See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/271740214

Use of combustion methods for calorimetry in the applied physiology of

plants

Article in Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry · April 2014

DOI: 10.1007/s10973-014-3716-4

CITATIONS READS

9 580

3 authors:

František Hnilička Helena Hnilickova

Czech University of Life Sciences Prague Czech University of Life Sciences Prague
84 PUBLICATIONS 730 CITATIONS 50 PUBLICATIONS 524 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Vaclav Hejnak
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague
78 PUBLICATIONS 426 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Institucional project: S project by Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports CR View project

Nutririsk View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Vaclav Hejnak on 11 February 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

J Therm Anal Calorim (2015) 120:411–417
DOI 10.1007/s10973-014-3716-4
Use of combustion methods for calorimetry in the applied
physiology of plants
F. Hnilička • H. Hniličková • V. Hejnák
Received: 13 November 2013 / Accepted: 17 February 2014 / Published online: 18 March 2014
Ó Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2014
Abstract As a thermodynamics method, combustion
calorimetry has a wide spectrum of uses in the applied
physiology of plants. During evaluations, it suitably com-
bines its physical relations with properties of living
organisms, thus providing a solid overview concerning the
exchange of energy between a plant and its environment.
Measuring photosynthetic rate, expressed through changes
of energy content, is comparable with gasometric methods,
because the course of photosynthesis and the energy con-
tent in leaves dependent on their ontogenetic development
is similar. Combustion calorimetry enables monitoring the
changes of accumulation of assimilated nutrients and their
translocation between the individual organs of the plant.
The close relation between the creation of dry matter and
the accumulation of energy-rich substances into the plant
body is apparent from the acquired experimental data.
Based on the methods of combustion calorimetry, it is
possible to determine the relationship between the source
and the sink. It is further possible to use this method as one
of the detection methods to determine changes in metab-
olism and the degree of resistance of plants, as well as
ecosystems, under stress conditions.
Keywords Calorimetry  Photosynthesis 
Energy content  Biomass
F. Hnilička (&)  H. Hniličková  V. Hejnák
Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources,
Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Czech University
of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6,
Suchdol 165 21, Czech Republic
e-mail: hnilicka@af.czu.cz
Introduction
Combustion calorimetry is a method combining the physics
specialization of thermodynamics with other scientific
disciplines. For example, it is used in the evaluation of
biomaterials [1], in medicine [2], in the chemical industry
[3], in the production of polymers [4], glass [5], and con-
struction materials [6], etc. But it is also used in power
engineering, production of fuels, explosives, construction
engineering (cement works, limekilns, etc.), as noted by
Lamprecht [7]. Combustion calorimetry is irreplaceable in
the waste management, food and animal-feed industries,
but additionally one of the important methods for basic
research in the field of natural sciences. However, in most
cases, it is a destructive method.
According to Šesták [8], the study of the influences of
heat on material has a very long history. Brown [9] states
that, in the second half of the 18th century, Black created
the first calorimeter (1760), followed by Lavoisier et
Laplace (1784). In the beginning of the 19th century,
specifically in 1813, Count Rumford focused on burning
wood, oils, and alcohol (B. Thompson). Yet, the calori-
metric bomb was only created in 1885 by Berthelot, who
was the first to fill the combustion bomb with pure oxygen
under high pressure. In this case, we can already talk about
a calorimeter [10]. Currently, combustion calorimetry is
one of the most developed methods in thermodynamics.
This technique is based on the principles of energy
transformation, requiring a temperature difference based
on its transfer through conduction, conversion, and
radiation [11].
In the case of plant physiology, calorimetry was and is
used to establish metabolic activity and accumulations of
CO2 [12, 13]. During their growth, plants release heat, as
first measured by Pierce in 1908 by differential calorimetry
123
412
[14]. Prat [15] defined many properties of plant metabo-
lism, using calorimetric techniques. According to him, the
flow of energy is a function of cellular division and thus it
is possible to use combustion calorimetry to monitor the
growth processes of plants.
From an energy point of view, plants or ecosystems are
open systems. They are systems dependent on external
energy, as documented in the following mathematical
relation (1):
Qn ¼ Iv þ Ii þ Im þ F  H  Ie  Ex  T  R ð1Þ
Qn the energy balance of an ecosystem, net intake of
