Project III: Impact of invasive aquatic weeds on lake fishery and community livelihood

Background and rationale

Invasive aquatic weeds are a growing threat worldwide, causing losses in biodiversity, changes
in ecosystems, and impacts on economic enterprises such as fisheries, agriculture, forestry,
power production, and international trade. An invasive weed is a species that is “non-native to
the specific ecosystem and whose introduction causes economic or environmental harm or harm
to human ” . Invasive aquatic weeds are either adapted to continuous supplies of water or are at
least tolerant to waterlogged soil conditions for substantial periods of time. Because of wide
range of adaptation to varying amounts of water, aquatic weeds are reaching alarming
proportions in many parts of the world, especially in tropical water bodies where they have led to
serious ecological and economic losses (Xu et al., 2012). For example Lake Victoria, which is
the largest freshwater body in the tropics, has undergone serious ecological changes due to
invasion of aquatic weeds especially water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes.

Water hyacinth is considered as one of the world’s worst weeds invading lakes, ponds, canals,
and rivers. Due to its extremely fast growth, the weed has become the major floating water weed
of tropical and subtropical regions. In the absence of natural enemies, the weed quickly becomes
invasive, colonizing slow moving waters resulting in thick and extensive mats (Edward and
Musil, 1975) which degrade aquatic ecosystems and limit their utilization (Hill and Cotzee,
2008). The negative impacts of water hyacinth are due to its dense, impenetrable mats which
restrict access to water. Ecologically, benthic and littoral diversity is reduced (Masifwa et al.,
2001; Midgley et al., 2006),while population of vectors of human and animal diseases such as
bilharzias and malaria are increased with water hyacinth infestation as these plants interfere with
pesticide application (Harley et al.,1996). Water hyacinth was introduced into Africa from South
America in the early 1900s (Mitchell, 1985), but since the 1950s it has become a problematical
weed in Southern Africa, the Congo basin and the Upper Nile (Denny, 1984). Africa has
particularly been affected by the introduction and spread of water hyacinth, facilitated in part due
to a lack of naturally occurring enemies. In a review of water hyacinth infestation in eastern,
southern and central Africa, Mujingni (2012) reports that the weed was first recorded in Zimbabwe
in 1937. It colonized important water bodies, such as the Incomati River in Mozambique in 1946, the
Zambezi River and some important rivers in Ethiopia in 1956.

Invasive aquatic weeds are of a great concern in Ethiopia, posing particular problems on aquatic
biodiversity and fisheries in major water bodies and agricultural land in the surrounding water
bodies. Firehun et al. (2014) indicated some clean-up attempts were made in 1959, 1968, 1979
and 1988 in Rift valley along Awash basin. Reports also indicated the infestation of water
hyacinth in Baro, Gillo, and Akobo Rivers in Western Ethiopia (Rezene, 2005). The presence of
water hyacinth in Lake Tana has been reported relatively recent but the infestation rate is fast and
wide. Studies conducted in lake Tana by Derege (2015) indicated that water hyacinth invaded
large proportion of lake Tana which affected the fishing communities in particular and the
fishing industry at large.

Water hyacinth disrupt socioeconomic and subsistence activities (ship and boat navigation,
restricted access to water for recreation, fisheries, and tourism) and increase in water borne
diseases such as schistosomiasis. The dense floating mats may limit access to breeding, nursery
and feeding grounds for some economically important fish species of lakes such as Tilapia,
Catfish and Barbs and other aquatic biota.

Additionally, infestation can decrease the value of the land surrounding the lake by limiting its
uses and accelerating the natural aging of the lake. Water hyacinth could also erode natural
capital, compromise ecosystem stability, and threaten economic productivity. On the other hand,
it is possible to mitigate the infestation of these invasive aquatic weed species from lake by
different management mechanisms or change to usable forms. The best way to control invasive
aquatic plants is to stop the invasion before it starts. But once it occurred, control methods and
exploitation strategies such as using it as animal feed, soil additives, fuel production, wastewater
treatment and source of raw materials should be considered.

This project is proposed to generate scientific information and technologies on invasive aquatic
weeds mainly water hyacinth infestation rates, their impact on socio-economic status and
mitigation strategies to be implemented in Lakes Tana, Koka and Chamo.
Objectives

General

• To assess the impact of invasive aquatic weeds encroachment on the lake fishery and
community livelihood

Specific

• To determine the area coverage and level of infestation of water hyacinth and water ferns
in lakes Tana, Koka and Chamo.

• To evaluate the impact of invasive aquatic weeds on fishery, planktonic and benthic
communities.

• To recommend possible mitigation measures to control expansion of invasive aquatic

weeds

• To assess the impact of invasive aquatic weeds on the livelihood of the fishers and local
communities.

The project constitutes four activities with distinct methodology and outputs. These are

1. Assessment of invasive aquatic weeds infestation on Lake Tana, Koka and Chamo
2. The effect of invasive aquatic weeds on fishery and other aquatic biota

3. Adaptation of mitigation measures to reduce the impact of invasive aquatic weeds

4. Socio-economic impact of invasive aquatic weeds on fishers and local communities

 Activity 1: Assessment of invasive aquatic weeds infestation on Lake Tana, Koka and
Chamo

Introduction

Although there are reports indicating the rapid expansion of water hyacinth in Lakes Tana, Koka
and Chamo, information on infestation and propagation rates is limited (Rezene, 2005; Firehun
et al., 2014; Derege, 2015). Moreover information on season based spatial distribution and
infestation of the weed in study lakes was absent in the previous studies. Implementation of
control measures in an integrated manner requires reliable estimates of water hyacinth
distribution, density and level of infestation. Moreover assessment of other invasive weeds and
estimation of their invasion is crucial to develop and properly apply management measures.
GIS and remote sensing have already successfully been applied to map the distribution of several
plant and animal species, their ecosystems, landscapes, bio-climatic conditions and factors
facilitating invasions (Stow et al., 2000). Primary inputs such as biomass and density of the weed
including the major drivers for the spreading of water hyacinth are required for accurate
estimation in a specific lake. Therefore this activity is proposed to determine spatio-temporal
distribution of water hyacinth and examine the drivers for its expansion.

