Geometric Design

FACTORS, SIGHT DISTANCES, CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS,

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PROFILES, HILL ROADS
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Geometric Design
• What –
• Design of physical entities, which provide support, as well as, guide facility user to
achieve a safe, smooth, comfortable, efficient and economical operation

• Why –
• Adequacy of facility in horizon year – comfort of use/driving
• Self-explaining design – ensures efficient and safe operation
• Economic related to facility – construction and operational economy
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Controlling Factors
• Classification of roads
• Topography of an area
• Traffic related aspects
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Sight distance
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Topography
• Defined in terms of cross-slope of the ground (transvers to the direction of
movement)
• Four classifications
• Plain terrain ≤ 10%
• Rolling terrain 10% – 25%
• Mountainous terrain 25% - 60%
• Steep terrain > 60%
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Topography
• Another classification is based on rise and fall (m/km) and degree of curvature
(Degree/km)
• Three classifications m/km degree/km
• Plain – Low curvature 0 – 15 0 – 50
• Plain – High curvature 0 – 15 above 50
• Rolling – Low curvature 16 – 30 0 – 100
• Rolling – High curvature 16 – 30 above 100
• Hilly – Low curvature over 30 0 – 200
• Hilly – High curvature over 30 above 200
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Example - 1
• A road, 10 km long, is planned in a terrain. Use information given below to
identify the actual terrain classification in which the road is going to be
constructed?
• Curvature 11o 8o 32o 14o 21O
• Chainage, km 6.400 6.780 7.210 7.550 8.120
• RL, m 211.210 205.775 209.850 217.560 225.215
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Traffic Aspects
• Traffic Volume
• Design Hourly Volume, Average Daily Traffic, Annual ADT, Peak Hour traffic

• Traffic Composition
• Type of vehicles – Motorised and non-motorized category

• Directional distribution
• Uneven traffic movement between production and consumption centers

• Future Design Traffic

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Traffic Volume
• AADT
• Total traffic in a year / 365

• ADT
• Total traffic count of 3-7 days /number of days of count

• DHV
• 30th Highest Hourly Volume – Which is exceeded for 29 hours in a year; approx. 15%
of AADT for rural highways and 8 – 12% of AADT for urban roads
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Traffic Volume..
• DDHV
• Directional Design Hourly Volume – Considers directional variation in traffic and
fraction of AADT both
• DDHV = AADT * K * D
• K = HV as proportion of AADT
• D = proportion of traffic in dominant direction (E.g. 60:40 means D = 0.60)

• Peak Hour Traffic

• 8 – 10% of Days traffic
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Example-2
• Calculate DDHV for the given information: Traffic in a year – 5652500 veh;
Average 7-day count in direction - East 2125, West 3525; hourly traffic as percent
of AADT 10%.
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Traffic Composition
• Variety of vehicles –
• Motorized and non-motorized; Size difference – bicycle or truck; difference in
performance; turning radius
• Road need to be designed considering one type of vehicle – vehicles need to be
changed to one category; Passenger car is considered as design vehicle
• Whole traffic volume is converted into one unit i.e. passenger car (PCU)
• E.g. Passenger Car small 1.0, Big passenger car 1.26, truck 3.0, 2-wheeler 0.50, cycle
rickshaw 1.5, hand cart 3.0, bullock cart 6.0 – 8.0
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Example-3
• Consider the classified traffic volume given in vehicle/h. Calculate traffic volume
in PCU/h.
• Cars – 150, 2-w-m 450, trucks 15, bus 25, auto-rickshaw 180, cycles 180
• PCU: car 1.0, 2-w-m 0.56, trucks 3.80, bus 2.80, auto-rickshaw 1.55, cycle 0.4
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Capacity of a Road
• Defined as maximum traffic volume in veh/h that is expected to traverse a uniform
section or a point on a road under given traffic, roadway and control conditions
• Measured as veh/h/lane on a road
• Comparison with traffic volume count defines the number of lanes that need to be
provided on a road to cater to the traffic in horizon year
• C = 1000V/S
• V = speed of traffic stream in km/h
• S = average spacing between vehicles in meter (= 0.2V+6)
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Example-4
• Traffic is moving in a lane on a road at a speed of 48 km/h. All vehicles are
passenger cars having length as 5m. Vehicles are moving while maintaining a
clear average distance of 48m. Calculate capacity of a traffic lane. What will be
the capacity of the road having 2-lane carriageway?
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Design Vehicle
• A vehicle whose specifications are considered for designing geometric features
so that designated vehicle can be operated efficiently
• IRC:3 considers only commercial vehicles – Single unit truck, semi-trailer, truck-
trailer combination
• Specifications – length, width, height, weight
• Length – 11 to 18 m; Width – 2.5 m; Height 3.8 – 4.75 m (truck/Bus); weight – 10.2
t single axle and 18.0 t tandem axle; turning radius – 5 m for car, 11 m for truck
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Design Speed
• It is the speed that is used for the design of road features, and accommodates the requirements
of most of the vehicles and drivers
• From speed distribution the 95th or 98th percentile speed is considered as design speed
• Design speed of urban roads – Plain terrain Rolling Mountainous & Steep
• Arterial roads 60 km/h 50 40
• Sub-arterial roads 60 km/h 50 40
• Collector roads 40 km/h 40 30
• Local streets 30 km/h 30 20