energy into the ecosystem;
Iv irradiation in the visible range;
Ii irradiation in the invisible range of spectrum,
Ie energy radiated by the ecosystem (by soil, water,
organisms) into the space,
Ex the amount of energy bound in exported organic
matter,
Im the amount of energy bound in imported organic
matter,
T energy used during evapotranspiration,
H exchange of heat with the surroundings,
F energy fixed in gross primary production
(photosynthesis),
R respiration and decay processes.
The ratio between photosynthesis and respiration has a
profound influence on the total energy balance of plants as
well as their ecosystem. Should that difference be equal to
zero, the plant or ecosystem is in balance from the point of
view of energy balance. Should the photosynthesis be
higher than respiration, the biomass grows and the plant or
ecosystem is developing. To the contrary, should respira-
tion be higher than photosynthesis, a degradation of bio-
mass of the plants or ecosystems takes place, and the
biomass is being consumed.
Therefore, an energy analysis of plants enables us to
better understand the ecosystem from the point of view of
input, transformation and output of energy [16]. For
example, Lin and Lin [17], when studying the values of
combustion heat of two dominant species (Castanopsis
eyrei and Pinus taiwanensis) in a typical vegetative envi-
ronment on Wuyi Mountain, discovered that the content of
ash, gross calorific value as well as ash free caloric values,
depends on the plant part, but also on the season of the
year. In the first species, recorded content of ash ranged
from 0.69 to 4.09 %, gross calorific value from 17.06 to
20.28 kJ g-1 and ash free caloric values from 17.46 to
21.00 kJ g-1 of dry matter. In the second mentioned spe-
cies, the measured values were 0.58–3.14 % ash, gross
123
F. Hnilička et al.
calorific value 16.27–22.14 kJ g-1, and ash free caloric
values 16.60 upto 22.58 kJ g-1 of dry matter.
The combination of calorimetry in establishing the mass
of the biomass and measuring metabolism rate enables us
to characterize the growth and effectiveness of using basic
environmental factors [18].
The content of energy in plant biomass
The transformation of solar energy into energy chemically
bound in organic compounds, which compose approxi-
mately 95 % of the dry matter, is the basis for the creation
of plant biomass. The remaining approximate 5 % are
composed of unburnable parts, that is, ash. The ratio of
unburnable parts is considerably different between indi-
vidual plant organs, as well as between plants from dif-
ferent locations, as concluded, for example, by Li et al.
[19]; Erol et al. [20]; Kuklová et al. [21]; and Hnilička and
Hniličková [22].
Energy accumulates and is stored in the organic com-
pounds of carbon, which can also be expressed as the
calorific value. According to Werther et al. [23] and Wil-
liams et al. [24], this can be defined as the energy content
of a biomass. Energy is lost in the form of heat during
oxidation but the released CO2 may be repeatedly assimi-
lated during photosynthesis [25].
Luxmoore [26] and Silva et al. [27] state that, in the
relation of growth and photosynthesis, there is a coordi-
nated bond. In this bond, the photosynthetic assimilation
ensures input and energy sources for an entire set of growth
and morphogenetic processes, including differential
growth. The activity of this plant growth, in reverse, affects
the photosynthesis rate, consumption and translocation of
created assimilate substances for the growth of vegetative
and generative organs.
As apparent from the above, the content of energy in
plants can be established on the basis of bond energy or on
the basis of gross calorific value.
Bond energy (E) is the measure of bond strength in a
chemical bond. It is the heat required to break one Mole of
molecules into their individual atoms. Stokes [28] states that
the organic matter created through the photosynthetic assimi-
lation of carbon dioxide, particularly carbohydrates and lipids,
contains bonds of lower energy content that can subsequently
be oxidized in energy metabolism, as apparent from the bond
energy values. These are particularly energy bonds of the
types: C–C (348 kJ mol-1), C–H (411 kJ mol-1), N–C
(305 kJ mol-1), and N–H (386 kJ mol-1). The bonds energy
heat C=O is approximately 799 kJ mol-1. According to
Obernberger et al. [29], the content of C and H positively
contributes to the values of heat of combustion in the biomass,
whereas the content of oxygen has the opposite effect. The
Use of combustion methods for calorimetry
positive influence of hydrogen is primarily given by the crea-
tion of water.
Telmo and Lousada [30] and Villanueva et al. [31] state
that, in plant biomass, the content of energy is influenced
by the volume of water. Taraba [32] also comes to a similar
conclusion in regard to coal. According to Strašil and
Weger [33] the energy content of the phytomass depends
on the content of water, where the energy content of the
phytomass increases with the decrease of water content.
According to these authors, this dependency is very strong
and may be expressed through the following Eq. (2)
 
