Commercial-in-Confidence Report No 6990l05A

I August 1997

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I DESIGNING CONCRETE MIXES USING LOCAL MATERIALS

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I Overseas Development
Administration
94 Victoria Street
Gifford and Partners
Carlton House
Ringwood Road

1 London
SWlE5.K
UK
Woodlands
Southampton
SO40 7HT
UK
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I DESIGNING CONCRETE MIXES USING LOCAL MATERIALS

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I Although this report has been commissioned by the British Government under
grant aid arrangements, the British Government bears no responsibility for,
and is not in any way committed to, the views and recommendations
I expressed therein.

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DESIGNING CONCRETE MIXES USING LOCAL MATERIALS
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U CONTENTS

I Page No

1 INTRODUCTION 1

I 2 DURABLE CONCRETE 2

I 2.1
2.2
Chemical Exposure
Corrosion of Reinforcement Embedded in the Concrete
2
3

I 2.3
2.4
Reactive Aggregates
Freezing and Thawing
4
5
2.5 Quality of Materials 5
I 2.6 Concrete Construction 6

I 3 AGGREGATES 8

3.1 Particle Size, Shape and Grading 8

I 3.2
3.3
Physical Properties
Contaminants
11
14

I 4 CEMENTS 24

I 4.1
4.2
General
Portland Cement
24
28
28
I 4.3 Blended Cement

32
5 WATER
I 5.1 General 32
5.2 Sea Water 32
I 5.3 Industrial Wastewater 33
33
5.4 Domestic Wastewater
I 6 ADMIXTURES 40

I 6.1 General 40

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7 LOCAL ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS 45
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7.1 Alternative Aggregates 45
7.2 Replacement Materials 47 I
7.3 No-fines Concrete 50
7.4 Local Reinforcing Materials 50
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8 52
CONCRETE

8.1 Durability Parameters 52

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8.2
8.3
Minimum Standards for Durable Concrete
Proportioning Materials for Concrete - General
53
56
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8.4 Proportioning Materials for Concrete - Mix Design 60
8.5 Proportioning Materials for Concrete - Blending of Aggregates 64 I
9 REFERENCES 83
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10 STANDARDS 84

11 GLOSSARY 87
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LIST OF TABLES I
3.1 15-18
3.2
4.1
Aggregate Properties
Aggregate Contaminants
Significant Specification Limits for Standard ASTM and BS Type Cements
19-23
29
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4.2
4.3
5.1
Portland Cements
Relation between CEN Type and BS and ASTM Type Cements
Contaminants that can be Present in Local Water
30
31
34-39
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6.1
8.1
Common Admixtures
Minimum Cement Content and Maximum WatedCement Ratio for Different
42-44
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Types of Exposure 54
8.2
8.3
Concrete Mix Design Statistics
Approximate Water Contents (kg/m3) Required to give Various Levels of
58
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Workability 59
8.4 Approximate Compressive Strengths (N/mm2) of Concrete Mixes made with a
WaterKement Ratio of 0.5 64
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8.5
to
8.8
Concrete Mix Proportioning - Examples 1 to 4 72- 78 I
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I DESIGNING CONCRETE MIXES USING LOCAL MATERIALS

I 1 INTRODUCTION

I This manual provides practical guidance on how to produce durable concrete in rural
environments using local materials. It is written as an aid to qualified engineers working in
design offices. A companion pocket-size volume entitled Making Good Concrete is written for
1 technicians working on construction sites and requiring more elementary guidance.

I ‘Local materials’ is a term used to describe aggregates, cement and water which may fail to
meet the requirements of the commonly used British and American Standards. Although they
are apparently unacceptable, these materials can often be used to make good concrete provided
I due care is taken with the mix proportioning and production. In this manual, emphasis is
placed on the wisdom of using information from past experience of concrete made from local
materials. Also it is important to carry out trial mixes and repeat them if there are any changes
1 in the supply of materials.

I Guidance is provided for producing low to medium strength, durable concrete for mass and
reinforced concrete structures. Account is taken of environmental conditions, the intended life
span of the structure and its intended use. The importance of durability is explained and the
I different factors influencing it are described. There are sections on the constituent materials
required for concrete; aggregates, cements, water and admixtures. There is also a section on
alternative and replacement materials not usually recognised in Standards.
I A number of example trial mixes are given and the background data are included to permit the

I user of this manual to proportion his own trial mixes.

Terms shown in italics in the text are defined and explained in a glossary arranged
I alphabetically at the back of the manual. This enables additional explanations to be given
without interruption to the text. The manual is extensively indexed and cross-referenced to
enable information to be extracted more easily. A list of the more commonly used British and
I American Standards is provided. Some of the Indian Standards are also listed because of their
relevance to local materials.

I Sources of information that have been used include the CIRIA Guide to Construction in the
Gulf Region, various publications by the Concrete Society and the former Cement and Concrete
I Association, reported case studies in developing countries, research reports and first-hand
experience of the authors.

I Finally, it should be noted that prestressed concrete and pavement concrete are not included as
these are special materials requiring higher technology than is appropriate to this manual.

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2 DURABLE CONCRETE

‘Durability’ of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action,

chemical attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration. ‘Durable’ concrete
will retain its quality when exposed to weathering and the environment during its
lifetime.

It is therefore essential to design a concrete to give a satisfactory performance

taking into account the materials to be used, the environment in which the structure
is to be built and operational requirements.

It should also be pointed out that, to produce durable concrete, it is essential to

have good quality control in its production and a high level of workmanship in
placing, compacting and curing the concrete.

In determining the desired properties and quantities of the various materials in a

concrete mix, it is important to understand the causes of deterioration that can
occur and the mechanism behind them. The major causes of deterioration for a
concrete structure are:

8 chemical exposure;
8 corrosion of reinforcement embedded in the concrete;
8

8
reactive aggregates;
freezing and thawing;
poor quality materials; and
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8 poor concrete construction.

The most common faults and failures in buildings have been reviewed in
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Reference 1. The various processes of deterioration that fall under each of these
categories are briefly described in the following sections.

2.1 Chemical Exposure

2.1.1 Seawater

Exposure of concrete to seawater can result in corrosion to steel reinforcement due

to chlorides in the dissolved salts. Damage to the cement paste can be caused by
See
5.2 for
Section

information On
m
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seawater
sulphates, also in the dissolved salts.

Concrete with low permeability is essential to delay the attack from the dissolved
salts and to protect the reinforcement. Mass concrete, containing no reinforcement
and continuously immersed in seawater, may perform satisfactorily.

2.1.2 Sulphates

Sulphates may occur naturally in the soil or groundwater adjacent to the structure.
Evaporation can lead to an accumulation of sulphates on an exposed face of the See Section
8.2.5
structure which can accelerate deterioration processes.

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 2.3.3 Oxidation or Hydration of Unstable Elements in Aggregates

Expansive inclusions such as iron pyrites and some sulphides or oxides, such as See Section
anhydrous magnesium oxide or calcium oxide, can produce damaging reactions. 4.1.2 for
information on
For instance, the sulphides can be oxidised to form a ferrous sulphate which can cement
then decompose with the sulphate ions reacting with the cement paste. Damage soundness
can result especially under warm and humid conditions.

2.3.4 Reaction of Organic Materials

See Tables 3.2
Organic materials such as humus or organic loam, which can be found in and 5.1 for
information on
aggregates, can interfere with the hydration, thereby affecting the strength and organic
durability of the concrete. contamination

2.3.5 Minimising the Risk of Reaction

See Sections
The risk of alkali reaction can be minimised by careful selection of the aggregate 3.2.9 and 4.1.8
and use of low alkali cement. A concrete believed to be susceptible should be kept for information
on low-alkali
dry and should not be used in places where it can get wet. cements

Detailed information on minimising the risk of alkali-silica reaction is given in the

Concrete Society Technical Report No 30, Reference 2.

2.4 Freezing and Thawing

If wet concrete is subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing, cracking and

deterioration can take place. This is because water that has soaked into the
concrete expands during the freezing cycle and disrupts the concrete structure.

Only good quality concrete, having low permeability, can resist the actions of
freezing and thawing without some deterioration taking place.

If concrete is to be exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing it is important to use

a mix having a low waterkement ratio. Coarse aggregate containing particles with
relatively high absorption values should be avoided as should those aggregates
with a high proportion of flat particles.
See Table 6.1
The use of an air entrainment admixture improves resistance to freezing and for information
on air
thawing. entraining
admixtures
2.5 Quality of Materials

The durability of a concrete structure depends on properties of the various

constituents of the concrete mix. The effect these properties will have on
durability will vary according to the environment and what the concrete is used
for.

For aggregates, durability can be affected by the physical properties, particle See Section
3.1 for
grading, particle shape and any contaminants present. For instance, if the grading information on

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I It is essential that the construction practices to suit the local conditions are fully
understood. For concrete production, this includes the protection of materials from
I contamination and unacceptable temperatures during delivery and whilst being
stored on site. It is also important to provide and maintain an adequate mixing
plant and to control the temperature of the materials during mixing.
I For transporting and placing, it is essential that the concrete is moved as quickly as
possible with little exposure to the environment, otherwise, the workability of the
I concrete may be affected. Careful consideration should be given to how the
concrete is to be placed in order to avoid segregation, settlement and bleeding.

I After placing the concrete, it should be compacted as soon as possible and vibrated
carefully to ensure adequate compaction and to avoid segregation.

1 Curing of the concrete is of prime importance if long term durability is to be

achieved. If the right treatment to the concrete is not provided during the first

I weeks, crucial properties of the concrete, such as its permeability, may be affected
and defects, such as plastic shrinkage cracking, may arise.

I It is essential that the importance of curing and the methods that should be adopted
for a particular situation are understood. If inadequate curing is undertaken, any
problems that arise in general, must be made good by other treatments.

I In hot weather, the constituent materials heat up and the temperature of the fresh
concrete becomes higher than normal. The temperature of the concrete also rises

1 due to the heat of hydration being generated at a faster rate. The high temperature
causes several problems:

B 0

0
the concrete stiffens faster;
as the concrete cools, there is increased thermal contraction;
0 if the climate is hot and dry, evaporation rates are even higher than for hot
8 0
and humid conditions; and
if there are high winds, evaporation rates are higher still and plastic
shrinkage can occur.
U The quality of concrete in hot weather can be controlled by a number of actions: See Reference 3
for
information on

I 0
0
constituent materials should be kept cool;
temperature of concrete should not exceed 40°C when placed;
concreting in hot
weather

0 appropriate admixtures may be needed to retard the set and maintain

I 0
workability;
cement content should be as low as is compatible with other requirements;
0 mixing and placing the concrete should be done in the coolest times of the
I 0
day; and
the concrete should be protected from the sim during the curing period and
kept cool and moist.
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3.2 Physical Properties

The physical properties of aggregates are described below. Testing procedures and
guidance are given in Table 3.1.

3.2.1 Strength

The strength of an aggregate depends on its composition, texture and structure.