• Rural Expressways – 120/100/80 km/h; Urban expressway – 80/70/60 km/h

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Design Speed..
• Design speed of rural highways (km/h) –

Plain terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous Steep terrain

terrain
Road
Ruling Minimu Ruling Minimu Ruling Minimu Ruling Minimu
m m m m
NH/SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
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Sight Distance
• Distance available to the driver ahead on the carriageway for safe operation (i.e.
driving) like stopping of vehicle before collision with an object or overtaking a
vehicle safely or driving safely during night time.
• Different sight distances are –
• Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
• Head Light Sight Distance (HLSD)
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Sight Distance
• Different sight distances are –
• Sight distance on multi-lane highways
• Sight distance at circular curve
• Sight distance at an intersection
• Uncontrolled intersection
• Priority intersection
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Factors Affecting SD
• Vehicle design speed
• Perception – Reaction time
• Friction between tyre and pavement surface
• Gradient of the road
• Overtaking maneuver time
• Vehicle acceleration rate
• Height of driver eye, object and head light
• Angle of beam from head light
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Perception – Reaction Time (PRT)
• Time required to see, understand and react to the situation appearing in front of
a driver or a vehicle on the carriageway
• PIEV Theory
• Perception – See a situation appearing in front
• Intellection – Understanding the situation with respect to experience and skills
acquired
• Emotion – Evaluating the situation with respect to self beliefs, attitude, etc.
• Volition – Taking decision based on the analysis of above
• Reflex action – Direct action; severe condition; experienced condition
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Perception – Reaction Time (PRT)
• Driver response to a situation
• Driving simulator experiments
• Range of 85th percentile values: 1.26s to 3.0s
• 90th percentile value of the PRT is considered = 2.5s
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Friction between Tyre and Pavement
• Factors affecting
• Type surface condition – treaded / worn out
• Tyre pressure – low / high; area of contact
• Pavement surface condition – dry / wet; smooth / rough
• Pavement surface material – CC / Bituminous / Gravel / earthen
• Temperature of pavement and tyre – Higher temp., high tyre pressure
• Braking efficiency – worse condition 100% efficiency
• Speed of vehicle – Higher speed low friction
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Coefficient of Friction - Longitudinal
• Speed dependent
• Speed, km/h 20 30 40 50 60/65 80 100
• ‘f’ 0.40 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35
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Other Factors
• Overtaking Maneuver Time:
• Time required to follow vehicle ahead, overtake and return back to self lane safely
• Speed, km/h 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
• OMT, s 8 9 10 10.8 11.5 12.5 14

• Acceleration during overtaking, maximum:

• Speed, km/h 25 30 40 50 65 80 100
• Acc. m/s/s 1.41 1.30 1.24 1.11 0.92 0.72 0.53
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Other Factors..
• Heights
• Height of eye level of a driver = 1.2 m
• Height of object above carriageway surface = 0.15 m or 1.2 m
• Height of head light = 0.75 m

• Angle of beam of head light from horizontal = 1o upward

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Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• SSD = lag distance + braking distance
• Lag distance = distance travelled during PRT when vehicle is moving at design
speed
• Design speed = V km/h = v m/s
• PRT = ‘t’ s
• Lag distance = v*t = 0.278V*t (m)
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SSD
• Braking distance = distance travelled after application of brake and vehicle coming to stop
before collision (speed change from ‘V’ to zero)
• Kinetic energy change = frictional force
m*v2/2 = W*v2/2g = (f*W)*distance travelled before stopping
• Distance travelled = v2/2g*f
• m = mass of vehicle
• W = weight of vehicle
• v = speed of vehicle, m/s
• f = coefficient of longitudinal friction
• g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2 = 9.81 m/s2
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SSD..
• SSD = lag distance + braking distance
• SSD = v*t + v2/2g*f = 0.278V*t + V2/254f

• In case of movement on gradient the effect will be there according to the

direction of movement with respect to the inclination of road
• SSD = v*t + v2/2g*(f ± n), where ‘n’ is gradient in fraction