Objectives

• To determine the area coverage and level of infestation of water hyacinth and water ferns
in lakes Tana, Koka and Chamo

• To identify determinants for rapid expansion of water hyacinth in lakes Tana, Koka and
Chamo

• To develop prediction model to estimate aquatic weeds infestation.

Methodology

Study area

This study will be conducted in three lakes namely Tana, Koka and Chamo. Lake Tana is located
in the north-western Ethiopian highlands and is the largest lake in the country covering 3500
square kilometers at elevation about 1800 meters above sea level. Lake Tana is fed by the Gilgel
Abay, Reb and Gumera rivers. Lake Chamo is located in the southern part of Ethiopia in the
main Ethiopian Great rift valley at altitude of 1110 m a.s.l. with a surface area of 317 square
kilometers. Lake Koka (mostly named as Koka reservoir) is located in the south-central
Ethiopia. It was created by the construction of the Koka Dam across the Awash river. The
reservoir has an area of 180 square kilometers.

Sample collection

Study lake will be assessed based on the previous information and reports from administrative
zones to generate primary information on the infestation of water hyacinth. Geographic
coordinates will be recorded using portable geographic positioning system (GPS). Extents of
water hyacinth density (intensity of infestation) will be estimated by random sampling of plant
population from different corners of the selected water bodies. For water bodies having limited
infestation towards the shoreline, plant population count will be made by throwing one meter
square quadrant along the shore (Firehun et al., 2014). For infestations at the center, plant
population count was made by throwing a quadrat systematically over an assumed square
encompassing infested water bodies using boats. For water hyacinth infestation starting from
outside towards the center, the coverage will be measured using meter tape. A pair of binoculars
will be used to identify the edge or limit of the infestation. Infestation level of the weed will be
assigned by codes ranging from 0 to 5 based on their population density and categorized from
high to low in five classes to produce simplified distribution map as Firehun et al. (2014). In
order to determine seasonal change in water hyacinth infestation, sampling will be conducted at
low and high water level time. Environmental parameters such as temperature, pH, conductivity,
dissolved oxygen and nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate will be measured in-situ or
analyzed in the lab to determine the major deriving forces for the rapid expansion of water
hyacinth. Geo-referenced satellite maps of the study area will be acquired from mapping agency.
Data processing and analysis
All data collected from the field or measured in the laboratory will be subjected to appropriate
software including SPSS version 18, PCORD version 5 for statistical analysis. Data from GPS
and satellite maps will be given to GIS expert for analysis and production of simplified colored
infestation map of the study lakes.
Location
The study will be conducted in three lakes namely Tana, Koka and Chamo.
Duration
The duration of the activity is 5 years (2008- 2012 E.C.)
Work plan for the year 2009 E.C.
Title: Assessment of invasive aquatic weeds infestation on Lake Tana and Koka
Months
Jul Aug Sep Oc Nov Dec Jan Fe Ma Apr Ma Jun
t b r y
Desk review
(literature, resource
persons and offices)
Discussion with
implementing centers
GIS based aerial
estimation
Field survey
Progress report
Budget by code

Code Birr
6114 10818

6212 8488

6213 1664

6215 3329

6217 14147

6218 7623

6219 7822

6223 6824

6231 46601

6232 1664

6241 10652

6243 4826

6244 6491

6245 7489

6252 5825

6256 6657

6271 18307

6312 41608

6313 3329

Total 214163

Output

• Information on infestation level of water hyacinth and major drivers for its expansion
 Responsibilities (persons, centers)

• Aschalew Lakew, Zenebe Tadesse, Adamneh Dagne, from NFALRC on Lake Koka
• Derege Tewabe and Birehan Mohammed from BDFALRC on Lake Tana