Hence, a low strength may be due to the weakness of the constituent particles or
See Table 3.1
the particles may be strong but not well bonded. Aggregate strength is rarely tested aggregate
and generally does not influence the strength of concrete as much as cement paste properties
strength and paste-aggregate bond. However it can limit the strength of the
concrete if it is similar to the strength of the cement, rather than being much
greater as is the usual case. An example of this is lateritic aggregate, which is
common in Africa, South Asia and South America. Laterite can produce concrete
having a strength of up to 10N/mm2. This is low but may be adequate for many
purposes.
See Sections
The measurement of aggregate strength is often done indirectly. However, it can 3.2.5 on
soundness,
be measured directly, if required, by determining its Crushing Value or Impact 3.2.6 on water
Value. absorption and
3.2.8 on
3.2.2 Modulus of Elasticity friability

An aggregate with a high Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus), will not

compress or expand so much when a load is applied. A high Modulus of Elasticity
in the aggregate will produce a concrete with a high Modulus of Elasticity, and
will also affect the amount of creep and shrinkage of the concrete.

During volume changes in a concrete, a less compressible, rigid aggregate might

cause cracking of the cement matrix, whilst a more compressible, flexible
aggregate would ‘deform’, allowing such change without cracking. Depending on
the situation, therefore, it may be desirable to use an aggregate with a low Modulus
of Elasticity, which is often linked to lower strength, rather than one with a high
Modulus of Elasticity and high strength.

3.2.3 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity gives valuable information on an aggregate’s quality and

properties; generally, the higher the specific gravity, the stronger and harder it will
be. Changes in the specific gravity of an aggregate might indicate a change in its
nature or source of supply. However, large changes in composition may not
necessarily cause a change in specific gravity, therefore measurement of specific
gravity alone should not be used for quality control of the aggregate.

3.2.4 Weathering

Weathering of aggregate takes place whilst it is part of the bedrock. During

weathering over thousands of years, the rock can break down until it may

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eventually become soil. In wet places, the upper rock may be weathered so that
much of its original minerals have been removed due to rainfall. This produces a I
weak rock, unsuitable for aggregates. In hot, dry places, where evaporation is See Table 3.1
greater than rainfall, the upper rock may have additional soluble minerals, removed
from below. These may be contaminants such as sulphates, which produce an
1
unsuitable aggregate. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more likely than
sedimentary rocks to have weathered upper rock. I
National standards, in general, state that weathered rock should not be used for
making concrete. However, if an aggregate known to be from a weathered zone
has a good record of service in existing structures, it may be possible to continue to
I
use it.

When a new quarry is used, it is important to take careful samples of the rock at
I
different depths to check for weathering. Weathered rock may be recognised by
discoloration and sometimes (depending on the type of rock) greater fissuring.
Weathered rock should be discarded. Trial mixes should then be carried out to
n
determine the properties of concrete made from the aggregate.

3.2.5 Soundness
I
Soundness is the ability to resist excessive changes in volume. Causes of volume
change include: See Table 3.1
8
0 freeze-thaw cycles and thermal changes above freezing, typically occurring I
in arid climates;
0 entry of salts into pores which can occur when groundwater containing
soluble salts is drawn up into concrete by capillary action, then evaporates I
from the concrete surface leaving salt in the concrete;
0 wet-dry cycles, typically occurring in tidal areas.
I
Types of aggregates that are unsound and may expand disruptively, and crack the
concrete are:
I
0 limestones containing clay;
0

0
porous chalk;
slate; and
I
0 weathered rock.

Soundness can best be predicted from past performance of concrete made from
1
these materials.

3.2.6 Water Absorption

I
Water absorption provides an indication of the durability and strength of an
aggregate, and, to a lesser extent, it can affect the permeability of the hardened SeeTable3.1
I
concrete. The absorption characteristics of an aggregate need to be determined,
prior to use, so that the total water content of the concrete mix can be controlled
and correct batch weights used.
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 Measurement of water absorption is made when the aggregate is Saturated Surface
Dry (SSD), that is, when the aggregate is saturated on the inside but dry on the
outside. However, when an aggregate is stored in a stockpile, the water it contains
will vary depending on the climate, weather and time of day, due to evaporation
and absorption of moisture. To account for this, the wetness of the aggregate must
be checked at least twice a day in order that the correct watedcement ratio is
maintained in the mix.

3.2.7 Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion and shrinkage occurs with changing temperature. The

expansion of aggregates (4-15 microstraid'C) is usually lower than that of the
cement paste (1 1-20 microstrain"/C). If the difference is very great, temperature See Table 3.1
changes can produce tiny cracks where the paste and aggregate meet in the
hardened concrete as they try to expand by different amounts. This micro-cracking
can increase permeability and lower the durability of the concrete.

3.2.8 Friability

A friable aggregate is one which breaks down easily during handling operations See 3.l
and mixing of the concrete. This breakdown increases the surface area of the
aggregate particles (known as specific area). These smaller particles then require a
higher water content for a given workability. It is therefore necessary to carry out
site mixing trials which include the handling operations, so that friability can be
taken into account in selecting the mix proportions.

3.2.9 Reactivity

The types of alkali-aggregate reaction are given in Section 2.3. Alkali-silica

reaction is the most common; it is the reaction between the active silica parts of the See Table 3.1
aggregate and the alkalis in the cement. This expansive reaction occurs during and seeSection
after hardening of the concrete. It is the reaction after hardening which may cause 2.3.1
disruption of the cement paste and then cracking in the concrete.

The reaction can occur in a number of aggregates including limestones some

quartzites, silicaceous shales and rocks containing opal cherts, schists. It has
occurred in concrete in most countries. Serious disruption requiring expensive
repairs can occur as soon as six years.

The alkali-carbonate reaction is more rare and occurs in a similar manner to the
alkali-silica reaction. It is known to occur with aggregates from calcitic dolomites
and limestones.

The rate of these reactions is also affected by how much water is in the cement See Section
paste and the cement's constituents which cause it to be alkaline. The reaction is 2.3.2
accelerated in humid conditions, by wetting and drying cycles, and in a
temperature range between 10°C and 40°C.

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 There are several tests for reactivity. They require special skills and equipment, See Section I
and can take up to a year to carry out. The best way of determining potential 4.1.8
reactivity is from experience and knowledge of the local aggregate.
I
3.3 Contaminants

The suitability of aggregate for making concrete is influenced by the presence of I

contaminants. These contaminants occur as natural impurities, such as sea salt and
shell in sea sand, and as part of stone crushing processes, which produce dust and
clay as well as aggregate. See Table 3.2 I
Typical contaminants that can be present in aggregates are:

0 Clay, silt and dust

0 Mica
e Organic material
0 Shell
0 Absorbent and soft particles
0 Chlorides
0 Sulphates

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Desrgrirrry ('oncrete Mixes Using Local Materials Gifford and Partners
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0ver.wr.v I)evelopment Administration Page I4 Report No. 6990/05A
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Compliance with a Standard gives the designer some assurance as to a cement’s
quality, but many of the properties covered by these standards are of no
particular relevance to mix design. Even if a cement conforms to a national
I
Standard, it does not ensure that its performance in the concrete will be easily
predicted. The cement should be tested for the properties which are important to
the user.
I
It must also be noted that when working with cement from unfamiliar sources,
the design mix should be based on the actual measured performance of that
I
particular cement. It should not be assumed that all cements which comply with
the same specification will behave the same. For this reason, it should also be
ensured that all the cement used for a particular structure comes from the same
I
supplier and the same location.

The significance of some of the cement specifications to the designer is

I
explained below; followed by Table 4.1 which gives some specification limits
for BS and ASTM type cements. I
4.1.1 Setting Time

The initial and final setting times of cements are usually well within the limits
I
allowed by national Standards, and are not of much practical use in terms of
concrete mix design. Setting times of concretes do not correlate directly with
those of cement pastes in the laboratory because of the different temperatures See 4.1
I
and water losses to surroundings. However, the setting times may be used to
compare the behaviour of different cements. Setting time tests may also be used I
throughout a project as a simple quality control on consistency between batches
of cement.
U
It should be noted that speed of setting and speed of hardening (eg gain of
strength) are entirely independent of each other.
I
A simple test for less important works, may be carried out on site without special
apparatus, as follows: I
Make a stiff paste of pure cement and water and form it into a pat about 75rnm
in diameter and 12 to 25mm thick. The pat should start to set in approximately
30 to 60 minutes. In 18 to 24 hours the pat should have hardened enough that a
I
thumb-nail cannot scratch the surface. After 48 hours it should be difficult to
break with fingers and it should be fully hard in 7 to 8 days. Note that high
temperatures may decrease setting times. I
4.1.2 Soundness

Soundness refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume
I
after setting. Lack of soundness is caused by too much magnesia (MgO) or free
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I lime (CaO). These hydrate slowly and may cause disruption of hardened
See Table 4.1
concrete if they are present in excess.
I The quantities of free lime and magnesia may be limited by carrying out

I Soundness Tests. The Le Chatelier (BS) test detects unsoundness due to free
lime only. The Autoclave (ASTM) test can detect unsoundness due to both free
lime and magnesia.
I A simple test, which may be carried out on site, follows on from that described
under Setting Time:
I Take a cement pat that has set and boil it in water for approximately five hours.
The pat should remain sound and hard, and should not swell, crack or

I disintegrate, and may show only hair-line cracks. This is a very easy and
important site-test to determine the suitability of a cement for construction.

I 4.1.3 Compressive Strength

Compressive strength of mortar cubes as given by manufacturers of cement is an See Glossary

I indication of the potential of the cement for producing strong concrete. For
more reliable guidance, the strength of specific mortar cubes of the actual
for
information
on mortar
cement should be tested as it arrives on site. The best guide to a concrete's cubetests,
I compressive strength may be found by making concrete cubes because this takes
into account many of the other important variables such as aggregate
also Section
8.7.2

I characteristics, concrete mix and construction methods.

Compressive strength testing may be used throughout a project as a check on

I quality control between batches of concrete.

4.1.4 Heat of Hydration

I Heat of hydration is the heat generated when cement and water react. The rate of
heat given out is dependent on the chemical composition of the cement, but it SeeTab1e4.1

1 also increases with the fineness of the cement, the temperature of the concrete
and with a decreasing watedcement ratio.

U Cement temperature can be a particular problem in hot climates. As the ambient

temperature is raised, the rate of evolution of heat increases which further rises
See Tab,e 4,2
for
information
the concrete's temperature. As a result, problems of differential temperature on L H P ~and
I stress and thermal cracking during the early stages of hardening of concrete, can
be serious and special precautions to keep the materials cool may be required.
RHPC

I Using a Low-heat Portland cement (LHPc) may reduce the problem.