• Positive for upgrade and ‘-’ for downgrade

• SSD = 0.278V*t + V2/[254*(f ± n)]
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SSD…
• SSD on a 2-lane 2-way carriageway is taken as single value, as vehicle moves in
its own lane.
• SSD on a 1-lane 2-way traffic carriageway is taken as twice the value, as vehicle
from opposite direction also moves in the same lane
• In case of divided carriageway the effect of gradient is considered. It is not
considered in the case of un-divided carriageway as the effect is increasing on
downgrade and decreasing on upgrade movement by equal amount
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Example-5
• Calculate SSD on a road if design speed is 65 km/h, perception-reaction time is
2.5s, and road is (i) 2-lane 2-way, (ii) single lane 2-way, (iii) 1-lane 1-way
carriageway. Assume f = 0.36
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Example-6
• Calculate SSD for a road having design speed of 80 km/h, PRT as 3.0s, gradient
on road as 2%, if the carriageway is (i) 1-lane 2-way, (ii) 2-lane 2-way, (iii) 4-lane
divided carriageway. Assume f = 0.35
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Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• Overtaking maneuver comprises of three movements of the overtaking vehicle –
follow the vehicle in front till overtaking opportunity becomes available,
overtake the leading vehicle, and return back to self lane safely
• These are shown as movement from A1 to A2, A2 to A3
• In this period vehicle from opposite direction moves from C1 to C2, where A3 and
C2 are opposite to each other in different lanes
• Overtaken vehicle moves from B1 to B2
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OSD
• Overtaking maneuver A1 to A3 takes 8s to 14s. Out of this one-third time is taken
for A1 to A2 and two-third time is taken by movement A2 to A3.
• The opposing vehicle moves from C1 to C2 in two-third of the total time.
• OSD = design speed * 1.67(overtaking maneuver time) (in meters)

• There is no effect of gradient of the road on the calculation of OSD. It is because

the effect is similar on overtaking and overtaken vehicle and is opposite on
vehicle coming from opposing direction, which is equal in magnitude
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Example-6
• Vehicles on a road are moving at a speed of 100 km/h. Calculate OSD if the
overtaking maneuver time is 14s and road has (i) 2-lane 2-way carriageway, (ii) a
longitudinal gradient of 1% is provided on the same, (iii) 4-lane 2-way divided
carriageway.
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Overtaking Zone
• If it is not possible to provide OSD
on a road then opportunity is to be
provided to the drivers to overtake
slow moving vehicles
• Design specification of zone are
shown in Figure
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Example-7
• A 2-lane carriageway caters to 2-way traffic. The design speed of the road is 80
km/h. Total overtaking maneuver time is 12.5s. It has been observed that clear
distance available ahead is 400 m. Examine the provision of OSD and remedial
measures, if any required.
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Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
• There are cases where OSD is not possible to be provided. In such cases it is
advisable to ensure provision of ISD.
• It is also advisable to provide ISD at approaches to an intersection.
• ISD = 2*SSD

• If overtaking is allowed with provision of ISD then there may be a requirement

of restricting speed. Speed limit sign shall also be provided in these cases.
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Sight Distance on Multi-Lane Roads
• Minimum sight distance that should be available ahead is SSD
• It is preferable to provide 2SSD on multi-lane highways to have better visibility
and decision making
• Usually OSD is not provided on multi-lane highways, if it is divided
carriageway
• Longitudinal gradient will affect the SSD on either side of the median
• Longitudinal gradient will not affect the OSD
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Other Sight Distances
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Sight Distance at Horizontal Curve
Set-back from center
• SSD is considered along the inner Inner lane
line of carriageway
lane of the alignment center line

• Line of sight between end points of

the SSD should be free of obstruction
• If it is obstructed then either site
should be cleared to maintain SSD or
speed should be restricted to match
left SSD
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Set-Back Distance
• Consider case: length of horizontal
circular curve Lc  SSD
• d = distance between center line of
carriageway and inner lane, both
• R = radius of horizontal curve
• m = set-back distance of line of sight
from center line of carriageway
• α = angle subtended by SSD
• α = SSD/(R – d) rad.
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Set-Back Distance..
• m = R – (R – d) Cos(α/2)
• If Lc < SSD
• m = R – (R – d) Cos(/2) +
½(SSD – Lc) Sin( /2)
• Where  = Lc/R
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Example-8
• A 4-lane undivided carriageway caters to traffic operating at a speed of 100
km/h. PRT is 2.5s. Distance between center line of the alignment and center line
of inner lane is 5.25 m. Radius of the curve is 200 m. Calculate the set-back
distance required to have clear line of sight if (i) Length of the horizontal curve is
200 m, and (ii) length of the horizontal curve is 150 m.
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Sight Distance on Vertical Curve

Height H1 = 1.2m; H2 = 0.15m; SD = SSD

Min
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Sight Distance on Vertical Curve

Height h1 = 0.75m;  =
1o
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Sight Distance on Vertical Curve
• Vertical curves are of two types – Summit curves and Valley curves
• In case of summit curve the line of sight is obstructed by the curvature of the earth. This is
shown in Figure given in previous slide. Here the height of the eye level of the driver is taken
as 1.2 m and height of the object as 0.15 m. Minimum sight distance to be ensured is SSD.
• There is no issue of visibility on valley curve during day time as whole section ahead is visible.
But during night distance covered by head light only is visible. Hence Head light Sight
distance is to be calculated and ensured.
• This will depend on height of head light, angle of beam, and height of object is considered as
zero. This is shown in previous slides. Height of beam is 0.75 m and angle of beam is 1o with
horizontal.
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Sight Distance on Vertical Curve
• Summit curve
• Sight distance = SSD