Reference

 Denny, P. 1984. Permanent swamp vegetation of the Upper Nile. Hydrobiol. 110: 79-90.
 Dereje Tewabe,2015.Preliminary Survey of Water Hyacinth in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. Global
Journal of Allergy. 1:013-018.
 Edwards, D., & Musil, C.J. 1975. Eichhornia crassipes in South Africa– a general
review. J. Limnological Soc. Southern Afr. 1: 23–27.
 Firehun, Y., Struik, P. C., Lantinga, E. A. and Taye, T. 2014. Water Hyacinth in the Rift
Valley Water Bodies of Ethiopia: Its distribution, Socioeconomic Importance and
Management. International Journal of Current Agricultural Research 3: 067-075.
 Harley, K.L.S., Julien, M.H., & Wright, A.D. 1996. Water hyacinth: a tropical worldwide
problem and methods for its control. Proc. 2nd Intern. Weed Control Cong. II, 639–644.
Copenhagen (DK).
 Hejda, M., Pyšek, P. and Jarošík, V., 2009. Impact of invasive plants on the species
richness, diversity and composition of invaded communities. Journal of Ecology 97: 393–
403.
 Hill, M.P., & Coetzee, J.A. 2008. Integrated control of water hyacinth in Africa. EPPO
Bull. 38: 452-457.Masifwa, W.F., Twongo, T., & Denny, P. 2001. The impact of water
hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, on the abundance and diversity of aquatic
macroinvertebrates along the shores of northern Lake Victoria, Uganda. Hydrobiol. 452:
79–88.
 Midgley, J.M., Hill, M.P., & Villet, M.H. 2006. The effect of water hyacinth, Eichhornia
crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae), on benthic biodiversity in two
impoundments on the New Year’s River, South Africa. Afr. J. Aqua. Sci. 31 (1): 25-30.
 Mitchell, D.S. 1985. African aquatic weeds and their management. In: Denny, P. (Ed.),
The ecology and management of African Wetland Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk Publishers,
pp. 177–202.
 Mujingni, C., 2012. Quantification of the impacts of Water Hyacinth on riparian
communities in Cameroon and assessment of an appropriate method of control: The case
of the River Wouri Basin: The Case of the Wouri River Basin. Msc disseratation. World
Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden.
 Rands, M., Adams, W., Bennun, L., Butchart, S., Clements, A., Coomes, D., Entwistle,
A., Hodge, I., Kapos, V., Scharlemann, J., Sutherland, W. andVira, B., 2010. Biodiversity
conservation: Challenges beyond 2010. Science 329: 1298–1303.
 Rezene, F. 2005. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): A review of its weed status in
Ethiopia. Arem, 6: 105-111.
 Stow, D., Hope, A., Richardson, D., Chen, D., Garrison, C., & Service, D., 2000.
Potential of colour-infrared digital cameraimagery for inventory and mapping of alien
plant invasions in South African shrublands. Int. J. of RS, 21(15),2965-2970.
 Vila, M., Espinar, J., Hejda, M., Hulme, P., Jarošík, V., Maron, J., Pergl, J., Schaffner,
U., Sun, Y. and Pyšek, P., 2011. Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a meta-
analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecology Letters 14:
702–708.
 Xu, H., Qiang, S., Genovesi, P., Ding, H., Wu, J., Meng, L., Han, Z., Miao, J., Hu, B.,
Guo, J., Sun, H., Huang, C., Lei, J., Le, Z., Zhang, X., He, S., Wu,
 Zheng, Z., Chen, L., Jarošík, V. and Pyšek, P., 2012. An inventory of invasive alien
species in China. NeoBiota 15: 1–26. doi:10.3897/neobiota.15.3575.
Activity 2: The effect of Invasive Aquatic Weeds on fishery and other aquatic biota

Introduction

Invasive alien species are a major global challenge requiring urgent action (Xu et al. 2012). They
are considered one of the key pressures on world’s biodiversity: altering ecosystem services and
processes, reducing native species abundance and richness, and decreasing genetic diversity of
ecosystems (Rands et al. 2010, Vila et al. 2011, Hejda et al. 2009). They cause substantial
economic losses estimated by one study to total US$120 billion annually in the USA (Pimentel
et al. 2005, Kettunen et al. 2009). In South Africa, estimated economic costs due to invasive
alien species are currently above US$ 700 million (R6.5 billion) per annum or 0.3% of South
Africa’s GDP, and could rise to over 5% of GDP if invasive plants are allowed to reach their full
potential (Wilgen and Lange 2011).

Water hyacinth has been identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) as one of the 100 most aggressive invasive species (Téllez et al. 2008) and recognized as
one of the top 10 worst weeds in the world (Shanab et al. 2010, Gichuki et al. 2012, Patel 2012).
It is characterised by rapid growth rates, extensive dispersal capabilities, large and rapid
reproductive output and broad environmental tolerance (Zhang et al. 2010). In Africa, for
example, where water hyacinth is listed by law as a noxious weed in several countries, it is the
most widespread and damaging aquatic plant species. The economic impacts of the weed in
seven African countries have been estimated at between US$20-50 million every year. Across
Africa costs may be as much as US$100 million annually (UNEP 2006).

The success of this invasive alien species is largely due to its reproductive output. Water
hyacinth can flower throughout the year and releases more than 3 000 seeds per year (Gopal
1987, EEA 2012). The seeds are long-lived, up to 20 years (Gopal 1987). While seeds may not
be viable at all sites, water hyacinth commonly colonises new areas through vegetative
reproduction and propagation of horizontally growing stolons. In the early stages of infestation,
the weed takes foothold on the shoreline in the areas where native aquatic plants thrive (Gichuki
et al. 2012). However, it is not restricted to shallow water, unlike many submersed and emergent
macrophytes, because its roots are free-floating near the surface (Villamagna and Murphy 2010).
In Ethiopia, Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are of a great concern posing particular problems on
biodiversity of the country, agricultural lands, range lands, national parks, water ways, lakes,
rivers, power dams, roadsides and urban green spaces with great economic and
ecological consequences. However, so far more attention has been given to the terrestrial
invasive weeds. Over 20 species of alien invasive weed have been reported from Ethiopia of
which only one aquatic weed, the water hyacinth has been considered so far (Rezene et al, 2011).
Dereje Tewabe (2015) also reported the level of infestation level from Lake Tana and suggested
intervention measure to mitigate the problem. However, there are also other aquatic alien weeds
such as water cabbage and Azolla spp which require more emphasis in the future.

Objective/s

General Objective

 To study the level of infestation and impact of aquatic invasive plants on the diversity
and production of fish and other aquatic biota in infested lakes and rivers in Ethiopia.

Specific objectives

 To determine effect of of aquatic invasive weeds on the physicochemical parameters of

Lakes Koka, Ziway and Chamo.
 To assess the impact of aquatic invasive weeds on the fishery, diversity and distribution
of fish fauna in Lakes Koka, Ziway and Chamo.
 To assess the impact of aquatic invasive weeds on the diversity and distribution and
production of phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic fauna in Lakes Koka, Ziway and
Chamo.