In cold climates, a rise in concrete temperature caused by heat of hydration may

I benefit curing and stop freezing of the concrete which would otherwise be a

I Designin,q Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials

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serious problem. In this case, using a richer mix or a Rapid Hardening Portland
I
cement (RHPc), may reduce the problem.
I
4.1.5 Insoluble Residue and Loss on Ignition

In general neither insoluble residue nor loss on ignition is of particular

I
See Table 4.1
importance to mix design, but they may be good indicators of its quality relative
to a ‘normal’ cement if a local and non-standard cement is being used, for I
example Rice Husk Ash

Loss on ignition is determined by heating a cement sample of known weight to I

900-1000°C. When the weight of the sample reaches a constant value it is
noted. The percentage weight loss is an indication of prehydration and
carbonation. I
4.1.6 Sulphate Content
I
Sulphate (measured as SO, or SO,) is present in gypsum, which is added by
makers of the cement, to produce the required rate of setting. There is a
restriction as to the amount of sulphate allowed in concrete. The allowable
See Section
8.2.3 for total
allowable
I
sulphate content of the aggregates to be used is then found by subtracting the
amount in the cement (and in mixing water, if any) from this total content.
sulphate
I
4.1.7 Tricalcium Aluminate (C,A)

If there are large amounts of sulphates in the aggregates to be used, the I

Tricalcium Aluminate, CJA, content is important. This is because C,A reacts See Section
slowly with the aggregate sulphates to form an expansive solid which may
damage the concrete when hardened. Sulphates from groundwater may also
2.1 for further

information
on sulphates
I
produce this slow reaction after hardening. Reaction between C,A and sulphates
in the cement is not a problem.
I
If chloride attack of reinforcement in the concrete is likely to be a problem, a
higher C,A content may actually be desirable. This is because the C,A will react
with and remove some of the harmful chloride ions from the concrete. For this
I
reason, it may not be appropriate to use a sulphate-resisting cement (which has a See Table 4.2
low C,A content) when both problems occur at once. I
4.1.8 Alkalis

If alkali-aggregate reactivity is considered to be a problem, then limiting the

See Section I
3.2.9 on
alkali content of the cement may reduce the occurrence of the reaction. When an
alkali limit is specified, the cements are called ‘low-alkali’ cements.
alkali-
aggregate
reactivity
I
I
’oncrete Mixes Using Local Materials
/)e.sigii/ii,q

Over.wCr\ I )cvelopment Administration Page 27

G!ffordand Partners
Report No 6990/05A
August 1997
I
I
I
I
I 4.2 Portland Cement

National standards for Portland cements exist world-wide. The most commonly
I used are BS and ASTM, whilst all Portland cements are specified by CEN
standards as CEM Type 1. Table 4.2 gives specifications and general

I descriptions of each type.

4.3 Blended Cements

I Blended cements comprise those which are not wholly based on Portland
cement. The replacement materials include blast furnace slag, pulverised fuel
I ash and silica fume ash.

1 ASTM standards group all such cements as ‘blended’, with subgroups depending
on the constituents of each. CEN standards are given for CEM Types I1 to V,
with the type dependent on the proportion of Portland cement clinker (only Type
I V is specifically referred to as ‘blended’). British Standards classify each
cement with a specific name, which depends on a range of proportions of each
constituent.
I In general, many of the cements have been developed to increase durability of

I concrete under a range of conditions. Examples of this include increased

resistance to:

I 0

0
sulphate attack;
chloride attack; and

I 0 alkali-aggregate reaction.

It should be noted that blended cements tend to have a slower gain of strength
I than Portland cements, but will eventually produce concrete at least as strong
and often more durable.

I An additional advantage is that the blend constituents are waste materials of

industrial processes. The use of them is environmentally attractive.

I Table 4.3 provides a grouping of different National Standard cement blend types
against the European CEN Standards. Different proportion boundaries between
I CEN, BS and ASTM standards mean that some BS and ASTM cements fall into
several CEM categories. Therefore, the description of the cements most

I specifically applies to the CEM types, but the ASTM and BS types will be
similar. Advantages and disadvantages of the specific types are also given. See Table 4.3

I Designing (‘oncrete Mixes Using Local Materials

Overseas Ikvelopment Administration Page 28
Gflord and Partners
Report No. 6990/05A
August 1997

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I 5 WATER

I 5.1 General

Water is required for hydration of the cement and to lubricate the aggregate
I particles sufficiently to give a satisfactory workability. It is usually taken from
approved sources and commonly from drinking water supplies. Whilst in

I general drinking water is suitable for making concrete, sometimes the

concentration of salts is too high for reinforced concrete. If the taste of the local
water supply is even slightly salty, testing should be carried out to assess the salt
I concentration.

National Standards generally specify that mixing water should not be taken from
I shallow or stagnant sources, marshes, tidal rivers or the sea. Water should also
be free from oils, acids, alkalis and organic matter. However, for unreinforced

I concrete, brackish water and seawater may be useable.

In some cases it may be difficult to obtain mixing water which complies with all See Tab1e 5.1

I criteria of a particular national Standard. In such circumstances if the effect of

the particular contaminant(s) are understood, it may be safe to use this water.

1 The most common contaminants, their effects, limits and advice are given in
Table 5.1.

I In marginal cases, contaminated water may be mixed with clean water to dilute
the contaminants to acceptable concentrations. Where there is no alternative, it
may be necessary to import water from another location. Some of the more
I common sources of water, which are ‘non-standard’ are given below:

I 5.2 Sea Water

The use of sea water for producing unreinforced or mass concrete is generally
I acceptable. Sea water should not be used in reinforced or prestressed concrete
because the chlorides present can cause corrosion of the steel. If reinforced
concrete construction is desirable and there is no alternative source of water, a
I desalination plant could be installed on site to purify the salt water, though this
would be expensive.

U Sea water or brackish water should not be used in concrete with known alkali-
See Section
3.2.9for
information
reactive aggregates, even when the cement’s alkali content is low. This is onalkali-
I because the potassium and sodium in the salt can react with the aggregate,
producing disruptive effects in the hardened concrete.
aggregate
reaction

I
I Designing Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials
Oversens Ilevelopment Administration Page 32
Gifford and Partners
Report No. 6990/05A
August 1997

I
 I
Note that, although it may be possible to make a good quality concrete with sea
I
water, any problems due to the presence of salts such as alkali-aggregate reaction
would not become apparent until some years after construction. I
The contaminants in sea water usually consist of about 78% sodium chloride and
15% magnesium chloride and sulphate. Whilst concrete made with sea water I
may gain strength earlier than normal concrete, strengths at later stages (after 28
days) are likely to be lower. It is therefore important to carry-out cube strength
comparisons with concrete made with clean water, in order to assess any
See Section
8.7.2 and the
for
I
mortar cube
differences in long-term strength. The strength of concrete made with sea water
can be compensated by increasing the cement content.
testing
I
Concrete made with sea water may suffer persistent dampness and surface
efflorescence. Sea water should not therefore be used where the appearance of
I
the concrete is of importance or where a plaster finish is to be applied.

5.3 Industrial Wastewater

I
Most waters carrying industrial wastes have less than 4000ppm of total solids. If
SeeGlossaW
1
waste water has to be used as mixing water, the reduction in compressive
strength is likely to be not more than 10 to 15%. Comparative tests on mortar
cubes should be undertaken in order to assess the effects on strength and setting
for mortar
cube testing I
time.

Certain wastewaters, such as those from paint factories, coke and chemical
I
plants, mines and mineral dumps may contain harmful impurities. These waters
should only be used with extra caution and testing for unusual impurities should I
be undertaken.

5.4 Domestic Wastewater

I
It may be possible to use wastewater from sewage treatment plants as a
replacement or partial-replacement for clean water in concrete. A wastewater
1
which has higher than acceptable limits of contamination may be diluted by
potable water until it falls within the limits. Alternatively, it may be possible to I
allow a particular contaminant to remain above the normally acceptable limits,
depending on its effects on the concrete and the structure’s use. I
Comparative tests on mortar cubes should be undertaken to assess the effects on
strength and setting time. I
I
Designitiq (‘oncrete Mixes Using Local Materials
Oversrw \ Ikvelopment Administration Page 33
Gij5ord and Partners
Report No. 6990/05A
August I997
I
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The use of admixtures is not a substitute for good practice, and cannot make a
I
poorly designed or poorly produced concrete good. It is necessary to carefully
carry out trial mixes, to check that the performance of the concrete with the
admixture is as expected. It is also important to follow the manufacturers’
I
instructions as to the quantity of admixture to be used and when to use it. On
occasions, it may be tempting to exceed the stated amount, but overuse of
admixtures can cause considerable problems.
I
In general, it is acceptable to use both air entrainment and water reducing agents
in one mix, but otherwise particular care is needed when using more than one
I
admixture at a time. This is due to the possibility of unexpected and unwanted
reactions occurring between the admixtures. Trials mixes should be carried out
to assess these effects.
I
Admixtures should comply with a National Standard. Some of the most
widely used standards are:
I
0 British Standard BS 5075 All types of admixture I
0 ASTM Standards ASTM C-494 All types except as below
ASTM C-260
ASTM C- 1- 17
Air entrainers
Superplasticisers I
0 Indian Standard IS 9103 All except superplasticisers

For more information on admixtures, see the Concrete Society Technical

I
Report No 18 (Reference 10).
1
I
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1
Designing Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials
Overseas Development Administration Page 41
G$ford and Partners
Report No. 6990/054
August 1997
I
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I 7 LOCAL ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS

I In some locations it may be impossible or depending on the type of construction,

unnecessary, to use conventional aggregate, cement and reinforcement.

I Examples are:

Urban development where the natural sources of aggregate are scarce, but
I
0

alternative aggregates such as crushed brick, recycled concrete or other

waste are available and cheap.

I 0 In areas where the likelihood of alkali-aggregate reaction is considered See Section

3.2.9 for
high due to the type of available aggregate. information

I 0 In areas where the available aggregate is unsuitable, for example in East

on alkali-
aggregate
reaction
Nepal, where sands contain 4 to 30% mica by weight.
I 7.1 Alternative Aggregates

I In cases where normal aggregates are not available local alternatives could be
considered:
I 7.1.1 Lightweight Materials

I These include naturally occurring rocks such as pumice, scoria and volcanic
cinders. Other materials are processed such as expanded clays, slates, shales and

I pulverised fuel ash.

All lightweight materials are relatively weak due to their high porosity which
I also tends to make them more absorbent. This loss of strength relative to
conventional aggregate, can be compensated by increasing the cement content of

I (he concrete mix, though there is a limit beyond which additional cement will not
affect the strength. Generally, the denser the resulting concrete, the stronger it is.
( Ither effects of using lightweight materials in concrete are:

I 0 mixes tend to be less workable;

0 may have a higher drying shrinkage;
I 0

0
may have a lower thermal conductivity (good for thermal insulation); and
may have an increased fire resistance.

I 7.1.2 Crushed Brick

I ("rushed brick is one of the more widely used artificial aggregates in locations
where naturally occurring aggregate is not available. It is a good material for

I Gifford und Purtners

Report No 6990/05/A

I
August I Y Y 7
 1
making plain, mass concrete but should not be used in reinforced concrete if the
I
crushing strength of the brick is less than 30-35N/mm2.