• Valley curve
• Sight distance = HLSD (Min SSD)
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Sight Distance at an Intersection
UNCONTROLLED
INTERSECTION PRIORITY INTERSECTION

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Sight Distance at an Intersection
UNCONTROLLED
INTERSECTION
• Both crossing roads are considered as same
specification roads
• Min SSD has to be ensured in the direction of
travel on crossing roads
• This will create a sight triangle as shown in
the figure on previous slide
• This area should be clear of all obstructions
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PRIORITY INTERSECTION
• In this case one road is major road and crossing road
is minor road
• Traffic on minor road is expected to stop, examine
the gap in traffic flow on major road, accelerate and
cross the major road
• Minimum visibility on major road shall be SSD and
preferably equivalent to the distance travel in 8s on
design speed
• Minimum distance on minor road is taken as 15m.
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Sight Distance at an Intersection
• In case sight distance, as written in previous slide, is not available on any road
then the available sight distance has to be measured (with respect to the sight
triangle) and lower rounded value shall be provided as a sight distance. The
speed has to be adjusted with respect to this available sight distance and speed
limit sign board has to be installed.
• This may be done on one road or on both cross roads.
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Cross-Section Elements of a Road

SIMPLEST SECTION - RURAL SIMPLEST SECTION - URBAN

• Carriageway • Carriageway
• Median
• Shoulders
• Shoulder/Sidewalk or Footpath
• Camber
• Camber
• Side-slopes
• Curb
• Drain • Drain
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Cross-Section Elements of a Road

SIMPLEST SECTION - RURAL SIMPLEST SECTION - URBAN

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Cross-Sectional Elements

NEED BASED ELEMENTS TERMINOLOGIES

• Cycle track • Right-of-Way
• Parking lane • Road land
• Guard railing • Formation width
• Bus-lane • Control Line
• Building Line
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Carriageway
• A black-top or white-top surface; hard enough to take up loads of vehicles plying
above it
• Width of a carriageway – decided by number of traffic lanes
• Width of a traffic lane
• 3.0m VR; 3.5m normally provided; 3.75m Expressways

• Carriageway width
• Single lane 3.75m; two-lane and above (3.5*n)m, where ‘n’ is number of lanes;
intermediate width 5.5m (usually used in urban areas, internal roads)
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Shoulders
• Provided on either side of the carriageway
• Act as lateral support system for pavement crust
• Provides extra width on sides for possible parking of out-of-order vehicle
• If paved then can act as path for non-motorized or motorized 2-wheeler
• Shoulder width
• Desirable 2.5m in plain and rolling terrain, open country, built-up area
• 1.0m – 1.5m on hill side and 2.0m on valley side
• Multi-lane highways: paved 1.5m, earthen 2.0m; Expressways 3.0m paved 2.0m earthen
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Camber
• Cross or transverse slope provided on the surface of the carriageway or
shoulders (maintained through layers of sub-base, base course)
• Helps in early draining of surface water, making the surface dry
• Rate of slope depends upon rainfall intensity and type of surface
• Shape can be parabolic in case of undivided carriageway and slopes outward in
case of divided carriageway
• Multi-lane highways: 2.0% and 2.5% for CC and Bituminous pavement
respectively
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Camber - Shape

Camber on straight section of 2-lane

road
Slopes outwards towards edge of the
carriageway from center line of the road
Camber on Multi-lane Highways
Slopes outwards towards edge of the
carriageway from median on
carriageway
Camber on circular sections
Taken care of by superelevation;
Minimum camber has to be provided
across the width of the carriageway
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Example-9
• Design a parabolic camber board suitable for a 2-lane carriageway having height
at center limited to 100mm.
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Camber..
• Expressways: dependent upon rainfall intensity as 1000mm, 2.0% for less than and
2.5% for higher rainfall intensity
• In general, rainfall intensity 1500 mm
• CC, Thick bituminous 1.7% - 2.0%
• Thin bituminous 2.0% - 2.5%
• Gravel, WBM 2.5% - 3.0%
• Earthen, paved footpath 3.0% - 4.0%