Q ¼ 11:715 ln m% ðdry matterÞ þ 17:929 kJ g1 DM
ð2Þ
Another way to express energy content is the values of
gross calorific value. According to regulation ČSN ISO
1928 [34], the gross calorific value is defined as an absolute
value of specific energy of burning, in joules per unit of
mass of a solid fuel, released in burning the fuel in oxygen
in a calorimetric bomb under stipulated conditions. It can
be concluded, based on the analyses of chemically pure
matter that among the matter with the lowest content of
energy is oxalic acid (-9.2 kJ g-1). Also glycine
(-8.9 kJ g-1) and malic acid (-10.0 kJ g-1) have low
energy content. They are followed by pyruvic acid
(-13.2 kJ g-1) and carbohydrates (for example glucose
-15.4 kJ g-1, sucrose -16.5 kJ g-1, starch -17.4 kJ g-1
and cellulose -17.6 kJ g-1), lignin has -26.3 kJ g-1.
Generally, carbohydrates have on average -17.2 kJ g-1,
proteins -23.6 kJ g-1, and lipids -39.6 kJ g-1. The
largest content of energy-rich matter has terpenes, in which
the average energy content is recorded as -46.9 kJ g-1.
According to literature data, the energy content in 1 g of
fresh biomass is 8.4 kJ g-1 as stated, for example, by
Golley [35]. To the contrary, 1 g of plant biomass dry
matter contains on average 16.7 kJ energy, according to
Paine [36]. This content is bound by the ratio and mutual
combinations of the individual matter, such as cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin, to a minor degree, also volatile
matters [37].
As apparent from the work of Zhou et al. [38], there are
very tight correlations between the content of nitrogenous
matter, nitrogen and the total lipids on the values of net
caloric value of selected species of wood and the individual
plant organs. According to these authors, these relations
were not confirmed in gross caloric value.
Therefore, as apparent from the above, the content of the
individual matter and their ratio in the plant body influence
the value of heat of combustion, which also results in the
differences in the energy content of individual organs of
plants. For example, root crops have the lowest heat of
413
90
80
70
60
Total energy
50
40
Roots
30 Stems
Leaves
20
Ears
10 Seeds
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Total dry mass
Fig. 1 Linear correlation between total energy content (kJ) and dry
matter (g) in different parts of wheat’s plants [46]
combustion (on average 16.4 kJ g-1 for the main product),
because their tubers contain large amounts of sugar or
starch. The relation between energy content and carbohy-
drates is described, for example, in the work of Hnilička
et al. [39]. As apparent from their work, the energy content
in grain crop seeds is primarily provided by the content of
starch in the endosperm compared to other contained
matter. According to these authors, the following regres-
sive equation can be created:
Q ¼ 1:40  2:57  cm ðlipidsÞ þ 1:00  cm ðproteinsÞ
 