The bricks should be free from lime mortar and from lime sulphate. They should
I
be soaked in water to saturate them before use, so that they do not absorb mixing
water. Porous aggregates which absorb more than 10% of their mass after 24 I
hours soaking in water, are not recommended for concrete construction using
Portland cement. It may however, be possible to use lime cement in cases where
the aggregate absorbs up to 25% of its weight. Lime concrete is weaker than that
I
produced with Portland cement, but is suitable for many purposes.

Other properties of concrete made with crushed bricks are:

I
8 poor resistance to abrasion, therefore should not be used for roads or I
flooring;
8

8
higher fire-resistance than provided by normal aggregate; and
porous so that it is unsuitable for waterproof construction.
I
Hard burnt or over-burnt brick may be used in reinforced concrete, provided the
stresses are not high. Laterite and overburnt ‘jhamma’ (an Indian aggregate)
I
should not be used where steel reinforced concrete is likely to go through wet
and dry cycles. However, adding a pozzolan may ‘use up’ the free lime in the I
cement, which would cause carbonation of the concrete making it susceptible to
corrosion of the steel reinforcement. 1
Guidance for the use of crushed brick is given in the Indian Standard IS3068
‘Broken Brick (Burnt Clay) Coarse Aggregates for use in Lime Concrete’. I
7.1.3 Recycled Concrete and Masonry
I
Demolition waste is increasingly being recycled in industrialised and urbanised
countries. The two major constituents are concrete and masonry, which can be
reused as aggregate in concrete. Recycled concrete and masonry can be used to
I
completely replace or partially replace other aggregates, depending on the
requirements. I
Research has shown that it is most practicable to separate materials at
demolition. It is necessary also to keep crushed masonry and crushed concrete as
I
separate as possible, because their properties differ. Masonry is more friable,
porous and variable than concrete. I
Contaminants, such as glass, gypsum-based materials, wood, plastics, textiles,
organic materials and earth have adverse effects on the finished concrete and
should be removed.
I
Designrir!: C’oncrete Mixes Using Local Materials
Overscw \ 1)eveloprnent Agency Page 46
Gijford and Partners
Report No. 6990/0S/A
I
August 1997

I
I
I
Three factors may affect mix design:
I a Workability of the mix may be lower than with natural aggregate due to ~ e ~ . ~ ~ ~ o
the angular shape and the higher water absorption of crushed concrete informationon
I 0
and masonry.
Compressive strength may decrease slightly. It has been found that
water
of aggregate

I 20% replacement of good quality aggregate by recycled concrete

aggregate has little effect on strength, whereas, 100% replacement may
reduce strength by 10 to 20%.

I a Masonry concrete may be more susceptible to frost damage. The higher

watedcement ratio required may also increase drying shrinkage of the
concrete.
I Crushed concrete and masonry typically have a lower density than normal
aggregate.
1 7.1.4 Cinders

i Cinders can be used to make unreinforced mass concrete of low strength which
is light and porous. Cinder concrete has good insulating properties.

I Guidance for the use of cinders is given in the Indian Standard IS 2686 See Section
7.2.4 on lime
‘Use of Cinders in Lime Concrete’. cement
I 7.2 Replacement Materials

I 7.2.1 Pozzolans

A pozzolan is a silica-based material which, in itself, has little or no

I cementitious behaviour but will, if finely ground and in the presence of water,
chemically react with constituents of Portland cement or lime to form cement-

I I i ke substances.

A number of man-made waste materials will act as pozzolans for example SeeTable4.3

1 pulverised fuel ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast hrnace slag and rice
husk ash. These materials are often included in cement when it is
manufactured.
I Some naturally occurring materials will also act as pozzolans, for example,
opal cherts, clays, shales, certain volcanic rocks and pumicites.
I I’ozzolans often have properties other than their cement-like behaviour, which

1 are useful in making good, durable concrete.

I
I
 Guidance on the use of local pozzolans is given in the Indian Standard IS 3144
‘Calcined Clay Pozzolan’

7.2.2 Waste Ash

Various types of waste ash have been successfully used or have been proposed I
for making durable concrete. The ash produced is used as a partial replacement
of some of the Portland cement (typically 20%) and may come from waste
material such as:
I
e incinerated refuse;
e burnt sludge from sewerage treatment works blended with clay;
e burnt oil shale;
e burnt rice husks; and
e burnt soil.

Some of these materials have been shown to have pozzolanic activity. Rice
I
Husk Ash has been well researched and is described below.
I
7.2.3 Rice Husk Ash

Rice husk is an abundant waste material from the rice-growing industry

produced in such countries as Thailand, India and the USA. Rice husk ash
( M A ) may be made by burning the rice husk in a basket burner or small
incinerator and then grinding it and screening it to produce fine RHA. When
I
burnt at the correct temperature (approximately 700°C for eight hours) RHA can
be a highly reactive silica, which may be used to economically replace some of I
the Portland cement in concrete structures.

RHA cement is a mixture of RHA and lime or Portland cement. Whilst RHA-
I
lime cements are lower in strength than RHA-Portland cements, lime may be a
more readily available local material. I
Other effects found from RHA cement:

e Reduces alkali-aggregate reaction by ‘using up’ the available alkali in the See Section
cement before it reacts with the aggregate. This may increase durability
in cases where aggregate reactivity is a problem.
3.2.9 for
information
on alkali-
I
e
e
Reduces segregation and bleeding o f concrete.
Increases water requirement for a given workability and it may therefore
be necessary to use super-plasticisers or plasticisers to increase
aggregate
reaction
See Table 6.1
I
workability of the wet concrete. for admixtures
I
Designiti q Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials Gifford and Partners
Oversrii \ Ikvelopment Agency Page 48 Report No. 6990/05/A
August I997
I
I It may be necessary to avoid rapid water evaporation from the surface of
the freshly placed concrete to prevent or reduce shrinkage cracking. This
may be done by adequate curing of the concrete and avoiding concrete
I making in hot weather.
Some RHA-lime cements are quick-setting. This can be controlled by

I careful mix design.

Whilst setting of concrete made with RHA cements may be more rapid
than with Portland cement alone, the rate of heat of hydration remains
See Section
4.1.4for
information
I unaffected.
Concretes made with RHA have been found to have an increased
on heat of
hydration
resistance to acid-attack.
I RHA-cements tend to produce concrete with a lower permeability than
concrete made with Portland cement only. This is likely to improve the

I overall durability of the concrete.

Strengths of concretes made with RHA-Portland cement may be
comparable to those made with only Portland cement. Strength has also
31 been found to be increased by using limestone aggregates rather than
silicaceous aggregates.

I There are, as yet, no comparable standards in the correct use of RHA but there is
considerable research being done in order to produce such standards. Whilst this

I research is being carried out, and where there is no alternative, it will be

necessary to carry out a full range of tests on the mix design to make sure that
the concrete performance is as required. This may be done by comparison of
I Portland cement trial mixes with the RHA-Portland cement mixes. Further tests
should be carried out at intervals to make sure that the concrete made with RHA-
See Glossary
cement maintains the required properties. It must also be noted that the
1 properties of RHA-cement are likely to be variable.
formortar
cube testing

I Further information about RHA-cement is given in the BRE Report OBN 198
(Reference 11).

I 7.2.4 Lime Cement

Lime is a cementitious material which can be found in limestone deposits (called

I ‘kunkar’ in some areas), chalk and sea shells and is also produced as a by-
product of the sugar industry.

I Lime cement is more permeable than Portland cement, has lower strength, and
the lime-concrete produced takes longer to set and harden. It produces a less
durable structure overall, but for less important works, or those where
I maintenance would be regular (such as private housing) this may be acceptable.
Lime cement may be more readily available and easier to produce locally than
Portland cement, and therefore would be economic for low-rise building
I construction.

I I)esrgnirr,c Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials

Oversetis Ikvelopment Agency Page 49
G@ord and Partners
Report No. 6990/05/A
August 1997

I
 I
Lime-pozzolan blends (called ‘pozzolime’) have been used in Tanzania, India
and Indonesia. Pozzolans used have been ground burnt bricks and tiles, volcanic
I
tuffs and Rice Husk Ash (an interground lime-RHA mixture has been produced
called ‘Ashmoh’ cement in South Asia). The use of a pozzolan has greatly
extended the use of lime, by improving its cementitious properties.
I
Guidance is given in the relevant Indian Standards IS 4098 Lime-pozzolan
Specifications and IS 5817 Code of Practice for use of Lime-pozzolan Concrete.
I
7.3 No-fines Concrete I
In locations where suitable sand is not available, it may be appropriate to make
no-fines concrete. This is a material composed of cement and a notionally
single-sized aggregate. The product has uniformly distributed voids giving it a
I
low density of about 66% of conventional concrete.

It has been recommended that the aggregate should have not more than 5%
U
retained on a 19mm sieve and 10% passing a 9mm sieve. Typical mix
proportions have a watedcement ratio of 0.4 and cement/aggregate of 1:s.
Typical 28-day cube strengths are 4 to 9N/mm2 depending on the type of
I
aggregate.

No-fines concrete has certain advantages over conventional concrete, the density
I
is lower, drying shrinkage is lower and it has good thermal insulation properties.
Where there are soluble salts present the concrete may be able to cope better
with consequential expansion.
I
More information is provided in the BRE Overseas Building Note No 166
(Reference 4).
I
7.4 Local Reinforcing Materials I
In areas where either economic considerations or corrosion of steel
reinforcement would make it undesirable to use steel, concrete can be reinforced
I
with natural materials. The concrete produced may be less durable overall than
well made concrete with reinforced steel, and will be less able to withstand high
loads, but could be suitable for less important structures or elements of
I
structures.
I
Bamboo is used in Nepal in traditional concrete house building where one- and
two-storey construction is typical.
I
Palm tree fronds are available in Egypt. These have been proposed as a
replacement for steel reinforcement in roofs, due to their light weight, excellent
insulation properties, corrosion resistance and strength.
I
I
Desrgnrnl: Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials
Overseas llevelopment Agency Page SO
Gqford and Partners
Report No. 699O/OS/A
I
August 1997

I
I
I 8.1.4 Environment

Various forms of deterioration can take place as a result of weathering and ground
I conditions. Other environmental factors such as industrial pollution or exposure to
marine conditions should also be considered. Some knowledge of the conditions

I in the area would normally be available and it may be possible to ascertain the
causes of any deterioration that has taken place in existing structures.

1 8.2 Minimum Standards for Durable Concrete

Specifications currently in use for structural work provide limits appropriate to the
I particular environment and usage. Minimum limits are usually given for cement
content and maximum limits for waterkement ratio, cement content and for

I chloride and sulphate contaminants in the mix.

Where concrete is to be buried in the ground, and subjected to sulphate or acid

1 attack, more restrictive limits are given on minimum cement content and
maximum waterhement ratio. Restrictions are also provided on the types of
cement that can be used and recommendations made on other actions that should
I be taken.

I Examples of these durability limits are given in Table 8.1, but it should be
understood that these are only given for guidance. The Engineer will need to
specify limits appropriate to the particular environment and usage, taking into
I account his overall requirements for durability of the structure and the quality of
the materials to be used.