• Camber of shoulder is 0.5% extra than that of carriageway. For expressways it is 1.0%
extra
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Side Slope
• This is important in the case of rural highways which are constructed on an
embankment, or there is a cut-section wherein also the level of the road is kept
higher than the level of rest of the cut section
• Slopes are defined considering stability of the slope, type of material and height of
the embankment
• Usually denoted as H:V
• 4:1 for height of embankment 1.5m, with subsequent increase in height by 1.5m the
slope kept changing (reducing by 1) to 2:1 for embankment height 6m and above
• Cut sections: soil 2:1 to 1:1, rock 0.25:1 to near vertical depending upon hardness
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Side Drains
• These are essential features from drainage point of view
• The water which drains from the surface of the carriageway and shoulders will
be accumulated in these side drains
• These are located after the side slopes or on hill side in mountainous terrain
• Usually the shape is trapezoidal with base width 0.6m and top width 1.2m and
depth 0.30m
• On urban roads these are provided as a triangular channel or U-drain at the side
of footpath and edge of the carriageway
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Median
• Used to separate the opposing traffic moving in side-by-side lanes, or act as a
channelizing island to facilitate turning movements (left or right turning) of vehicles
or to act as refuge island for pedestrians or to reduce the head light glare
• Can be raised or depressed or flush in nature. Flush or raised median are used in
urban areas or built-up areas or restricted space areas. Depressed median are usually
provided on multi-lane highways and expressways
• Depressed median: Minimum 7.5m on multi-lane highways and 12m on expressways
• Flush median 4.5m wide
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Median..
• Raised median: Minimum 2.0m, desirable 4.5m - 5.0m on multi-lane highways
• Specific widths
• Pedestrian refuge and on bridges 1.2m absolute minimum, desirable minimum 1.5m
• Rural highways minimum absolute 3m, desirable minimum 5m
• Vehicle crossing at grade 9m – 12m
• Right turning minimum 4m, desirable 7m
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Median…

Raised median

Depressed median Raised median Flush median

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Curb
• This is a stone or CC block that is used at the edge of the median or footpath
• It protects the edge of the median, pavement, footpath; provides finished
appearance; demarcate the carriageway edge
• These can be mountable, partly mountable, not mountable, which is controlled
by way of height of the curb and its design. Its use as above depends upon the
intention whether or not a vehicle is allowed to use space on its other side
• Height of mountable curb is 100mm, partly mountable 100 – 200mm, and non-
mountable is more than 200mm
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Curb..
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Footpath
• Usually raised with respect to the top level of carriageway and provided on
either side of the carriageway for movement of pedestrians on the side of the
carriageway
• Desirable width of the footpath is 1.8m and absolute minimum is 1.2m
• Height is 150mm above top surface of the carriageway
• Width is to be increased in commercial areas, at bus stops, shopping areas. It is
2.5m to 4.0m
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Cycle Track
• These are provided in areas where cycle traffic is high.
• These may be provided as adjoining or segregated from the carriageway
• Minimum width is 2.2m for segregated track; desirable is 2.5 – 5.0m
• For bidirectional traffic minimum width is 3.0m
• Cycle lane on lower category roads may be 1.5 – 2.5m wide
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Cycle & Pedestrian

Path
Wrongly
Placed on
path of cycle
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Guard Rails
• These are provided on the side of the footpath to protect the pedestrians from hit
by a vehicle or at center of medians to stop illegal crossing of road
• These are displaced by 150mm from the edge of the footpath or placed in the
center of the median
• Height is 700 - 1100mm above the surface
• Usually provided in canary yellow colour
• Rounded in shape, 50 mm diameter
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Road Width (RW)
• This is the immediate cross-section that is usable by a vehicle under normal and
extra-ordinary conditions
• It constitutes – carriageway, shoulders, and medians if any; in urban areas it will
also constitute space dedicated to cycles and pedestrians (cycle path and
footpath)
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Road Margin and Land
• Road Margin
• This is the space beyond shoulders and includes slopes, drains, extra land that is
acquired for expansion of the road in terms of number of lanes

• Road Land
• The total space acquired on either side of the center line of the alignment which
includes all the cross-sectional elements as required for operational purposes of the
road, as well as extra space. The limits are termed as Road Boundary.
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Building and Control Line
• Building Line
• This is the limit beyond road boundary, usually 3 to 6 m, up to which building
boundary can be constructed.

• Control Line
• This is beyond building line, set-back being defined as per building laws, up to
which the type of construction is controlled.
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Horizontal Alignment
Circular curve, Superevelation, Transition curve
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Circular Curve
• Δ = Angle on interchange
• Length of curve L = R * Δ rad
• Tangent length (T) = R * tan(Δ/2)
• Versine M = R – R * Cos(Δ/2)
• Offest E = (R/Cos(Δ/2)) – R
• Chord C = 2R * Sin(Δ/2)
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Example-10
• The bearing of first tangent at point TC is N70oE and the bearing of second
tangent at point CT is N70oW. The radius of the horizontal circular curve is
200m. Calculate various elements of horizontal circular curve.
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Superelevation
• Increasing the height of outer edge of the horizontal circular curve with respect
to the inner edge so as to counter the effect of centrifugal force
• m = mass of the vehicle
• v = speed of the vehicle
• R = radius of circular curve
•  = inclination of carriageway with horizontal
• Centrifugal force P = mv2/R
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Superelevation..
• f = coefficient of lateral friction
• Resolving forces along the carriageway:
• P*Cos = W*Sin  + f*(W*Cos  + P*Sin )