þ 2:45  cm ðstarchÞ kJ g1 DM ð3Þ
To the contrary, the highest heat of combustion is in 1 g
of dry matter of oil-bearing crops (on average 25.6 kJ g-1),
because these seeds contain large amounts of fatty acids.
Compared to generative organs, vegetative organs have a
lower content of energy [38, 40], while leaves have a
higher content of ash compared to stems and generative
organs [41]. The content of energy in reproductive organs
primarily rises due to transport of energy-rich matter and
their transformation into reserve matter.
Translocation of assimilate substances, energy, and dry
matter in the plant body
The accumulation and distribution of dry matter into
individual parts of plant organs is related to photosynthesis
rate. The amount of produced dry matter is dependent on
the biological characteristics of plant growth, as well as on
the optimization of their growing conditions. Optimization
of plant growth conditions is given by the technological
processes (for example, intentional inputs of energy into
growing), as concluded by Bláha et al. [42].
123
414
The accumulation of dry matter and translocation of
assimilated substances arise from Thornton’s rule [43].
According to this rule, the plant uses energy better, when
fewer assimilate substances are required for ensuring bio-
synthesis. In such cases, more assimilate substances remain
for the production of biomass, which is the goal of growing
all agricultural crops. Monitoring the changes in growth
using calorimetric measurements therefore has its justifi-
cation, because it shows us the transport and utilization of
assimilate substances within the plant body and in relation
to sink and source [44].
The relation between the creation of dry matter and the
content of energy-rich matter was the focus of the work of
Hickman and Pitelka [45], Hnilička [46]. Hnilička [46]
concludes that within the plant body there is a linear
relation between the creation of dry matter and total energy
content (gross calorific value), as documented in Fig. 1.
The growth of biomass expressed through dry matter is
limited to a considerable degree by the photosynthetic rate
of carbon assimilation. Hnilička et al. [13] cover the close
exponential dependency between energy content in dry
matter and photosynthetic rates in plants of Triticum aes-
tivum, as apparent from Fig. 2.
Ontogenetic dependencies of energy content
and photosynthesis rate
The monitoring of photosynthetic rates of assimilation in
leaves of plants over the course of ontogenetic develop-
ment, depending on a number of factors of the external
environment [47], technological processes or the genotype
of the plant, is one of the most widespread research
activities in plant physiology. Photosynthetic rates are
usually established through gasometry, expressed as net
photosynthesis after discounting respiration in lmol of
CO2 used per unit of leaf surface per time period.
Rea and Cale [48] conclude that, in the photosynthesis
of Triticum aestivum, there is a gradual increase of pho-
tosynthetic rate per surface unit from emergence up to the
phase of booting or flowering. To the contrary, the increase
of dry matter in the above-ground biomass extends to the
early mealy ripening. This trend is also confirmed by
Hnilička et al. [13], in modeling the dependency of pho-
tosynthetic rates and energy content over the course of
plant ontogeny. The model of this dependency during the
ontogeny of Triticum aestivum is depicted in Fig. 3. As
apparent from the graph, the photosynthetic rate and the
related creation of energy-rich matter increased up to the
phase of flowering (DC 69). Subsequently, due to the
senescence of leaves and transport of assimilate substances
into the generative organs (caryopsis), there is decrease of
content of energy-rich matter. As apparent from the graph
shown, the results of two different methods for establishing
123
F. Hnilička et al.
12
11
Net photosynthesis rate
10
9
8
7
6
5
12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.2 13.4 13.6
Gross calorific value
Fig. 2 Exponential dependency between gross calorific value of
leaves (kJ g-1 of dry matter) and net photosynthesis rate—Pn—(lmol
CO2 m-2 s-1) in Triticum aestivum. The exponential equation is
Q = 0.006*e0.5551Pn; coefficient of correlation (r) = 0.93 and level of
significance (p) = 0.0003 at a = 0.05 [13]
photosynthetic rates, that is gasometric and calorimetric,
are similar. For this reason, the method of combustion
calorimetry can be used for establishing the rate of pho-
tosynthesis and transport of assimilate substances within
the plant body.
Also, Hejnák [49] demonstrates a gradual increase of
photosynthetic rates as well as energy content in plants of
Spinacia oleracea, depending on their ontogenetic devel-
opment, when their highest content of energy and photo-
synthetic rate was measured in their leaves during the
blooming period.
The ontogenetic dependencies can be monitored, not
only in agriculturally significant crops, as evident from the
work of Hellmold and Schmidt [50] who established the
net energy content in four most significant plants in beech
forests in calcareous soil. According to them, the energy
content of above-ground organs decreased over the course
of vegetation, while the trend was opposite in the roots.
As apparent from the above, establishing the biomass
mass of primary plant production and its energy equivalent
is, therefore, one of the methods of quantitative and qual-
itative descriptions of vegetation and analysis of functions,
as well as a tool for evaluating the production capacity of
different plant communities in optimal as well as stress
conditions.
The influence of environmental abiotic factors
on the energy content in biomass
Over the course of their lifespan, plants are exposed to the
widely variable conditions of the external environment.
These may slow down their life functions, damage
Use of combustion methods for calorimetry 415