I See BRE Digest 363 (Reference 12) for information about sulphate and acid
resistance of concrete in the ground.

I
I
I
I
I
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I I1esigmr.q Concrete Mixes Using Local Materials
Oversews Development Agency Page 53
GiJford and Partners
Report No. 6990/05/A
August 1997
 I
8.2.1 Minimum Cement Content and Maximum WaterKement Ratio
I
Table 8.1 Minimum Cement Content and Maximum Water/Cement Ratio for
Different Types of Exposure (from Reference 6)
I
Reinforced Concrete Mass Concrete I
Minimum Cement Maximum Minimum Cement klaximum

Type of Exposure
Content (kg/m3)
for Nominal
Water/
Cement
Ratio
Content (kg/m3)
for Nominal
Maximum Size of
Water/
Cement
Ratio
I
Maximum Size of
Aggregate (mm)

40 20 14 10
Aggregate (mm)

40 20 14 10
I
Concrete
zxposed to:
surfaces

i abrasive action by
1
Zxtreme 320 350 370 390 0.45 120 350 370 390 0.50

I
sea water
ii water with a pH
4.5 or less
Concrete surfaces
directly affected by:
i de-icing salts
very
severe
295 325 345 365 0.45 !95 325 345 365 0.50 I
ii sea water spray
Concrete
exposed to:
surfaces
Severe 295 325 345 365 0.50 !70 300 320 340 0.50
I
i drivingrain
ii alternate wetting
and drying
I
Concrete surfaces
above ground level
and fully sheltered
I
against all of the
following:
i rain
ii de-icing salts
I
iii sea water spray

Concrete surfaces
Moderate 270 300 320 340 0.50 245 275 295 315 0.50
I
permanently
saturated by water
with a p H greater
than 4.5
I
Concrete surfaces
completely protected I
against weather and
aggressive
conditions, excepl Mild
for a brief period oj
245 275 295 315 0.55 220 250 270 290 0.55 I
exposure to normal
weathcr conditions
during construction.
I
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 8.2.2 Maximum Cement Content

The cement content should be limited to minimise the risk of cracking due to drying
shrinkage in thin sections and higher thermal stresses in thicker sections. In the UK,
the Specification for Highway Works limits the cement content to 550kg/m3 whilst
in some parts of the Middle East the value is limited to 450kg/m3 because of the
hotter climate.

8.2.3 Maximum Sulphate Content

In the UK, the Specification for Highway Works (Reference 6) limits the total acid
soluble content of the concrete mix to less than 4% of the mass of cement in the mix. See Tables 3.2,
Excessive amounts can lead to expansion and disruption of the concrete. This 4.1 and 5.1 for
figure is also the recommended limit in some parts of the Middle East. Any sulphate limits
lowering of this limit should only be considered as a result of extensive experience for each
concrete
of the behaviour of concrete made from the proposed constituents in a similar constituent
environment.

8.2.4 Maximum Chloride Content

For reinforced concrete, Codes of Practice in many countries limit the chloride SeeTables3.2,
4.1 and 5.1
content of the concrete mix, but there is no consensus on the threshold level for
chloride limits
corrosion. In the UK, the Specification for Highway Works (Reference 6) limits the for each
total chloride content to less than 0.3% of chloride ions by mass of cement and this
value is also used in some parts of the Middle East, except when the cement contains constituent
less than 4% C3A (tricalcium aluminate) where 0.15% is recommended. This lower
limit would, for instance, apply to sulphate resisting cement. These limits apply
only to concrete using Portland cement.

For unreinforced concrete, less guidance is available, but, in some parts of the
Middle East, a maximum chloride level of 0.60% of chloride ions by mass of cement
is quoted to be a reasonable value under normal conditions. However, it is
considered that sea water (which will not comply with this limit) can be used for
unreinforced concrete subject to providing resistance to sulphate attack and control See Section
of the type of aggregates. 5.2 on sea-
water

8.2.5 Restrictions to Resist Sulphate and Acid Attack on Concrete Below Ground

Sulphates and acids in the ground can attack the hardened concrete. The level of
attack depends on the concentrations of the sulphates and acids within the ground,
the level and mobility of the water table and the properties of the proposed concrete.
‘The sulphates and acids can arise from naturally occurring materials or from
industrial waste materials.

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 I
To resist this form of attack it is important that the concrete incorporates an
appropriate cement. It should also have a low permeability by restricting the
I
waterkement ratio and having a minimum cement content.
I
In both the UK and some parts of the Middle East, requirements are specified for
different exposure and conditions of use. The greater the resistance required, the
more onerous the required minimum cement content and maximum waterkement
I
ratio. In addition restrictions are made on the types of cement that can be used.
More information about sulphate and acid resistance of concrete in the ground is
given in BRE Digest 363 (Reference 12).
I
..
8.3 -
Proportioning Materials for Concrete General I
When the Engineer has determined his specific requirements for the strength and
durability of the concrete, taking into account the mechanical and physical I
properties of the proposed materials, trial mixes should be undertaken. Trial
mixes are essential to ascertain whether the component materials have the
necessary quality to produce concrete with an acceptable cohesiveness and
I
workability.

This section details a method for proportioning the qualities of the materials for a
I
first trial mix, taking into account design requirements for the concrete in terms of
strength and durability. I
In order to calculate the required mix proportions, the Engineer must determine
the required properties of the concrete, as given in the following sections.
I
8.3.1 Characteristic Strength I
This is the value used as the basis for the structural design. If requirements for
durability are incorporated in the mix design, the required strength will almost I
certainly be achieved. However, the trial mix design must establish that the
characteristic strength can be achieved and from this a strength standard can be
determined against which the quality of the production concrete can be controlled.
1
For the durability of reinforced concrete structures, it is usual to specify minimum I
concrete cover requirements for the reinforcement appropriate to the particular
environment and usage. Under aggressive conditions, the cover requirements can
become onerous and consideration may need to be given to increasing the strength
I
of the concrete. For instance, in the UK, the Code of Practice for Design of
Concrete Bridges (Reference 16) reduces the cover requirements for higher
strength concrete, and also limits the use of lower grade concrete in severe
I
ciivironments, in order to keep the reinforcement cover to what it considers to be
an acceptable level. This is because, if the cover is too large, it may not be I
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I
 possible to provide sufficient steel to control crack widths without increasing the
member size considerably.

8.3.2 Standard Deviation, Margin, Target Mean Strength

In order to obtain the Target Mean Strength (the strength required to ensure that
95% of results of strength tests should be greater than the characteristic strength)
for the trial mix, it is necessary to specify the Standard Deviation. The Standard
Deviation is related to the Target Mean Strength by the relationship:

Target Mean Strength = Characteristic Strength plus Margin, and

Margin = 1.64 x Standard Deviation

The Standard Deviation relates to the quality control that can be achieved on
production of the concrete. The higher the control, the lower the standard
deviation and therefore the lesser the Margin that is required.

Table 8.2 shows the relationship between Control, Standard Deviation and
Margin. For ‘good’ control, it is considered that data would have to be available
to show that 100 separate batches of concrete of nominally similar proportions of
similar materials, have been produced over a period of one year. ‘Average’ would
apply where data are available for 40 separate batches over a period not exceeding
six months. ‘Poor’ should be used when insufficient data are available.

8.3.3 Cement Type and Content

‘The Engineer should prescribe the type of cement required and the minimum and
maximum cement contents applicable to durability requirements. He will need to See Section
for cement
obtain the speclJc gravity of the cement. If measured values cannot be obtained, a tYpes
value of 3.15 is reasonable to be assumed.

For a given workability and degree of exposure, the cement content should be
increased as the aggregate surface roughness increases and the aggregate particle
shape becomes more irregular or angular. The cement content should also be
increased if the maximum size of the aggregate has to be reduced. This is implied
I?y approximate fi-ee-water contents given in Table 8.3.

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 I
Table 8.2 Concrete Mix Design Statistics
Relationship between production control, margin and standard deviation
I
for various characteristic strengths
I
Confidence Characteristic 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Level

%
Strength

Production Margins(M) and Standard Deviations(SD)

I
Control
1.05
0.64
I 1.32
0.80
I
(N/mm*)
1.58
0.96
I 1.84
I . 12
1 2.11
1.28
I 2.37
1.44
I 2.63
1.61
I
I
Good M 3.53 5.29 7.06 7.94
SD
I I I
3.77

1
4.30

1 1 I
I I M 5.00 6.25 7.5 8.75 1;: 11.25 12.5

1 1 I 1 1 1
SD 3.05 3.81 4.57 5.34 6.86 7.62

I
I

75 I
I

AverageyD
Average M 6.67
4.07
8.34
5.08
10.0
6.I
11.67
7.11
13.34
8.13
15.0
9.15
16.67
10.16
I
I 70 I M
SD
t3S; : .01 ;::1: b5i! 17.14
10.45
19.29
11.76
21.43
13.07 I
I 65 I Poor FD
10.77
6.57
13.46 16.15
9.85
18.85
11.49
21.541
3.13
24.23
14.78
26.92
16.42
I
Note: 90% confidence level implies 95% of results of strength tests greater than characteristic strength

8.3.4 Slump I
The Engineer should determine the workability requirement for the concrete by
providing an acceptable range for the slump test. He should take into account what
I
the concrete is to be used for. For instance, for mass concrete construction and
lightly reinforced sections, a low slump is probably acceptable to achieve the
required workability. Some national standards give specific slump requirements
I
tor different types of work, but it is advisable to specify the requirement on the
basis of the lowest slump compatible with the conditions of placement. (A low
I
value of slump implies a low waterkement ratio and consequently low
permeability and good strength). I
The mix design procedure checks the workability requirement against ranges of
slump as detailed in Table 8.3. I
I:or a given cement and water content, an increasing fineness of the sand content
in the blended aggregate will cause the mix to become sticky and have poor
I
workability. This must be compensated by increasing the quantities of medium
and coarse aggregate content so that the total aggregate content, as determined by
the design process, remains unaltered.
I
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I
I
Increasing the water content in order to improve the workability on site is a
I common error which can lead to the production of concrete having lower strength
and poor durability.

I There may be occasions when it is necessary to use an admixture to achieve the

See Table 6.1
required workability for a low specified water content. admixtures
I 8.3.5 Maximum WatedCement Ratio

I The maximum watedcement ratio can be specified to satisfy durability

requirements. If no value is specified, then the watedcement ratio will be

I calculated as part of the mix proportioning with no restriction on the value.

It is important to understand that water hydrates the cement grains leading to

1 strength and durability of the concrete; and lubricates the aggregate particles
sufficiently to give the concrete a satisfactory workability.