Materials and Methods

Site selection
In each lake three sampling stations representing open water, open water, edge of the water
hyacinth and middle of the water hyacinth infested area will be located, Water, planktonic,
benthic and fish will be collected from the three stations for comparison and analysis.
Collection of biotic and abiotic samples
Water samples will be collected from the three stations using Ruthner sampler to be used for
determination of chemicals following standard procedure (APHA, 2000). For this purpose water
will be filtered through standard filter paper to separate the plankton and store in refrigerator for
further analysis in the laboratory. In situ measurements of water temperature, dissolved oxygen,
PH, conductivity etc will be measured using multiple probe.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton triplicate samples will be collected from each station using 25
um and 65 um mesh net and preserved in vials to be analysed in the laboratory. Phytoplankton
and zooplankton taxa will be identified and relative abundance of major taxa will be determined
using standard keys and procedures (references).
Benthic samples will be collected from all stations using Ekman grab. Collected mud samples
will be rinsed repeatedly to separate the benthic animals for further analysis. Preserved and
transported samples collected from the field will be analysed in the laboratory using
identification keys and standard procedures (references).
Fish samples will be collected using gill nets of different mesh sizes (40,60,80, 100 mm stretched
mesh) from all stations. Total length and total weight of collected fish sub sample specimens will
be measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and 0.i gram respectively. Juvenile fish will also be collected
using seine net. Identification of fish, sex and maturity level will be determined. The impact of
the invasive weeds on the fishery activity will be assessed by interviewing the fishermen.

Location
The study will be conducted in some Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes like Koka and Chamo as well
as in north Ethiopia Lake Tana where the problem of invasive species have been reported. In
2009 E.C. this study will be conducted in Koka reservoir.
Lakes Koka, Ziway Chamo and Tana..

Duration
The study will be conducted in the nex five years between 2008 EC – 2012 EC
Work plan for 2009 E.C.

The effect of invasive Months

aquatic weeds on fish and Jul Aug Sep Oct No Dec Jan Fe Mar Apr May Jun
other aquatic biota v b
Field sampling (fish, 23- 19- 2-9 3-10
plankton and benthic fauna) 30 27
Laboratory analysis of 2-6 28- 11- 12-
collected samples 30 14 15
Progress report

Budget by code for 2009 E.C.

 Code Birr
6114 10818
6212 8322
6213 1664
6215 3329
6217 13314
6218 6824
6219 6824
6223 5825
6231 41608
6232 1831
6241 10818
6243 5159
6244 5159
6245 6990
6252 19326
6256 5326
6271 10818
6312 8322
6313 1664
Total 153136

Outputs
 The level of infestation and coverage of invasive aquatic weeds mainly the water
hyacinth will be delineated.
 The impact of aquatic weed on the underwater climate such as light penetration, water
temperature, water chemistry will be known.
 The effect of alien aquatic weeds on the biodiversity, spatio-temporal distribution of
native plankton and benthic communities will be determined.
 The impact of invasive alien weeds on the fish diversity, reproductive biology and
fishing activities will be quantitatively assessed and recommendation measures
suggested.
Responsibilities (persons, centers)
 Responsible persons: Zenebe Tadesse; Adamneh Dagne; Aschalew Lakew & Fekadu Haile
mariam

National Fisheries and Aquatic Life Research Center, Sebeta

Monitoring and Evaluation Matrix

Method of Tools for

M&E Information to data collecting the Method of
Out put Objectives Indicators be collected collection information analysis
-
Activities
-
Inputs
-

References

 Dereje Tewabe (2015) Preliminary Survey of Water Hyacinth in Lake Tana, Ethiopia.
Glob J Allergy 1(1): 103.
 EEA, 2012. The impacts of invasive alien species in Europe. EEA Technical report No
16/2012. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012.
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/impacts-of-invasive-alien-species (accessed 12
March 2013).
 Gichuki, J., Omondi, R., Boera, P., Tom Okorut, T., SaidMatano, A., Jembe, T. and
Ofulla, A., 2012. Water Hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laubach Dynamics
and Succession in the Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria (East Africa): Implications forWater
 Quality and Biodiversity Conservation. The ScientificWorld Journal Volume 2012,
Article ID 106429, 10 pages doi:10.1100/2012/106429.
 Gopal, B., 1987. Aquatic Plant Studies 1. Water hyacinth. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
 Hejda, M., Pyšek, P. and Jarošík, V., 2009. Impact of invasive plants on the species
richness, diversity and composition of invaded communities. Journal of Ecology 97: 393–
403
 Kettunen, M., Genovesi, P., Gollasch, S., Pagad, S., Starfinger, U., ten Brink, P. and
Shine, C., 2009. Technical support to EU strategy on invasive species (IAS): assessment
of the impacts of IAS in Europe and the EU (final module report for the European
Commission). Institute for European Environmental Policy, Brussels.
 Patel, S. , 2012. Threats, management and envisaged utilizations of aquatic weed
Eichhornia crassipes: an overview. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:249–259. DOI
10.1007/s11157-012-9289-4.
 Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R. and Morrison, D., 2005. Update on the environmental and
economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecological
Economics 52(3), 273–288.
 Shanab, S,, Shalaby, E., Lightfoot, D. and El-Shemy, H., 2010. Allelopathic effects of
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). PLoS One 5(10):e13200.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013200.
 Rands, M., Adams, W., Bennun, L., Butchart, S., Clements, A., Coomes, D., Entwistle,
A., Hodge, I., Kapos, V., Scharlemann, J., Sutherland, W. and Vira, B., 2010.
Biodiversity conservation: Challenges beyond 2010. Science 329: 1298–1303.
 Téllez, T., López, E., Granado, G., Pérez, E., López, R., and Guzmán, J., 2008. The water
hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes: an invasive plant in the Guadiana River Basin (Spain).
Aquatic Invasions 3, 42-53.
 UNEP, 2012. Fifth Global Environment Outlook (GEO5): Environment for the future we
want. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.
 Vila, M., Espinar, J., Hejda, M., Hulme, P., Jarošík, V., Maron, J., Pergl, J., Schaffner,
U., Sun, Y. and Pyšek, P., 2011. Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a meta-
analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecology Letters 14:
702–708.
  Villamagna, A. and Murphy, B., 2010. Ecological and socio-economic impacts of
invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): a review. Freshwater Biology (2010) 55,
282–298 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02294.x.
 Wilgen, B, and Lange, W., 2011. The costs and benefits of biological control of invasive
alien plants in South Africa. African Entomology 19(2): 504–514.
 Xu, H., Qiang, S., Genovesi, P., Ding, H., Wu, J., Meng, L., Han, Z., Miao, J., Hu, B.,
Guo, J., Sun, H., Huang, C., Lei, J., Le, Z., Zhang, X., He, S., Wu, Y., Zheng, Z., Chen,
L., Jarošík, V. and Pyšek, P., 2012. An inventory of invasive alien species in China.
NeoBiota 15: 1–26. doi: 10.3897/neobiota.15.3575.
 Zhang, Y., Zhang, D., Barrett, S., 2010. Genetic uniformity characterises the invasive
spread of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), a clonal aquatic plant. Molecular
Ecology 19: 1774-1786.