15 15 13.00 Control variant

Photosynthesis
14 rate Stress variant
12.50
13 Energy 14
12.00
Photosynthesis rate

Gross calorific value

12

Energy
11 13 11.50

10 11.00
9 12
10.50
8

7 11 10.00

6 9.50
Jersey Malz Valtický
5 10
DC 49 DC 51 DC 55 DC 61 DC 65 DC 69 DC 71 DC 77 DC 81 DC 91 Cultivars
Ontogenetic phase
Fig. 4 Varietal differences of gross calorific value (kJ g-1) in the dry
Fig. 3 Relation of gross calorific value (kJ g-1 DM) and photosyn- content of barley leaves [55]
thesis rate PN (lmol CO2 m-2 s-1) in ontogeny of Triticum aestivum
[13]

individual organs and, in extreme cases, lead to the death of Bláha et al. [42, 60] states that a combination of stress factors—
the plant. The unfavorable effects of the environment are drought, low pH, and high temperature caused a decrease of
called stressors [51]. The subject of stressor-impact on the energy in caryopsis of Triticum aestivum by 1.06 % compared
content of energy in plant biomass is very complicated to plants from control (stress-free) conditions.
because, under natural conditions, stressors do not usually
affect the plants individually, but in mutual combination.
In the case of biotic stressors, there are two or more Conclusions
living organisms in interaction, mutually influencing their
metabolic processes. The content of energy of a host Combustion calorimetry as a commonly used method in
organism after attack by a pathogen (for example the stem thermodynamics has a wide use in the area of evaluating
rust) is usually higher than in the case of a ‘‘healthy’’ plant the properties of biological materials and the metabolic
[52]. Orcutt and Nilsen [53] conclude that the infection processes of plants. There is a mutual interaction between
caused by the pathogenic organism influences photosyn- sink and source that influences the creation of assimilate
thesis and respiration that leads to a change of the source substances, the chemical composition of produced matter,
and sink relation. their mutual ratio, and storage. Combustion calorimetry
In leaves of Triticum aestivum, infected with powdery monitors and describes this mechanism very well. Addi-
mildew, there was an increase in triose phosphate, fructose tionally, it is a relatively simple and economic method.
-1,6-bisphosphate, hexose phosphate, sucrose, fructose and Using combustion calorimetry, it is possible to gain an
glucose, while to the contrary, phosphoglyceric acid overview of the accumulation and translocation of energy
decreased, as evident from the work of Akhkha et al. [54]. matter in the level of the plant, its vegetative growth or
Hnilička et al. [13] recorded higher values of combustion ecosystem over the course of the entire ontogenetic
heat in barley infected with powdery mildew in the leaves, development of the plant.
compared with unaffected leaves (Fig. 4). Knowledge of the mutual relationship between photo-
In plants growing under conditions of abiotic stressors, synthetic rate, creation of dry matter, and accumulation of
there is usually a decrease of energy-rich matter in the energy during ontogeny enable combustion calorimetry as
biomass of all plant organs [49, 56, 57]. a method for measuring photosynthetic rate comparable to
Water deficit is a significant abiotic stressor, causing gasometric methods. Unlike gasometric methods, com-
decreased energy content in individual organs. bustion calorimetry enables establishing the changes of
Hnilička et al. [58] also record decreased energy content in accumulation of assimilate substances and their transport
roots and above-ground biomass in juvenile corn plants, within the plant body.
due to gradual drying of the soil substrate. According to This method can be used as a detection method for
Holá et al. [59], water deficit influences the photosynthetic establishing changes in metabolism and degree of resis-
parameters of juvenile corn plants and thus also the accu- tance in plants, as well as ecosystems under the impact of
mulation of energy into the individual plant organs. biotic and abiotic stress factors.