I Table 8.3 Approximate Water Contents (kg/m3)Required to give Various

Levels of Workability

I Maximum Water Content kg/m2

Size of Type of Slump (mm)

I Aggregate
(mm)
Aggregate
0.10 10-30 30-60 60-180

I 10

20
Uncrushed
Crushed
Uncrushed
150
180
135
180
205
160
205
230
180
225
250
195
170 190 210 225
I 40
Crushed
Uncrushed
Crushed
115
155
140
175
160
190
175
205

I Note: When coarse and fine aggregates of different types are used, the water content is
estimated by the expression:

I */3

where
w,+ '13 w,
W, is the water content appropriate to the type of fine aggregate

I and

8.3.6 Aggregate Selection

W, is the water content appropriate to the type of coarse aggregate

I The Engineer should determine what aggregates to use taking into account
durability requirements, the advice given in this manual and any data available
See Section
for aggregates

I concerning these materials. Once the aggregates have been selected the following
should be determined:

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 i) Saturated and Surface Dry (SSD) Aggregates

For mix proportioning, it is usual to consider the aggregates as being in the

See Section I
3,2,6for
saturated and surface dry (SSD) state and any variation from this must be allowed
for in the mix design procedure.
information
on SSD
condition
I
Their spec& gravity (SG) can be determined as follows:
See Section
3.2.3 for
I
SG = A/[A-(B-C)]
information
where A
B
=
=
weight in mix of the aggregate sample in the SSD condition
weight of a container plus water plus the aggregate sample
on aggregate
specific
I
C = weight of the same container plus water only. gravity

ii) Grading of the Coarse and Fine Aggregates 1

The gradings of the coarse and fine aggregates should be obtained using 40mm,
20mm, 1Omm and 5mm sieves for the coarse sizes and 5mm, 2.4mm, 1.2mm,
See Section
3.1. for further
information
1
0.6mm, 0.3mm and 0.15mm sieves for the finer sizes.

It is possible to combine two or more individual aggregates using the method

1
detailed in Section 8.5 to achieve the desired combined aggregate grading for the
concrete. Obviously, for each individual aggregate selected, it is necessary to
provide its grading as detailed above.
I
Manual methods of grading aggregate are described in the TRRL Report SR 503 I
(Reference 13).

8.4 Proportioning Materials for Concrete - Mix Design

8.4.1 Background to the Method of Proportioning I

The method detailed below is for proportioning the quantities of materials needed
for a first trial mix. The method has been based on the publication Design of
Normal Concrete Mixes (Reference 14) but has been broadened so as to take
account of aggregate materials and gradings which do not conform to British
Standard 882 - Specification for Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete.
In addition, greater account has been taken of some of the measures needed to
ensure the durability of the concrete.

This method of proportioning takes account of some of the mechanical and

physical properties of the aggregates that can affect the workability and the quality I
of the hardened concrete.

The method is based on the absolute volume of materials in the hardened concrete
I
and on the aggregates being in the SSD condition.

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I
I If surface wet aggregates are used, then allowance must be made for the surface
water by determining the surface water content, in kg/m3, and subtracting this

I amount from the water to be added.

If the aggregates are dry, then their absorption after 30 minutes soaking should be
1 measured. From this it will then be possible to determine the amount of additional
water that should be incorporated in the concrete mix.

I For small jobs and only when dry aggregates are to be used, they may be volume
batched, if it is more convenient to do so. For volume batching, reference should

I be made to Figure 8.4.

Volume batching should not be used for damp or wet aggregates because of the
U risk of the bulking of the finer materials.

I As part of the method, the selected aggregates are blended to produce a combined
grading close to one of the gradings given in Figures 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7. These
gradings are in no sense ideal but represent those used in tests from which data
U have been obtained. Four gradings are provided for each of three nominal
maximum sizes of aggregates. The four areas represent differing proportions of
fine particles, 1 being the coarsest and 4 being the finest.
I 8.4.2 Method for Mix Design

U The method for mix design consists of the following steps:

I Use the data obtained from the sieve analysis of the aggregates to work out
the proportions in which they are to be blended in order to reach agreement
with the desired overall grading of all particle sizes.
See
8.5
Section

I From Table 8.4 obtain a value for the strength of a mix made with a
watedcement ratio of 0.5 according to the specified age, the type of cement

I and the aggregate to be used. This strength value is then plotted on Figure
8.1 and a curve is drawn from this point and parallel to the printed curves
until it intercepts a horizontal line passing through the value on the y-axis

U representing the Target Mean Strength. The corresponding value for the
watedcement ratio can then be read from the x-axis. For the proportioning
of mixes where the watedcement ratio is specified, the value used in the
I mix design should be the lower of that specified and that determined from
Figure 8.1.

I Some calibration may be needed to the data in Table 8.4 for local cements
which may have different fineness or hydration characteristics. Small
variations of the specific gravity of the cement can be ignored.
I
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I
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 I
Use the watedcement ratio and the water content given in Table 8.3 for the I
desired workability to calculate the cement content in kg/m3. Check the
cement content with the minimum and maximum values specified.
1
0 From Figure 8.2 find the wet density of the concrete mix in kg/m3.

Work out the aggregate content in kg/m3 by subtracting the cement and 1
water contents from the wet density. (The aggregatekement ratio may be
checked by reference to Figure 8.3).
I
0 Use the aggregate blending proportions to calculate the content of all the
aggregate materials needed for the first trial mix. I
0 The Engineer should then check that the mix proportions comply with any
other durability requirements that may be specified. For instance, if the I
materials in the mix are contaminated with chlorides, does the chloride
content of the proposed trial mix comply with a restriction on the total
chloride content for the concrete? Similarly, if the proposed aggregate is
I
susceptible to alkali- silica reaction, a limitation on the alkali content of the
mix may be required. 1
0 Make the first trial mix and measure the workability and strength of the
concrete. I
0 If the first trial mix fails to provide the required workability or strength,
adjust the proportions of the materials and make a second trial mix.
I
I
1
I
I
1
I
I
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I
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I
 I
lb/yd3
I
200 400 600 800 1000
I
I
I
I
I
I
2 4 6 8 10 12 0 loo 200 300
Cement Content
400
-
500 600
kg/m3
I
Aggregate/Cement Ratio by Weight

I
Figure 8.3 AggregateKement Ratio by Weight

‘Table 8.4 Approximate Compressive Strengths (N/mm2) of Concrete Mixes

I
Made with a WaterKement Ratio of 0.5 (from Reference 14)
I
Type of
Type of Cement Coarse
Aggregate
t
Ordinary Portland or sulphate- Uncrushed
3
22
7
30
28
42
91
49 I
resisting Portland Crushed 27 36 49 56

I iz I 1 I 1
~ ~ ~~

Rapid-hardening Portland Uncrushed 37 48 54

Crushed~ 43 55 61

8.5 I’roportioning Materials for Concrete - Blending of Aggregates I

‘1’0 determine the proportions in which two or more aggregates can be blended, a
graphical method can be used as follows: (Note that Figure 8.8 provides an
I
csample, following steps 1 to 9)
I
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1
 2. Draw a diagonal straight line through the origin at any slope until
percentage passing at 100% (already marked on proforma, Figure 8.9).

3. Choose the desired combined grading. Mark percentages passing each

sieve as horizontal lines (red in example, Figure 8.8) to intersect the
diagonal line.

4. Through each of the intersection points along the diagonal draw a vertical
line to intersect the horizontal axis. Label each intersection with the sieve
size corresponding to the desired combined grading.

5. Determine the individual gradings of the aggregates to be used. In the

example, a fine sand, a 5 to lOmm coarse aggregate and, a 10 to 20mm
coarse aggregate are used. The individual gradings of these aggregates can
be entered into the Table in Figure 8.8.

6. Plot the individual gradings on the non-uniform graph (blue in example).

Draw the steepest straight line (I, I1 and I11 in example) through the points
See Figure 8,8
representing each aggregate, ignoring points lying near the 0 and 100%
passing lines.

7. Draw a straight line between the 0 and 100% passing sieve sizes of
adjacent aggregate types (green in example).

8. Draw a horizontal line (brown dashed in example) back to the vertical axis
fiom the intersection between the original diagonal (black) and the new 0
to 100% lines (green).

9. The horizontal intersections with the vertical (brown dashed) give the
proportions by weight of each grading:

Therefore, according to the graph given in the example for Grading Curve
3 in Figure 8.7, proportions should be as follows:

fine sand -
- 3 9%
5 to 10 mm coarse (62-39) = 23%
10 to 20 mm coarse - 38%

Add these to the table as percentages of the original gradings. The values
may be checked for accuracy by comparing the sum total of the combined
aggregates for each sieve size, against the desired combined grading.

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 100

90

80
U
f
VI
70
VI
2 60
W
U 50
<
c
Z 40
w
U
a 30
W
&
20

10

150p 300p 6OOpm 118mm 2.36mm 5mm 10mm

(No 100) (No.5 2 ) (No 2 5 ) (No 14) (No. 7 ) ( A in.) ( 1 in.)
B S SIEVE S I Z E

Figure 8.5 Grading Curves for 10mm Maximum-size Aggregate (Reference 15)

Figure 8.6 Grading Curves for 20mm Maximum-size Aggregate (Reference 15)
100

90

2 60

50
<
c
Z 40
Y
U
5 30
4
20

10

0
1SOpm 3 0 0 ~ 6OOpm 118mm 2.36mm 5mm 1Omm 20- 3 7 - 5 m
(No.100) (No.5 2 ) (No.2 5 ) (No. 1 4 )(No.7 ) ( A in.) ( 1 in.) (1 in) (li in.)
BS SIEVE SIZE

Figure 8.7 Grading Curves for 40mm Maximum-size Aggregate (Reference 15)

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August 1997
 Project Job Ref Sheet No

Element Date MIX No

Engineer

Aggregate Name I Oescription Source Other"

1 Combined Grading Description Other Notes

Desired Grading of individual Aggregate Grading of combined Aggregate ;heck results

Sieve Size Combined Grading 6 Passing % Passing ?hPassing
% Passing Sand 1015 20110 39% Sand 23% 1015 35% 20110

Proforma

0
m
f
e
n

Sieve Size

Figure 8.9 Proforma

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THIS PAGE IS INTENDED TO BE BLANK
 I
Example Mix Proportioning for Low Strengt Low Slump Concrete, loderate Exposure
I
Work out the proportions of materials needed for a trial mix of concrete and having the following I
target properties:
I
Characteristic strength 22N/mm2 Reference Section 8.3.1
Nominal maximum size of aggregate 20mm
Standard Deviation 5N/mm2
Reference Section 8.3.6
Reference Section 8.3.2
I
Workability
Cement type and SG
10 to 30mm slump
Portland cement 3.15
Reference Section 8.3.4
Reference Section 8.3.3
I
Specific durability requirements:
Minimum cement content 300kg/m3 Reference Section 8.3.3
I
Maximum cement content 450kg/m3
Maximum watedcement ratio 0.5 Reference Section 8.3.5 I
The aggregates have been selected from locally available crushed rock and natural sand and are I
clean and free of chemical contaminants. They are petrologically sound, are not susceptible to
alkali reaction and are available in three sizes. They have been blended to Curve 2 in Figure 8.6
by means of the method shown in Section 8.5 and the SG has been measured.
B
1
I
I
i
1
1
I
I
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I
Example 2 Mix Proportioning for Chloride Exposure and Sulphate Attack, Extreme Exposure
I
0 Work out the proportions of materials needed for a trial mix of concrete having the following I
target properties:

I
Characteristic strength 32N/mm2 Reference Section 8.3.1
Nominal maximum size of aggregate 20mm Reference Section 8.3.6 I
Standard Deviation 5N/mm2 Reference Section 8.3.2
Workability 30 to 60 mm slump Reference Section 8.3.4 I
Cement type and SG Portland cement 3.15 Reference Section 8.3.3
Specific Durability Requirements: I
Minimum cement content 350kglm3 Reference Section 8.3.3
Maximum cement content 45Okg/m3 I
Maximum waterlcement ratio 0.45 Reference Section 8.3.5
I
0 The aggregates have been selected from locally available crushed rock and natural sand and are
clean and free of chemical contaminants. They are petrologically sound, are not susceptible to I
alkali reaction and are available in three sizes. They have been blended to Curve 3 of Figure 8.6
as shown in the aggregate blending example detailed in Section 8.5 and the SG has been I
measured (See 8.3.6).
I
A minimum cement content of 350kg/m3has been specified to provide the concrete with the
I
0

necessary durability to resist chloride and sulphate attack.