Activity 3: Adaptation of mitigation measures to reduce the impact of water hyacinth

Background and justification

Water hyacinth is an aquatic plant which can live and reproduce floating freely on the surface of
fresh waters or can be anchored in mud. Plant size ranges from a few inches to a meter in height.
The plant originated in the Amazon Basin and was introduced into many parts of the world as an
ornamental garden pond plant due to its beauty. The vegetation reproduction is asexual and takes
place at a rapid rate under preferential conditions (Herfjord et al. 1994). Originally from the
Amazon Basin, its entry into Africa, Asia, Australia, North America and Europe was facilitated
by human activities (Dagno et al. 2012). It is particularly suited to tropical and sub- tropical
climates and has become a problem plant see the map on "The World's Worst Weeds" edited by
Holm et al (1991). Similar situation happened in Ethiopia, where water hyacinth is believed to be
introduced into Aba-Samuel dam as ornamental plant in the 1950s. Infestation of water hyacinth
in Ethiopia has also been manifested on a large scale in many water bodies of the Gambella area,
Lake Ellen in the Rift Valley and Lake Tana (Fessehaie 2012). Currently it spreads and infests
other Rift Valley lakes as well such as Lakes Koka, Chamo and Ziway.

Its rate of proliferation under certain circumstances is extremely rapid and it can spread to cause
infestations over large areas of water causing a variety of problems. There are already many
papers giving valuable information about the noxious effects of water hyacinth. It grows in mats
up to 2 meters thick which can reduce light and oxygen, change water chemistry, affect flora and
fauna and cause significant increase in water loss due to evapotranspiration. It also causes
practical problems for navigation and fishing, blockage of irrigation, drainage, hydropower and
water supply systems (Achmad, 1971; Desougi & Obeid, 1978; Gopal, 1987; Holm et al., 1991).
It also affects the trophic structure and food webs (Gerber et al., 2009), ecosystem processes
(Ehrenfeld, 2003), hydrological cycles, out-competing all other species growing in the vicinity
and posing a threat to aquatic biodiversity (Patel 2012). Besides suppressing the growth of native
plants and negatively affecting microbes, water hyacinth prevents the growth and abundance of
phytoplankton under large mats, ultimately affecting fisheries (Gichuki et al. 2012). It also
causes oxygen depletion and reduced water quality (EEA 2012).

Several mitigation measures are suggested by various authors. Some of the popular control
mechanisms used for preventing the spread of or eradication of water hyacinth are biological,
chemical, physical control and reduction by utilization. However, existing methods have often
been insufficient to contain the aggressive propagation of the weed and viability of its seeds
despite substantial monetary investments over the years (Gichuki et al. 2012), mainly due to lack
of continued policy and management support by governments. Chemical control is the least
favored due the unknown long-term effects on the environment and the communities with which
it comes into contact. Physical control, using mechanical mowers, dredgers or manual extraction
methods, is used widely but is costly and cannot deal with very large infestations. It is not
suitable for large infestations and is generally regarded as a short-term solution. Biological
control (using insects and fungi) is the most widely favored long- term control method, being
relatively easy to use and arguably providing the only economic and sustainable control.

Research into the utilization and related technologies for the control of water hyacinth have been
tested over the last few decades (Ndimele et al. 2011). When sun-dried, water hyacinth has been
found to be rich in protein, vitamins and minerals and serves as a high quality feedstock for some
non-ruminant animals, poultry and fishery in Indonesia, China, the Philippines and Thailand (Lu
et al. 2010, Saha and Ray 2011). It is also used as fertilizers and biogas production (Patel,
2012). Despite the presence of invasive aquatic weeds in several water bodies in Ethiopia,
information either on the control mechanisms or on the utilization of the weeds is still scarce. It
is therefore timely to investigate on the appropriate controlling methods and possibility of
converting water hyacinth into usable products and thereby reducing its effect on the aquatic
ecosystem.