123
416
Acknowledgements This study was financially supported by Pro-
ject S grant of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the
Czech Republic. We would like to thank Prof. Ing. J. Leitner, DrSc.
for his valuable advice and comments.
References
1. Lacerda LG, Andre T, Colman D, Bauab T, da Silva MA, Filho
C, Demiate IM, de Vasconcelos EC, Schnitzler E. Thermal,
structural and rheological properties of starch from avocado seeds
(Persea americana, Miller) modified with standard sodium
hypochlorite solutions. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2014;115:1893–9.
2. Jesús CH, Socorro F, Rodriguez de Rivera HJ, Rodriguez de
Rivera M. Development of a calorimetric sensor for medical
application Part IV. Deconvolution of the calorimetric signal.
J Therm Anal Calorim. 2013;113:1003–7.
3. Ozawa T. Thermal analysis—review and prospect. Thermochim
Acta. 2000;355:35–42.
4. Łyszczek R. Hydrothermal synthesis, thermal and luminescent
investigations of lanthanide (III) coordination polymers based on
the 4,40 -oxybis (benzoate) ligand. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2012;
108:1101–10.
5. Chromčı́ková M, Liška M, Lissová M, Mošner P, Koudelka L.
Structural relaxation of PbO–WO3–P2O5 glasses. J Therm Anal
Calorim. 2013;114:947–54.
6. Palou MT, Bagel L, Zivica V, Kukiffayova M, Kozankova L.
Influence of hydrothermal curing regimes on the hydration of
fiber-reinforced cement composites. J Therm Anal Calorim.
2013;113:219–29.
7. Lamprecht I. Combustion calorimeters. In: Gallagher PK, editor.
Handbook of thermal analysis and calorimetry. Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science; 1998. p. 657–65.
8. Šesták J. Thermal science and analysis. Terms connotation, his-
tory, development, and the role of personalities. J Therm Anal
Calorim. 2013;113:1049–54.
9. Brown ME. Introduction to thermal Analysis Techniques and
Application. 1st ed. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 2001.
10. Lamprecht I. Combustion calorimetry. In: Kemp RB, editor.
Hanbook of thermal analysis and calorimetry. Volume 4. From
macromolecules to man, vol. 4. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1999.
p. 175–218.
11. van Ekeren PJ. Thermodynamic background to thermal analysis
and calorimetry. In: Brown ME, editor. Hanbook of thermal
analysis and calorimetry, Vol I. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1998.
p. 75–145.
12. Yi Q, Qi F, Cheng G, Zhang Y, Xiao B, Hu Z, Liu S, Cai H, Xu S.
Thermogravimetric analysis of co-combustion of biomass and
biochar. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2013;112:1475–9.
13. Hnilička F, Hniličková H, Martinková J. Use of combustion
calorimetry in biological sciences (in Czech). Proceedings: 32.
Mezinárodnı́ český a slovenský kalorimetrický seminář. May
24–28, Lı́sek u Bystřice nad Pernštejnem, Czech Republic; 2010.
14. Lieth H. Measurement of caloric value. In: Lieth H, Whittaker R,
editors. Primary production of the biosphere. Berlin: Springer;
1975. p. 119–29.
15. Prat H. Calorimetry of higher organisms. In: Brown HD, editor.
Biochemical calorimetry. New York: Academic Press; 1969.
p. 81–189.
16. Gao Kai, Song Fu, Zhu Tie-xia. Effects of several factors on plant
calorific value based on large-scale conditions. Pratacult Sci.
2012;29:453–8.
17. Lin YM, Lin P. Calorific values of two dominant species (Cas-
tanopsis eyrei and Pinus taiwanensis) in the typical plant commu-
nities in the Wuyi mountains, Fujian. Wuyi Sci J. 1999;15:118–23.
123
F. Hnilička et al.
18. Mészáros E, Jakab E, Várhegyi G, Tóvári P. Thermogravimetry/
mass spectrometry analysis of energy crop. J Therm Anal Calo-
rim. 2007;88:477–82.
19. Li Y, Zhao H, Zhao X, Zhang T, Liu X. Desertification Effects on