1
I
I
I
I
-

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I
I
 I
Example 4 Mix Proportioning for Poor Quality Aggregates of High Absorption and Low SG - Dry
I
Batched for Concrete Exposed to Driving Rain and Alternate Wetting and Drying, Severe
Exposure
I
I
A concrete is to be made from aggregates of low SG and high water absorption. It is proposed to
batch all the materials in the perfectly dry (oven dry) state. I
The aggregates have been selected and blended to Curve 3 in Figure 8.6 as shown in the example I
detailed in Section 8.5.
I
A sample has been soaked for 24 hours and the saturated and surface dry SG has been found.
This is needed for the mix design method which is based on aggregates being in the SSD I
condition.
1
To obtain kg/m3 of the oven dry aggregates, when aggregates are to be batched in an oven dry
condition, the kg/m3 of the SSD aggregates as found from the charts are multiplied by loo/( 100 + I
A) where A is the percentage by weight of water needed to bring the dry aggregates to the SSD
condition. I
Characteristic strength 32N/mm2 Reference Section 8.3-1 I
Reference Section 8.3.6
Nominal maximum size of aggregate
Standard deviation
20mm
5N/mm2 Reference Section 8.3.2 I
Workability
Cement type and SG
30 to 60mm slump
Portland cement, 3.15
Reference Section 8.3.4
Reference Section 8.3.3
I
Specific durability requirements:
Minimum cement content 325kg/m3 Reference Section 8.3.3
U
Maximum cement content
Maximum water cement ratio
450kg/m3
0.5 ii.eference Section 8.3.5
I
SG of the aggregates
Water absorption of the aggregates - fine
2.2
8%
I
- coarse 5yo
I
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 Slump Degree of Workability
mm
0-25 Very low
25-50 Low
50-100 Medium
100-175 High

It has been argued that the slump test provides a rather poor indication of workability.
Nevertheless, it is easy to do and the equipment is cheap and simple.

The American variant of the slump test is to ASTM C124-39. Other types of test include the
compaction factor test, Vebe, and the flow table.

8.7.2 Compressive Test

Compressive strength tests are carried out on cubes of 15Omm size to BS 1881 Part 3 or
cylinders of 15Omm diameter and 300mm long to ASTM C192-76.

The procedure is to place and compact concrete in the mould according to requirements of BS
1881. It is stored for 24 hours at a temperature of 18 to 21°C and a relative humidity of 90%. It
is then removed from the mould and stored in water at 19 to 21°C. The compression test is
most commonly carried out at 28 days. Additional tests may be called for at three days or
seven days if the rate of gain of early strength is required.

There is no unique relationship between cube strength and cylinder strength but it has been
suggested that cylinder strength is 80% of the cube strength as a rough guide.

Compressive strength provides an indication of other properties, for example high strengths
indicate high modulii of elasticity and are usually, but not always, associated with high density
and hence low permeability.

Achieving compressive strength for mix design is not usually a problem. However,
maintaining consistency of strength and workability sometimes requires re-adjustment of the
mix proportions.

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9 REFERENCES I
(1) Building Research Establishment. Avoiding Faults and Failures in Building. BRE OBN 177,
1977, UK I
(2) Concrete Society. Alkali-silicate Reaction: Minimising the Risk to Concrete. Technical Report
20, UK, 1995 I
(3) FIP. Concrete Construction in Hot Weather: Guide to Good Practice. Thomas Telford, 1986.
ISBN 0727702572 I
(4) Building Research Establishment. No-fines Concrete. BRE OBN 166, UK, 1976
I
( 5 ) CIRIA. Guide to Construction in the Gulf Region. Special Publication 3 1, UK, 1984

(6) Highways Agency (UK). Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works, Vol 1. I
Specification for Highway Works. HMSO, 1994

(7) Indian Practical Civil Engineers Handbook. Engineers Publishers, New Dehli, 13 Edition, 1994
I
(8) Cement and Concrete Association. Effect of Mica in the Fine Aggregates on the Water
Requirements and Strength of Concrete. Technical Report TRA 370, 1963
I
(9) Portland Cement Association. Design and Control of Concrete Mixes. US, 1992 I
(10) Concrete Society. Guide to Chemical Admixtures for Concrete. Technical Report 18, UK, 1980

(1 1) Building Research Establishment. Alternatives to OPC. BRE OBN 198, UK, 1993
I
(12) Building Research Establishment. Sulphate and Acid Resistance of Concrete in the Ground.
BRE Digest 363
I
(13) Transport Research Laboratory. Some Manual Methods of Screening Aggregates for Labour-
intensive Road Construction. TRL Report SR 503, UK, 1979
I
(14) Building Research Establishment. Design of Normal Concrete Mixes. BRE Report 106, UK,
1988
I
(1 5 ) Cement and Concrete Association. Concrete Constituents and PFA Properties. C&CA Report,
1974
I
(16) British Standards Institution. Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges. BS 5400, 1990 I
I
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I 10 STANDARDS

I BRITISH STANDARDS
LGGREGATES
I IS 812 Parts 2 - 124
)S 882
Testing aggregates
Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete
i S 1377 : Parts 1 - 9
I i S 877 : 2
Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposesI

(withdrawn) Specification for forced or expanded blast furnace slag

lightweight aggregate for concrete

I 3s 1047 Specification for air-cooled blast furnace slag aggregate for use in
construction
3s 3797 Specification for lightweight aggregates for masonry units and structural
I 3s 1165
concrete
(withdrawn) Specification for clinker and furnace bottom ash aggregates
for concrete
I 3s 3681 (withdrawn) Methods of sampling and testing of lightweight aggregates
for concrete

I ZEMENT
3s 12 Specification for Portland cement
3s 1370 Specification for low heat Portland cement

I 3s 4027
3 s 146
Specification for sulphate-resistingPortland cement
Specification for Portland blastfurnace cement
3s 6588 Specification for Portland pulverised-fuel ash cements
I 3 s 6610
BS 4550 : Parts 0 - 6
Specification for Pozzolanic pulverised-fuel ash cement
Methods of testing cement (Partially replaced by BS EN 196 but still ir
wide use)
I BS EN 196 : Parts 1 - 7
WATER
Methods of testing cement

BS 3 I48 Methods of test for water for making concrete (including notes on tht
I BS 2690 : Parts 1 - 125
suitability of the water)
Methods of testing water used in industry
BS 6068 : Parts 0 - 6 Water quality
I BS 6337 : Part 4 General methods of chemical analysis - Method for determination c
chloride ions by potentiometry
BS 3993 Specificationfor hydrochloric acid, commercial types 1 and 2.
I BS 3903 Methods of test for sulphuric acid, oleum and liquid sulphur trioxide

BS 5634
I BS 6075 : Part
CP i 1O:l
Methods of test for potassium hydroxide
Methods of sampling and test for sodium hydroxide for industrial use
(Superseded) Code of Practice for the Structural use of Concrete Design

I ADMIXTURES
BS 5075 : Parts 1 - 3
Materials and Workmanship (Replaced by BS 8110)

Concrete Admixtures

I
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AMERICAN STANDARDS
I
kGGFtEGATES
4STM C-88 Test Method for Soundnessof Aggregatesby Use of Sodium
Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate.
I
4STM C-33 (-81)
4STM C- 131
Specification for Concrete Aggregates
Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse I
Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
4STM C-535 Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate
by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine I
ASTM C-294 Descriptive Nomenclatureof Constituent of Natural Mineral Aggregates
ASTM C-295
ASTM C-289
Guide for PetrographicExamination of Aggregates for Concrete
Test Method for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical Method) I
ASTM C-227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement- Aggregate

ASTM C-586
Combinations(Mortar-Bar Method)
Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for
I
Concrete Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)
ASTM C- 142
ASTM C-40
Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates
Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates for Concrete
I
CEMENT
ASTM C- 150
ASTM C-595/595M
Specification for Portland Cement
Specificationfor Blended Hydraulic Cements [metric]
I
ASTM C- 191 Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
ASTM C-151
ASTM C- 109/109M
Test Method for Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement
Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
I
(Using 2in or 50mm cube Specimens) [metric]
ASTM C- 186
ASTM C-114
Test Method for Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement
I
WATER
ASTM STP-169C : Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete Making
Materials
I
ASTM C-99
AASHTO T26 :
AS'I'M D-5 16
Test Method for Modulus of Rupture of Dimension Stone
Method of Test for Quality of Water to be Used in Concrete
Test Methods for SulphateIon in Water
I
ASTM D-5 12
ADMIXTURES
Test Methods for Chloride Ion in Water
I
ASTM C-494 Specificationfor Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
ASTM C-260
ASTM C-1017
Specification for Air-EntrainingAdmixtures for Concrete
Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowing I
Concrete
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I INDIANSTANDARDS
4GGREGATES
I [S 2386
[S 5816
Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete
Method of Test for Splitting Tensile Strength of Concrete
Glossary of Terms Relating to Cement Concrete
I [S 6461
[S 7861
[S 383
Code of Practice for Extreme Weather Concreting
Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for

I [S 456
[S 516
Concrete
Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete
Methods of Test for Strength of Concrete

I WATER
IS 3025 Methods of Sampling and Test (Physical and Chemical) for Water used in
Industry
I IS 3550
ADMIXTURES
Methods of Test for Routine Control for Water used in Industry

IS 9103 Specification for Admixtures in Concrete

I CEMENT
IS 455 Specification for Portland Slag Cement
IS 269 Specification for Ordinary and Low Heat Portland Cement
I IS 1489
IS 8041
Specification for Portland Pozzolona Cement
Specification for Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
IS 12330 Specification for Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement
I OTHER MATERIALS
IS 5817 Code of Practice for Preparation and Use of Lime Pozzolan Concrete in
Buildings and Roads
I IS 2686
IS 3068
Cinder as Fine Aggregates for Use in Lime Concrete
Broken Brick (Burnt Clay) Fine Aggregates for use in Lime Concrete

I IS 4098 Lime-Dozzolan Mixture

I AGGREGATES
MTO LS 606
CANADIAN STANDARDS

Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Magnesium Sulphate

I OPSS 1002
LS GO4
Material Specification of Aggregates - Concrete
Reflective Density and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
WATER

I OPSS 1302
ADMIXTURES
OPSS 1303
I
I EUROPEAN STANDARDS I
I CEMENT - PORTLAND
CEM Standards
CEMENT - BLEND
1 CEM Standards

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11 GLOSSARY I
air entraining admixture Admixture that allows a controlled quantity of bubbles to be
dispersed evenly during mixing and remain after hardening. See
Table 6.1. I
acid An aqueous solution with a pH less then 7.0. See Table 5.1.
I
admixlure A material added in small quantities during the mixing process to

aggregate shrinkage
modify the properties of the mixture.