Objective/s/
  To examine biological (using weevils) controlling methods of water hyacinth under
controlled environment
 To use water hyacinth as fertilizer
 To convert water hyacinth into usable products (fish feed ingredient)
 To promote the use of water hyacinth for making various handicrafts (basket)

Materials and Methods

Literature review

Dusk review will be conducted to collect information on water hyacinth mitigation measures and
other possible uses applied at regional and national level.

Plant material collection

Water hyacinth will be collected from Lake Koka and will be planted under controlled condition
in green house at NFALRC. Growing water hyacinth will continue till its biomass per square
meter reaches similar to that in the lake. The nutrient requirement of the water hyacinth will be
met by applying commercial fertilizers.

Biological agent collection

The weevil will be obtained from Wonji Sugar Factory where they also use to control the water
hyacinth. Standard pre and post-release sampling protocol will be used to monitor and evaluate
the establishment, spread and impact of the weevil on the water hyacinth.

Laboratory analysis

Chemical composition of water hyacinth will be analyzed in the laboratory to convert water
hyacinth into usable products such as fish feed ingredient and fertilizer.

Water quality analysis

Water sample from underneath the water hyacinth and open water will be analyzed for water
quality parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand (BOD),
pH, nitrate, phosphate. In-situ measurement for water quality parameters will be conducted three
times a day (morning, noon and late afternoon).

Fish feed preparation

Based on the laboratory analysis on water hyacinth chemical composition, feeds of common carp
fingerling will be formulated using dried water hyacinth at different level inclusion. Growth
performance of fingerlings will be evaluated for 6 months.

Fertilizer preparation from water hyacinth

 Liquid fertilizer and compost will be prepared from water hyacinth. Water hyacinth can be used
on the land either as a green manure or as compost. As a green manure it can be either ploughed
into the ground or used as mulch. The plant is ideal for composting. After removing the plant
from the water it can be left to dry for a few days before being mixed with ash, soil and some
animal manure. The mixture will be left in piles to compost which can be applied directly to the
soil. Both the liquid and composted water hyacinth will be applied to compare their effect on the
growth of vegetables against the commercial fertilizer.

Training of farmers on the possible uses of water hyacinth

Farmers particularly women from around Lake Koka will be selected for practical training on
the utilization of water hyacinth to make different handcrafts (e.g. basket).

Statistical analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA), sigma plot version, t-test will be employed for various tests and
comparisions.

Location:

Lakes Koka, Chamo, Tana

Duration:

2009-2011

Work plan : 2009 EC

2009 EC
Sub activities Months
Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Literature review
Conduct a survey on water hyacinth infested
water bodies, Lake Koka
Collect water hyacinth from lake Koka

Grow water hyacinth under green house at

NFALRC
Water hyacinth chemical composition
laboratory analysis
2010 EC
Collect biological agent (the weevil) from
Wonji Sugar Factory
Grow the weevil at NFLARC
Running the biological control experiment
2011EC
Grow water hyacinth under green house at
NFALRC
Running fish feeding experiment
Running vegetable growing experiment
Training of farmers on the possible uses of
water hyacinth

Budget: (3 years)

884533

Budget by code for 2009 EC.

Budget code Birr

6114 9986
6212 8654
6213 1664
6215 3329
6217 13647
6218 6990
6219 6990
6223 6990
6231 43272
6232 1664
6241 9986
6243 4660
6244 4660
6245 6324
6252 5991
6256 6324
6271 18474
6312 41608
6313 3329
Total 204543

Output :

 Manual on the possible mitigation measures and implementation strategies will be

compiled
 Responsibilities (persons, centers):

Centers: NFALRC, BFALRC

Responsible persons: Adamneh Dagne, ZenebeTadesse, Aschalew Lakew, Yared Tigabu,

Derege Tewabe (from BFALRC)

Monitoring and Evaluation Matrix:

Title of the activity: Adaptation of mitigation measures to reduce the impact of water hyacinth

Method of Tools for Method

M & E Information to be data collecting the of
Out put Objectives Indicators collected collection information analysis

Activities

Inputs

-
References

Achmad S. (1971) Problems and control of aquatic weeds in Indonesian open waters. Pages
107- 113 in: Tropical Weeds: Some Problems, Biology and Control, M. Soerjani, Ed., Proc. 1st
Indonesian Weed Science Conference. Biotrop Bull. 2.

Desougi, L.A. and Obeid, M. (1978) Some aspects of the evapotranspiration of Eichhornia
crassipes and some other aquatic weeds. Pages 391-398 in: Proc. 5th EWRS International
Symposium on Aquatic Weeds, EWRS Secretariat, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Dagno, K., Lahlali, R., Diourte, M., and Haissam, J. (2012) Fungi occurring on waterhyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes [Martius] Solms-Laubach) in Niger River in Mali and their evaluation as
Mycoherbicides. J. Aquat. Plant Manage. 50: 25-32.

Eden, Robert (1987) Water Hyacinth Utilisation, Unpublished Thesis, Warwick University

EEA (2012) The impacts of invasive alien species in Europe. EEA Technical Report No
16/2012. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

Ehrenfeld JG (2003) Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes.
Ecosystems 6:503–523

Fessehaie, R., 2012. Status of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in Ethiopia: Challenges and
response. In: Berihun Tefera, Workiye Worie and Melaku Wale (eds.). Proceedings of the
Second National Workshop on Challenges and Opportunities of Water Resources Management
in Tana Basin, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Blue Nile Water Institute - Bahir Dar University, Bahir
Dar, Ethiopia, 159-166.