Calorific Value, Biomass and Energy Allocation in Horqin Sandy
Land, Inner Mongolia, North China. Proceedings: International
Conference on Environmental Science and Information Appli-
cation Technology (ESIAT 2009), July 4–5, Wuham, China;
2009.
20. Erol M, Haykiri-Acma H, Küçükbayrak S. Calorific value esti-
mation of biomass from their proximate analyses data. Renew
Energ. 2010;35:170–3.
21. Kuklová M, Kukla J, Hnilička F. The soil–to–herbs transfer of
heavy metals. Pol J Environ Stud. 2010;19:1263–8.
22. Hnilička F, Hniličková H. The energy content of plants growing
in the former sandpits Kostomlátky (in Czech). Proceedings: 33.
Mezinárodnı́ český a slovenský kalorimetrický seminář. May
23–27, Srnı́ na Šumavě, Czech Republic; 2011.
23. Werther J, Saenger M, Hartge EU, Ogada T, Siagi Z. Combustion
of agricultural residues. Prog Energ Combust. 2000;26:1–27.
24. Williams A, Pourkashanian M, Jones JM. Combustion of pulver-
ized coal and biomass. Prog Energ Combust. 2001;27:587–610.
25. Eriksson L, Gustavsson L. Costs, CO2-and primary energy bal-
ances of forest–fuel recovery systems at different forest produc-
tivity. Biomass Bioenerg. 2010;34:610–9.
26. Luxmoore RJ. A source–sink framework for coupling water,
carbon, and nutrient dynamics of vegetation. Tree Physiol.
1991;9:267–80.
27. Silva EA, DaMatta FM, Ducatti C, Regazzi AJ, Barros RS.
Seasonal changes in vegetative growth and photosynthesis of
Arabica coffee trees. Field Crop Res. 2004;89:349–57.
28. Stokes GB. Estimating the energy content of nutrients. Trends
Biochem Sci. 1988;13:422–4.
29. Obernberger I, Brunner T, Bärnthaler G. Chemical properties of
solid biofuels—significance and impact. Biomass Bioenerg.
2006;30:973–82.
30. Telmo C, Lousada J. Heating values of wood pellets from dif-
ferent species. Biomas Bioenerg. 2011;35:2634–9.
31. Villanueva M, Proupı́n J, Rodrı́guez-Añón RA, Fraga-Grueiro F,
Salgado J, Barros N. Energetic characterization of forest biomass
by calorimetry and thermal analysis. J Therm Anal Calorim.
2011;104:61–7.
32. Taraba B. Adsorption heats of phenol on activated carbon using
adapted method of immersion calorimetry. J Therm Anal Calo-
rim. 2012;107:923–6.
33. Strašil Z, Weger J. Study of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea
Schreb.) grown for energy purposes (in Czech). Acta Pruhonici-
ana. 2010;96:19–26.
34. Tyle, P., Kozlı́k, V., Bı́lá, J. Standard ISO 1928:2009. Solid
mineral fuels – Determination of gross caloric value by the bomb
calorimetric method, and calculation of net calorific value. Czech
Office for Standards, Metrology and Testing. 2010;2–55.
35. Golley FB. Energy values of ecological mateials. Ecology.
1961;42:581–4.
36. Paine RT. The measurement and application of the calorie to
ecological problems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst. 1971;2:145–64.
37. Szyszlak-Bargłowicz J, Zaja˛c G, Piekarski W. Energy biomass
characteristics of chosen plants. Int Agrophys. 2012;26:175–9.
38. Zhou G, Taylor G, Polle A. FTIR–ATR-based prediction and
modelling of lignin and energy contents reveals independent
intra–specific variation of these traits in bioenergy poplars. Plant
Methods. 2011;7:1–10.
39. Hnilička F, Hniličková H, Martinková J, Bláha L, Kadlec P.
Impact of 24–epibrassinolide on Chemici structure and energy
content in wheat grain. LŽUU Mokslo Darbai, Biomedicinos
Mokslai. 2009;83:17–22.
Use of combustion methods for calorimetry
40. Bagheri H. Review for growth and development processes in
canola (Brassica napus L.). Global J Med Plant Res. 2013;
1:54–7.
41. Monti A, Di Virgilio N, Venturi G. Mineral composition and ash
content of six major energy crops. Biomass Bioenerg. 2008;32:
216–23.