• Resolving perpendicular to surface of the carriageway

• Normal force = P*Sin  + W*Cos 
• P*(Cos - f*Sin ) = W*(Sin  +f*Cos )
• P/W = (Sin  +f*Cos )/(Cos - f*Sin )
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Superelevation…
• P/W = (Sin  +f*Cos )/(Cos - f*Sin )
• Dividing right hand side by Cos 
• P/W = v2/g*R = (Tan + f)/(1 - f*Tan )
•  being small, rate of superelevation ‘e’ = Tan
• f being 0.15, f*Tan ~ Too small, hence (1 - f*Tan ) ~ 1.0
• v2/(g*R) = e + f
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Superelevation….
• v2/(g*R) = e + f
• If f is zero, then ‘e’ is termed as equilibrium superelevation. In this case pressure
on both inner and outer tyres will be equal.
• Design value of ‘e’:
• 7% in plain or rolling terrain or for altitudes (hilly areas) bound by snow, 4% for
urban areas, 10% for altitudes not bound by snow (hilly areas)
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Superelevation Design
• Assumed that 75% of the effect of design speed is catered by superelevation rate and
rest 25% is catered by coefficient of lateral friction
• Step-1: Calculate ‘ec’ as ec = (0.75v)2/g*R = v2/17.44R = V2/226R
• Step-2: Examine – ec ≤ ed Okay; If ec > ed select ed and check for ‘f’
• Step-3: Calculate f , fc = (v2/g*R) – ed
• Step-4: Examine f, If fc ≤ fd Okay, Design with ed and fc ; otherwise if fc > fd then take f
= fd and design with ed and fd
• Step-5: Now calculate restricted speed Vr = [127R*(ed + fd)]0.5 (km/h)
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Example-11
• Design speed of vehicles on a 2-lane 2-way road is 80 km/h. The road is in Plain
terrain. Design superelevation if a horizontal circular curve is provided on this
road with radius (i) 500m, (ii) 300m, (iii) 200m.
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Example-12
• A horizontal curve of radius 3000m in provided on a National Highway going to
be constructed in plain terrain with thick bituminous layer. Traffic is expected to
move at a speed of 100 km/h. Design the superelevation.
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Attaining Superelevation
• Superelevation is provided in two steps
• Step-1: Eliminating crown by rotating outer side of the carriageway
• First rotating outer portion of carriageway with respect to the center line to bring it to
the level of center line of carriageway. The distance required to eliminate the negative
camber on outer side is defined as tangent runoff distance.
• Then the outer portion is further rotated to attain the positive camber throughout the
width of the carriageway. The distance required to do so is a part of superelevation
runoff distance.
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Eliminating Crown

Examine the merits or demerits of using the two methods

Method-1: Raising outer edge Method-2: Shifting crown

with respect to the center line towards outer edge
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Attaining Superelevation
• Step-2: Rotating pavement to attain superelevation. Pavement can be rotated in
three ways:
• Rotating about center line of the pavement
• Rotating about inner edge of the pavement
• Rotating about outer edge of the pavement

Examine the merits and demerits

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Attaining Superelevation
• After elimination of the crown, the pavement is rotated as per any method or as
per the requirement of the area till full superelevation is attained. The distance it
needs to attain full superelevation after negative camber is made zero is defined
as superelevation runoff distance.
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Variation in Levels

Pavement
Tangent Superelevation runoff
orientation
Tangent runoff distance Circular curve
section distance Transition curve section section
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Minimum Radius of Circular Curve
• Considering: e+f = V2/127R
• Rmin = V2/127(e+f)
• Here V = Ruling design speed for the given terrain
• In the case of 2-lane and multi-lane highways if Ractual > Rmin then ‘e’ can be
restricted to 5%, otherwise ‘e’ is taken as 7% or 10% as per terrain condition
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Example-13
• A 2-lane 2-way road has been constructed with a horizontal circular curve.
Calculate the ruling minimum radius of the circular curve if the road is: (i) SH
laid in rolling terrain, (ii) MDR in Plain terrain, (iii) NH in mountainous terrain,
(iv) Sub-arterial in urban area. Consider relevant values of ‘e’ and ‘f’.
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Example-14
• A 2-lane 2-way road has been constructed with a horizontal circular curve.
Calculate the absolute minimum radius of the circular curve if the road is: (i) SH
laid in rolling terrain, (ii) MDR in Plain terrain, (iii) NH in mountainous terrain,
(iv) Sub-arterial in urban area. Consider relevant values of ‘e’ and ‘f’.
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Example-15
• A National Highway is to be constructed in an open country of rolling terrain.
Consider the design speed as 80 km/h, pavement of thick bituminous surface
and rainfall intensity as high. What will be the minimum radius of a horizontal
circular curve for which superelevation is not required to be provided? (Hint:
Effect of superelevation is counteracted by 75% of the design speed)
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Extra Widening
• Increasing the width of the carriageway on circular section to assist smooth
movement of a vehicle at a design speed / negotiate the circular section smoothly
• Reason
• Rigid base of vehicle – While negotiating the curve, the front do not follow profile of rear
axle wheels due to the rigidity of the wheel base. Requirement due to this reason is called
Mechanical widening.
• Psychological Effect – While negotiating a curve the driver on outer lane tries to keep
vehicle towards center line and that on inner lane also tries to move towards center line to
get higher visibility. This necessitates providing buffer space between two movements.
This widening requirement is known as Psychological widening.
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Extra Widening..
• Reason
• Off-tracking – Due to rigid wheel base and truck trailer combination the trailer will
take path on inner side, usually when moving at low speeds. This requires extra-
widening on inner side of the curve.
• Skidding – When vehicles move at high speed while negotiating the circular curve
the vehicle trajectory moves outwards due to centrifugal force. This causes widening
on outer side of the curve.
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Extra Widening…

