
Ideally, the owner would sponsor (or the
North America.
designer would volunteer) a post-occupancy USGBC. 2013. Leadership in Energy and
evaluation (POE) of the building lighting system. Environmental Design (LEED). U.S. Green
Visual comfort and energy performance are logical Building Council. www.usgbc.org/
focuses for a POE.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 16 Electric Lighting Design)

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Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 16 Electric Lighting Design)

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C H A P T E R 16

Electric Lighting Design

the pre-design stage and considerations related

16.2 PHILOSOPHY can be chosen and arranged in various ways to

not contradictory, is demonstrated by thousands

16.4 OVERVIEW (a) Lighting OPR

TABLE 16.1 Overview of the Lighting Design Process

the overall impression of spatial brightness. The

normally reduces glare potential by reducing

(b) Light Delivery Options

indirect, semi-indirect, direct–indirect, general

between 90% and 100% of the light output (see

from the typical working plane near the floor). The

translucent on the bottom, the sides, or both.

than one with direct–indirect delivery due to the

The degree of diffuseness of illumination depends

ently efficient. Reflected glare can be controlled by

General diffuse incandescent

Direct lighting - spread (b)

Direct lighting - concentrating (b)

If spread, considerable diffusion of light results vertical-surface illuminance, is desired. A lighting

(c) Illuminance Targets Several reservations about this process of

TABLE 16.2 Recommended Illuminance Categories

Recommended Illuminance Targets lux (fc)

scape, architecture, and people and can be work related.

high-speed assessment and reaction.

care, industrial, and sports.

TABLE 16.3 Library Facility Illuminance Recommendations

Recommended Maintained Illuminance Targets Lux (fc)

General3 Eh @ ﬂoor of book O 100 (10) 200 (20) 400 (40)

Shelving @ 1’0” Ev @ front face of M 50 100 (10) 200 (20)

may require unconventional approaches.

TABLE 16.4 Coefﬁcients of Utilization for Three Typical LED Luminaires

b. direct-indirect 0 105 105 105 96 96 96 79 79 79 64 64 64 49 49 49 ——

For large areas, a sometimes-useful value is

it is 0.55/0.80 or 0.69 E fc, that is, a reduction of

31% because of poor maintenance.

Category III Category IV

0.85 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.15

Luminaire Luminaire Luminaire

ρ FC Floor cavity (FC) hFC ρF

Fig. 16.11 Room cavities as used in the zonal cavity method.

The basic expression for a cavity ratio (CR) is:

In a rectangular space, the area of a given cavity

CCR = 5hCC (16.16)

the others can be obtained by adjusting for cavity

Fig. 16.13 Zonal cavity method calculation form. (Courtesy of IESNA.)

TABLE 16.6 CU Adjustment Factors for

RCR = 5 (1.95)(0.29) = 2.84 the design target) or whether 7 or 8 ﬁxtures should

50 fc design target 2. Assume:

calculations by using reasonable approximations.

Room area (m2)

Room area (ft2)

(a) Fig. 16.17 Effect of surface reﬂectances on the CU of a luminaire

disinterested party. A brief description of common

Isolux charts. These charts, also called isofootcandle

method), or obtained from the manufacturer.

Modules per fixture, 30 ft2 module (3 m2)

Watts per ft2

F13 F14 F15 F16

F17 F18 F19 F20

analysis can give useful point-by-point illumi-

1. The calculations are performed accurately and