42. Bláha L, Hnilička F, Hořejš P, Novák V. Influence of abiotic
stresses on the yield, seed and root traits at winter wheat (Triti-
cum aestivum). Scientia Agric Bohem. 2003;34:1–7.
43. Erickson LE. Energy requirements in biological systems. In:
James AM, editor. Thermal and energetic studies of cellular
biological systems. Bristol: John Wright; 1987. p. 12–33.
44. Martinková J, Hejnák V, Hnilička F. Effect of water deficit on
sink strength of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) ears. Res
Crop. 2013;14:62–71.
45. Hickman JC, Pitelka LF. Dry weight indicates energy allocation
in ecological strategy analysis of plants. Oecologia. 1975;21:
117–21.
46. Hnilička F. Effect of nitrogen nutrition upon physiological
characteristics and energy content in winter wheat plants. Ph.D.
Thesis, Faculty of Agronomy, CULS in Prague; 1999.
47. Zamora DS, Wyatt GJ, Apostol KG, Tschirner U. Biomass yield,
energy values, and chemical composition of hybrid poplars in
short rotation woody crop production and native perennial grasses
in Minnesota, USA. Biomass Bioenerg. 2013;49:223–30.
48. Rea E, Cale MT. Nitrogen nutrition and photosynthesis in Triti-
cum durum cv. Duilio Ital J Agron. 1991;25:29–34.
49. Hejnák V. The use of isotopic methods (15 N), combustion cal-
orimetry and gazometrical methods in plant production physiol-
ogy of spring barley and spinach plants (in Czech). 1st ed. CULS
Prague; 2003.
50. Hellmold C, Schmidt W. Energiegehalt und Energiebilanz der
Krautschicht eines Kalkbuchenwaldes. Verh Ges Ökol. 1989;17:
177–88.
51. Levitt J. Responses of plants to environmental stresses. 2nd ed.
New York: Academic Press; 1980.
View publication stats
417
52. Wright DP, Baldwin BC, Shephard MC, Scholes JD. Source–sink
relationships in wheat leaves infected with powdery mildew. 2.
Changes in the regulation of the Calvin Cycle. Physiol. Mol
Plant. 1995;47:255–67.
53. Orcutt DM, Nilsen E. The physiology of plants under stress—soil
and biotic factors. 1st ed. New York: Wiley; 2000.
54. Akhkha A, Clarke DD, Dominy PJ. Relative tolerances of wild
and cultivated barley to infection by Blumeria graminis f. sp.
hordei (Syn. Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei) II. The effects of
infection on photosynthesis and respiration. Physiol Mol Plant.
2003;62:347–54.
55. Martinkova J, Hnilička F, Hejnák V. Relative The effect of water
deficit to photosynthesis accumulation of energy in the spring
barley (in Czech). Proceedings: 29. Mezinárodnı́ český a slo-
venský kalorimetrický seminář. May 28–June 1, Medlov, Čes-
komoravská vysočina, Czech Republic; 2007.
56. Hniličková H, Novák V. Accumulation of energy by non–irri-
gated and irrigated hop plants (Humulus lupulus L.) (in Czech).
Rost Výroba. 2000;46:465–9.
57. Martinková J, Hejnák V, Hnilička F. The effect of the aridisation
of a habitat on the accumulation capability of sink in selected
varieties of spring barley. Cereal Res Commun. 2007;35:1305–8.
58. Hnilička F, Holá D, Hniličková H, Rothová, O, Kočová M. The
impact of step–by–step water deficit on energy content in the
biomass of juvenile plants of maize (in Czech). Proceedings: 31.
Mezinárodnı́ slovenský a český kalorimetrický seminář, May
25–29, Terchova, Vratná Dolina, Slovak Republic; 2009b.
59. Holá D, Benešová M, Honnerová J, Hnilička F, Rothová O,
Kočová M, Hniličková H. The evaluation of photosynthetic
parameters in maize inbred lines subjected to water deficiency:
can these parameters be used for the prediction of performance of
hybrid progeny? Photosynthetica. 2010;48:545–58.
60. Bláha L, Kohout L, Hnilička F, Gottwaldová P, Kadlec P, Jan-
kovská P. The effect of environmental factors on the traits of
seeds. Scientia Agric Bohem. 2005;36:81–6.
123