99
Extra Widening….
• Mechanical Widening
• Wm = nl2/2R
• Psychological Widening
• Wp = 0.1*V/R0.5
• n = number of lanes
• l = length of wheel base = 6 m
• R = radius of circular curve, m
• V = design speed, km/h
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• Total Extra widening We
• We = nl2/2R + 0.1*V/R0.5
• No extra-widening required if radius is
300 m or more
• On Single lane road only mechanical
widening is to be provided (Reason??)
• Multi-lane Road: number of lanes ×
half of We for 2-lane road
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Example-16
• Calculate the extra-widening required for a 2-lane road catering to traffic
moving at a speed of 100 km/h. Assume wheel base of a design vehicle as 6 m.
The radius of the circular curve is 100 m.
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Example-17
• A single lane road having carriageway 3.75 m wide is catering to traffic moving
at a speed of 35 km/h. The radius of circular curve is 50 m. Assume length of
wheel base as 5 m. Calculate extra-widening for this road.
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Transition Curve
• Connects tangent section with circular curve section
• Need
• To provide smooth transition of radius from infinite to finite value (i.e. ‘R’)
• To provide smooth introduction of centrifugal force so that no jerk is faced by a
vehicle while transiting from tangent to circular section
• To provide smooth transition for implementing superelevation and extra widening

• Suitable transition curve – Spiral as LR = constant

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Transition Curve..

• Transition curve is between ‘T’ and ‘E”, and

‘E’’ and ‘T’’
• The deviation between circular curve and
transition curve at the center of the transition
curve is defined as Shift.
• Shift ‘S’ = T1E1 = Ls2/24Rc
• Angle ‘’ = Ls/2Rc (rad)
• Tangent Ts = Ls/2 + (Rc + S) Tan(/2)
• Angle circular curve =  - 2 
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Transition Curve…
• Length of Transition Curve: Based on
• Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
• Ls = v3/C*R = 0.0215V3/C*R, where C = 80/(75+V) s.t. 0.50 ≤ C ≤ 0.8

• Rate of change of superevelvation

• Ls = N*e*(W+We)*A, where N = Min 150 for plain and rolling terrain and 60 for steep and
mountainous terrain; A = 1.0 for pavement rotated about inner or outer edge and 0.50 for
pavement rotated about center line

• Empirical:
• Ls = 2.7*V2/R for urban and Plain and rolling terrain; V2/R for hilly terrain
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Example-18
• A 2-lane National Highway is passing through plain terrain. Design speed of
vehicles is 100 km/h. The radius of circular curve is 400 m. Length of wheel base
of the vehicle is 5.5m. Camber to be provided in 2.%%. Assume that pavement is
rotated about (i) center line, (ii) outer edge of the pavement. Calculate the length
of the transition curve.
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Example-19
• A 2-lane road of National Highway category is to be laid in hilly terrain area
which is snow bound. Radius of the curve is 60 m and design speed is 40 km/h.
Length of wheel base of a vehicle is 6 m. Angle of deflection of circular curve is
60o. Calculate (i) Length of transition curve, (ii) length of the circular curve and
total curve, (iii) tangent length of the combination of circular and transition
curve
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Gradients
• Gradients are required to scale level differences in the terrain between two
connecting points. These are defined in three categories as –
• Ruling gradient – This is used mostly to decide the resisting lengths. Vehicles can traverse
the longitudinal grade without any issue in reduction in performance.
• Limiting gradient – This is to be used where topography causes use of higher gradient and
ruling gradient may increase the length and cost of the project. The traversing on such
gradient may cause performance issue.
• Exceptional gradient – These are used under exceptional topographical conditions and are
provided for short length not more than 100 m at a stretch. Successive stretches shall be
separated by a minimum length of 100 m provided with gentler gradient (limiting/ruling)
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Gradients..
• Gradient values – 2-lane and 4-Lane highways

Terrain Ruling Gradient Limiting Gradient Exceptional

Gradient
Plain & Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.7%
Mountainous 5% 6% 7%
Steep – upto 3000m 5% 6% 7%
altitude

• Steep – above
For 6-lane 3000 2.5% and 3.0%
highways: 6% for Plain and rolling 7% 8% gradient
terrain, Ruling and limiting
m altitude
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Gradients…
• Minimum Gradient
• It is decided based on drainage considerations
• In case of lined structures it is taken as 0.5% and for unlined structures as 1.0%.
• Absolute minimum is 0.3% for pedestrian paths and 0.2% for lined drains