Gerber, E., Cortat, G., Hinz, H.L., Blossey, B., Katovich, E. and Skinner, L. (2009), Biology and
host specificity of Ceutorhynchus scrobicollis (Curculionidae; Coleoptera), a root -crown mining
weevil proposed as biological control agent against Alliaria petiolatain North America,
Biocontrol Science and Technology, 19 (2), pp. 117-138.

Gichuki, J., Omondi, R., Boera, P., Tom Okorut, T., SaidMatano, A., Jembe, T. and Ofulla, A.
(2012) Water Hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laubach Dynamics and Succession
in the Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria (East Africa): Implications forWater Quality and
Biodiversity Conservation. The ScientificWorld Journal Volume 2012, pp.10.

Gopal, B. (1987) Water Hyacinth. Aquatic Plant Studies 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Harley,L. S., Julien, M. H., and Wright, A. D. (1997) Water Hyacinth: A Tropical World wide
Problem and Methods for its Control, Proceedings of the first meeting of the International Water
Hyacinth Consortium, World Bank
Herfjord, T., Osthagen, H. And Saelthun, N. R. (1994) The Water Hyacinth, Norwegian Agency
for Development Cooperation.

Hill, G., Waage, J. and Phiri, G. (1997) The Water hyacinth Problem in Tropical Africa,
Proceedings of the first meeting of the International Water Hyacinth Consortium, World Bank

Holm, L.G., Plucknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V. and Herberger, J.P. (1991) The World's Worst Weeds,
Distribution and Biology. Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, Florida, USA.

Lu, J., Zhu, L., Hu, G. and Wu, J., 2010. Integrating animal manure-based bioenergy production
with invasive species control: A case study at Tongren pig farm in China. Biomass Bioenerg 34:
821–827.

National Academy of Sciences (1976) Making Aquatic Weeds Useful: Some Perspectives for
Developing Countries

Ndimele, P., Kumolu-Johnson, C. and Anetekhai, M. (2011) The invasive aquatic macrophyte,
water hyacinth {Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solm-Laubach: Pontedericeae}: problems and
prospects. Res J Environ Sci 5:509– 520.

Patel, S. (2012) Threats, management and envisaged utilizations of aquatic weed Eichhornia
crassipes: an overview. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2012) 11:249–259

Saha, S. and Ray, A.K. (2011) Evaluation of Nutritive Value of Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) Leaf Meal in Compound Diets for Rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822) Fingerlings
after Fermentation with Two Bacterial Strains Isolated from Fish Gut. Turkish Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 11: 199-207 (2011)

Shanab, S,, Shalaby, E., Lightfoot, D. and El-Shemy, H. (2010) Allelopathic effects of water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). PLoS One 5(10):e13200.

Activity 4: Socio-economic impact of invasive aquatic weeds on fishers and local

communities
Background

Nowadays the impact of invasive aquatic plant called water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), is
one of the world’s most invasive aquatic plants known to cause significant ecological and socio-
economic effects. Consequently, the severity of the problem is also varying according to the uses
of water body by the community. For instance, water hyacinth can be affect the fishery by
blocking access to fishing ground with the consequence of delayed market access and increase
costs of material and labor for fishing (Kateregga & Sterner, 2009).

Regardless of the infestation, the economic cost of controlling water hyacinth is a faction of rate
of removal, cost of labor and frequency of treatment. Therefore, based on the extent of
infestation and type of control, each factor will vary. For example, biological control requires
time to build a large enough population of the biological agent to have significant effects on the
water hyacinth population (Center, 1994; Center et al., 1999). Valuating of impacts of invasive
aquatic weeds are very difficult and many dimensional. In Socio-economic perspective, it
presents a problem for large community who are directly or indirectly dependent on aquatic
ecosystem services. The most direct impacts are including to boating access, navigability and
recreation in freshwater systems, access to fishing grounds and fish catchability are also affected
(Kateregga & Sterner, 2009). In addition to this, pip system for agriculture, industry and
municipal water supply are also affected (Villamagna and Murphy, 2010).

In terms of invasive plant management, perhaps the most important factor to consider is time of
re-growth. Many management decisions are made based on ‘least-cost control’ without
consideration for the temporal duration of control efforts. This is most important in systems
where permanent eradication is not a feasible option. Mechanical shredding of water hyacinth is
cheaper than harvesting (Greenfield, Blankinship & McNabb, 2006), but there are significant
consequences of allowing the plant to die and decompose within the system. Although
mechanical control may initially be less expensive than an herbicide treatment, over time the
chemical control may cost less due to the slower re-growth time associated with the herbicide
treatments. However, in countries like the U.S.A., recent permitting and monitoring requirements
associated with chemical control programs may significantly increase the overall cost of
implementation (Greenfield et al., 2007).