• Maximum gradient for pedestrian ramps is 10% and for cycle tracks it is 3%.
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Vertical Curve
• The change in two successive gradients shall be made smooth through provision
of vertical curves so that the connecting point does not act as a kink and no jerk
is felt by the driver or vehicle
• Need
• Gradual transition at point of deviation
• Eliminates kinks or troughs
• Maintain visibility along section
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Summit Curve
• Different orientation of connecting gradients may result in upward convex curve
(shown in figures in next slide)
• Main problem is of visibility due to curvature of earth. Minimum visibility shall be
equal to SSD. Hence, heights are taken as 1.2 m for eye level of the driver and 0.15 m
for the object (above pavement surface) in case of SSD considerations and 1.2 m for
both in the case of OSD considerations.
• As vehicle negotiates the curve, the weight of vehicle and centrifugal force acts in
opposite direction and hence does not cause problem of discomfort to the driver.
• Curve may be parabolic or circular in shape
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Summit Curve..
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Summit Curve…
• Length of Summit Curve
• It can be calculated for SSD and OSD. Length related to OSD will be quite large.
Usually length is provided for SSD.
• With respect to SSD (S)
• If L > SSD: L = N*S2/4.4
• If L < SSD: L = 2S – 4.4/N
• N = difference in slopes, in decimal = n1 – n2 where n1 is first grade and n2 is
following grade, both taken in algebraic values (with signs), these are shown in
figure also
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Summit Curve….
• Length of Summit Curve
• With respect to OSD (S)
• If L > OSD: L = N*S2/9.6
• If L < OSD: L = 2S – 9.6/N
• N = difference in slopes, in decimal = n1 – n2 where n1 is first grade and n2 is
following grade, both taken in algebraic values (with signs), these are shown in
figure also
• Example: upgrade followed by down grade +n1 – (-n2) = (n1 + n2)
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Summit Curve…..
• Length of Summit Curve
• In case the calculations give negative values in both the cases then it indicates that
there is no requirement of providing vertical curve. This may be due to very small
angle of intersection. In this case also a small length is to be provided varying
between 15 m and 60 m for a design speed of 35 km/h to 100 km/h

• Highest point on the curve

• At distance n1*L/N, below point of intersection with ordinate N*L/8
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Example-20
• An upward gradient of 1 in 100 meets a downward gradient of 1 in 100 on a
National Highway. Calculate length of summit curve if (i) the stopping sight
distance is 180 m, (ii) the overtaking sight distance is 640 m. What will be the RL
of the highest point on the summit curve if RL of the tangent point at the start on
the curve is 100.000 m?
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Example-21
• An upward gradient of 1 in 200 meets a downward gradient of 1 in 200 on a
National Highway. Calculate length of summit curve if the stopping sight
distance is 180 m.
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Valley Curve
• Valley curve is formed when a downward gradient meets an upward gradient or
there are conditions as shown in Figure on next slide. It is also known as Sag curve.
• When a vehicle negotiates a valley curve there is no issue of visibility, especially
during day. But during night the distance is visible only upto the distance head light
beam reaches. This is known as Head Light Distance. Length is calculated with this
criteria. Minimum length shall be SSD.
• Further, when vehicle negotiates the curve, the weight and centrifugal force acts in
downward direction and causes discomfort. Hence, comfort is one criteria for the
design of valley curve.
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Valley Curve
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Valley Curve
• The shape of the curve for valley curve is spiral or cubic parabola. In case of
comfort condition it is a combination of two parabola.
• Length of the curve
• Comfort condition: L = 2*(N*V3/C)0.5, where C= 0.6 m/s3
• Head Light Sight Distance:
• When L > S: L = N*S2/(1.5 + 0.035*S)
• When L < S: L = 2S – (1.5 + 0.035*S)/N
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Example-22
• Calculate the length of the valley curve on a State Highway operating vehicles at
a speed of 80 km/h, where a down gradient of 1 in 30 meets an up-gradient of 1
in 20.
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Grade Compensation on Curves
• When gradient and curvature both overlaps then the resistance due to both
together causes substantial reduction in the performance of the vehicle.
• Reduced tractive effort of vehicle due to curvature and turning is T*Cosα:
• Loss in traction is [T(1 – Cosα)], where ‘α’ is angle of steering, T is tractive effort

• Grade is to be compensated, but not beyond 4%, as

• GC = (30+R)/R, with maximum reduction restricted to (75/R)
• R = radius of horizontal curve, m
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Example-23
• A road with longitudinal gradient of 5.5% is overlapped with a horizontal
circular curve of radius 200 m. What will be the compensated gradient for this
road?
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124
Example-24
• A road with longitudinal gradient of 4.5% is overlapped with a horizontal
circular curve of radius 100 m. What will be the compensated gradient for this
road?
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