In Ethiopia water hyacinth first introduced into Aba-Samuel dam as ornamental plant in the
1950s. It became very popular within very short period of time since it has introduced currently
it spread and infests lakes Tana, Chamo, Koka, Elen and western Ethiopia rivers Baro, Akobo.
Lack of knowledge and awareness about the weed and its possible controlling mechanism has
most likely speed up the frequency of transmission from one place to another. Regarding to the
controlling mechanisms, the community around the areas are using indigenous knowledge and
have been apply the same controlling mechanisms which is cutting the node of the plant. In most
areas the controlling mechanisms has aggravate the infestation and speed up the emergence of
the weed in to water bodies of the country. By covering the massive areas of the lakes and
decreasing abundance of the fish, it directly affect the regular fishing activities by taking long
time to fishing (more labor and additional cost) so that it delays the accessibility of the
commercially important fish species to the market.
Objectives
 To assess the impact of invasive aquatic weeds on fishers and local communities
 To determine the value of cost of impact on the livelihood of fishers and local
communities in Lakes Tana, Koka and Chamo
Materials and methods
The stated preference (SP) methods and the revealed preference (RP) methods are the two
standard methods of valuation of environmental economics The stated preference includes
techniques such as Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) that inquires people directly about their
willingness to pay for environmental goods or willingness to accept compensation for reduction
in environmental quality, asking the respondents to describe their behavior in a hypothetical
situation.
Impacts are not usually reflected in our traditional economic market system. In these cases a non-
market approach, such as contingent valuation, can be used to account for the impacts (Holl &
Howarth, 2000). Contingent valuation is a relatively time-consuming option, and therefore it is
likely under-used in attempts to quantify the costs and benefits. But it is also important to
recognize that biological impacts and socio-economic impacts may not be immediately realized.
Instead damages may increase over time or as a result of synergistic biological or economic
interactions (Parker et al., 1999). For example, reduced dissolved oxygen may occur as a result
of dense water hyacinth mats, but it is the risk of fish kills that would likely draw socio-
economic attention (Villamagna and Murphy, 2010).

The rationale for using CV for damage assessments is that environmental accidents often affect
the quality of environmental services for which there are no observable market values. CV
provides a means of obtaining monetary measures of welfare changes in order to evaluate and
justify appropriate compensation payments (Desvousges et al., 2010). To interpret CV values as
welfare measures needs several important assumptions based on our objectives. In addition CV
specifies a parametric model that relates responses to open-ended or dichotomous-choice
questions to such explanatory variables as age, income, and measures of environmental concern.
Location: Lake Tana, Koka and Chamo
Duration: 2008-2012 E.C

Work plan:

Activities Unit Annual Month AND date Remar

plan H N M T H T T Y M M G S k
i I
Literature Doc 25 1 1 5
review 0 0
Proposal No 1 1
refinement
Asses the Days 5 9-
existing status 13
of the coverage
and mitigating
measures by the
community
Develop semi Doc 1 13
structured -
questionnaire to 30
collect data
Survey (data No 2 1- 20
collection) trips 3 -
0 28
No 80 4 40
respo 0
ndents
Quarter report No 4 1 1 1 1
report
s
Progress report No of 1 1
report

Budget by code:

Budget Annual Month AND date Remark

code plan H N M T H T Ti Y M MI G S
6114
6212 2,000 500 1,000 500
6213
 6217 12,000 3000 4,500 4,500
6231 30,000 6000 12,000 12,000
6232 1,000 500 500
6252
6256 700 300 400
6113 13,000 3000 5,000 5,000
Total 117400

Expected outputs
 Quantified and determined level of impact
 The value of cost of impact of aquatic weeds
Location: Lake Tana, Koka, Chamo
Duration: 2008-2012
Responsible persons: Hiwot Teshome, Abebe Cheffo and Yared Tigabu
 Monitoring and Evaluation Matrix

Activity title: Monitoring and Evaluating the Socio-economic impact of invasive aquatic weeds on fishers and local communities
M & E Information to Method of Tools for collecting
Out put Objectives Indicators be collected data collection the information Method of analysis
Quantitative Observations Sample stockholders, Individual Individual and Checklists Simple descriptive
information and on time individual experience, group statistics such as
follow up respondents knowledge discussion mean, average
and trend on using frequency of
invasive checklists occurrence of the
aquatic weeds weed in lakes
Quantified and Ensure that HHs characteristics, Primary and Face to face Structured Quantitative data
measured impact important economic and secondary interview questionnaire analysis using
parameters have institutional data contingent valuation
captured & characteristics method (CVM)
surveyed
value of cost of Ensure that the HHs characteristics, respondents Face to face Structured Quantitative data
impact of aquatic cost of impact economic and opinion and interview, questionnaire analysis using
weeds has captured institutional willingness to discussion including contingent valuation
properly characteristics and accept and with willingness to pay method (CVM)
respondents pay on costs respondents and accept question
willingness responses scenario
References

 M. Villamagna and B. R. Murphy (2010) Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A. Ecological
and socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) special
review: Freshwater Biology 55, 282–298.
 Center T.D. (ed.) (1994) Biological Control of Weeds: Water Hyacinth and Water
Lettuce. Intercept, Andover.
 Center T.D., Dray F.A., Jubinsky G.P., Grodowltz M., de Anda J., Shear H., Maniak U.
& Riedel G. (1999) Biological control of water hyacinth under conditions of maintenance
management: Can herbicides and insects be integrated? Environmental Management, 23,
241–256.
 Desvousges, W. H., Johnson, F. R., Dunford, R. W., Boyle, K. J., Hudson, S. P., Wilson,
K. N. (2010). Measuring Nonuse Damages Using Contingent Valuation: An
Experimental Evaluation of Accuracy, 2nd ed. RTI Press publication No.BK-0001-1009.
 Greenfield B.K., Blankinship M. & McNabb T.J. (2006) Control costs, operation, and
permitting issues for non-chemical plant control: Case studies in the San Francisco Bay-
Delta Region, California. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 44, 40–49.
 Greenfield B.K., Siemering G.S., Andrews J.C., Rajan M., Andrews S.P. & Spencer D.F.
(2007) Mechanical shredding of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): effects on water
quality in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, California. Estuaries and Coasts, 30,
627– 640.
 Holl K.D. & Howarth R.B. (2000) Paying for restoration. Restoration Ecology, 8, 260–
267.
 Kateregga E. & Sterner T. (2009) Lake Victoria fish stocks and the effects of water
hyacinth. The Journal of Environment & Development, 18, 62–78.