Aggregates with high absorption characteristics may have high

I
alkali
shrinkage on drying. See Section 3.2.6.

An aqueous solution with a pH greater than 7.0. See Table 5.1.

I
alkali-uggregate reaction See Sections 2.3.1 and 3.2.9. I
alkali carbonate reaction See Sections 2.3.2 and 3.2.9.

alkal i-s il ica See Sections 2.3.1 and 3.2.9.

1
all-in uggregate Aggregate consisting of a mixture of coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate, usually occurring naturally.
I
batch Quantity of concrete mixed in one cycle of operations of a concrete
mixer, or the quantity of concrete transported ready-mixed in a I
vehicle.

batching The making of a batch of concrete. Two methods exist: batching by I

weight and batching by volume. Whilst volume batching is widely
used on less important structures, weight batching is the
recommended method for the production of durable concrete,
because it allows greater quality control.
I
blast jiirnace slag See ground granulated blast firnace slag. 1
bleedittg

bulking
Separationof water from fresh concrete.

The increase in the volume of a given weight of the fine aggregate,

I
caused, if water is present, by the films of water pushing the
particles apart. I
calcitic A rock in which one of the primary minerals is calcium

capilhry action The rising of fluid in tiny voids above the level of the fluid, caused
I
by surface tension. The zone of saturation above the water table is
called the capillary fringe. It may extend for many metres,
depending on the size of the voids in the ground and the
I
temperature and dryness of the atmosphere.
I
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I carbonation A process by which carbon dioxide from the air penetrates the
concrete or cement and reacts with hydroxides to form carbonates. It
increases shrinkage drying and lowers alkalinity of the concrete
I which can lead to corrosion of steel reinforcement.

characteristic strength See Section 8.3.1.

I chloride A contaminant of concrete constituents. May also attack the finished
structure. See Section 8.2.4.
I cinders Waste material produced when coal is burnt. See Section 7.1.4.

I clinker When the raw materials used in the manufacture of cement have been
ground and then mixed together and burnt, the resultant material has
sintered and partially fused into balls known as clinker.

I coating Covering layer - eg paint.

A property closely related to workability. A cohesive mix provides

I cohesiveness
for uniform and well-compacted concrete. Depends largely on the
proportion of fine particles in the mix.

I compacting/cornpaction Process of removing air from fresh concrete and ensuring that a dense
homogeneous material is produced. Can be done by hand, though for
higher quality concrete, a mechanical vibrator is usually used.
I compressibility The ease with which a material can be compressed or shortened by
applying a force. Related to elasticity.
I compressive strength The resistance expressed in force per unit area of a structural material
at failure in a compressiontest.
I concrete cube tests See Section 8.7.2.

I contaminatiodcontaminants Impurity that is contained in the material or that penetrates the

material from an external source.

I corrosion The gradual removal or weakening of metal from its surface by

chemical attack.

I creep The time dependent deformation of concrete which begins as soon as

it is loaded and continues at a decreasing rate for as long as the
concrete remains loaded.

I curing Operation to ensure the hardening of concrete by preventing excessive

evaporation of water and extremes of temperature. Curing may be
accelerated by the use of steam or super-heated steam. Adequate
I curing is of prime importance if a durable concrete is to be produced.
de-ionised water Water which by the use of an ion exchanger has less than 1 ppm solid
I particle contamination. See Section 5.1.

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desal inisation the removal of salt from water to enable its use in reinforced concrete,
or for drinking.
I
distilled water Water which has been purified by boiling it, removing the steam
which is produced at 100°C and then condensing it. I
drying shrinkage Contraction of hardened concrete caused by evaporation of water
from its mass. May cause shrinkage cracks. I
Refers to the ability (of concrete) to fulfil its purpose, in the
durability
environmentfor which it was designed, for a required service life. I
eflorescence A chalky white salt deposit which occasionally forms on the surface
of concrete, caused by the leaching of lime compounds. See Section
5.2.
I
elongated aggregate Coarse aggregate in which there are particles which have a long
length (largest dimension) in relation to the size fraction to which they
belong.
I
exposure trials Durability tests on concrete cubes, in which the cubes are placed in
the same environment as that of the finished concrete structure.
I
Exposure trials will typically take at least 90 days.

Premature stiffening of the mortar in a concrete immediately after

B
mixing, which can be corrected by reworking without adding water.

Coarse aggregate in which there are particles which have a small

thickness (least dimension) in relation to the size fraction to which
I
$as h-set
they belong.
Stiffening of a mix which occurs very quickly after mixing with
I
water. It is caused by a lack of gypsum in the cement and is
irreversible. I
Jocculution Merging together of the cement particles. If flocculation can be
prevented the particles have a greater mobility and water is freed to
infiltrate the mix and improve workability. I
fiee lime

j?iable/j+iability
See Section 4.1.2.

See Section 3.2.8.

I
graded aggregate Aggregate containing selected proportions of different particle sizes,
usually chosen to form a concrete of maximum density.
I
grading The percentage by weight of different particle sizes in a sample of
aggregate, expressed on a grading curve.
I
ground granulated blast furnace
slug
Abbreviated to GGBS, a by-product of iron manufacture. Has a
chemical composition similar to Portland cement but cannot be used
I
on its own as it requires ‘activation’. GGBS may be used to replace
up to 90% of the Portland cement. The use of GGBS as a
replacement has been recommended as a method of reducing the
I
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I likelihood of alkali aggregate reaction. See Section 4.3

hardening The time dependent increase in strength of a mortar or concrete. Not

I to be confused with setting.

heat of hydration The heat produced when cement reacts with water.

I hydration The combination of water with cement or lime in a chemical reaction.

I hydraulic cement A cement that sets and hardens by chemical reaction with water, and
is capable of doing so under water.

I igneous rocks When molten rock material (magma) cools, either within the earth or
on the surface as lava, it produces igneous rocks.

The application of an impregnating material to the surface of the

I impregnation treatment
concrete to provide an effective water repellent but vapour is a
permeable layer.

I in situ cast concrete Concrete which is placed fresh in its permanent position.

insoluble residue A measure of the impurities in cement. National Standards limit the
I amount allowed. See Section 4.1.5.

lean mix A concrete mix which has a high aggregatelcementratio.

I lightweight aggregate Aggregate having a bulk density of not more than l2OOkg/m3 for fine
aggregate or 1OOOkg/m3 for coarse aggregate. See Section 7.1.1.
I lightweight concrete Concrete that has an air dry density of more than 2OOOkg/m3. See
Section 7.1.1.
I lime A hydraulic material, produced from the burning of limestone,
sea shells, chalk etc. See Section 7.2.4.

I low-alkali cement Cement with a low alkali content, which reduces the risk of alkali-
aggregate reaction.

I loss on ignition A measure of the prehydration and carbonation. National Standards

limit the amount allowed. See Section 4.1.5.

I magnesia See Section 4.1.1.

masonry Stone or brick building blocks. See Sections 7.1.2 and 7.1.3.
I mass concrete Concrete that is without reinforcementand is usually of large bulk.

I minerrrl Minerals are the solid, crystalline constituents of rocks, which have a
particular chemical composition and structure.
metamorphic rocks Rocks which have changed their structure and mineral content as a
I result of great pressure and heat.

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mix design The process of selecting suitable Constituents of concrete and
determining their relative quantities with the object of economically
I
producing concrete of certain properties, notably strength and

modulus of elasticity
durability.

For any material it is the ratio of the stress applied (force per unit
1
area) to the strain produced (deformation per unit length). It is a
constant up to the point of plastic yield - where the material no longer
behaves elastically.
I
mortar cube tests Mortar cubes can be made by the method described in BS 4550, or
cylinders by the methods in ASTM C-31 and C-192. These can be
I
used to compare the effects of impurities in water on strength and
time to set, with a mortar made with ‘pure’ constituents. BS 3148
states that water will have no effect on the setting and hardening I
characteristics if:
a

b
the initial setting times of the mortar blocks do not differ by
more than 30 minutes
the average compressive strength of the test cubes is not less
I
than 90%of that of the control cubes.
AASHTO 726 describes a similar procedure.
These tests can be extended to compare the behaviour of aggregates,
I
cements and admixtures, by comparing either mortar or concrete
cubes, and by setting a limit on the acceptable variation between the
control and tested concrete or mortar. I
oven dry Condition where aggregate has no internal moisture nor external
moisture and therefore is fully absorbent. 1
oxidat ion

permeability
The reaction of a substancewith oxygen from the air.

Refers to the rate of water migration through concrete when the water
I
is under pressure or to the ability of the concrete to resist penetration
of water or other substances (liquid, gas, ions etc). The more
permeable a concrete is, the less watertight and usually less durable it
I
is.

petrographic examination The method by which a microscope is used for studying thin sections
I
of rocks, to determine the minerals which they contain and their
particle size.
I
PH A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of neutral water
is 7.0; values below 7.0 indicate acidity and those above 7.0
alkalinity. I
placing

plastic shrinkage
Putting fresh concrete into its permanent position or mould.

Contraction which occurs whilst the concrete is still in the plastic state
I
caused by hydration of the cement. The heat produced during
hydration also contributes by increasing evaporation of water.
Cracking of the concrete can result. May be reduced by preventing or
I
reducing evaporation. Cracking especially develops over obstructions
such as reinforcement. I
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I plasticising admixture Admixture that increases workability at a given water content. See
Table 6.1, or permit the water content to be reduced for a given
workability.
I plum concrete Concrete in which large boulders (called ‘plums’)are placed in order
to reduce the overall concrete quantity. Sometimes used in large

I porosity
foundations,the plums must be sound and durable.

The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume. A concrete with

I pozzolan
a high porosity will also generally have a high permeability.

See Section 7.2.1

I precast concrete Concrete which is cast and partly matured on site or in a factory
before being put into position in a structure.

I prehydration Hydration of the cement from moisture, prior to use. This usually
occurs due to prolonged storage, inadequate storage or through
incorrect handling during transport.
I prestressed concrete Concrete in which internal stresses are deliberately induced, usually
by tensioned steel, prior to loading a structure.
I pulverisedfiel ash A fine powder resembling cement, which results from the combustion
of pulverised coal in electric power generating plants. It is pozzolanic

I and is used as a partial replacement of Portland cements. See Section

7.2.1 and Table 4.3.

I quality control Control of variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and the
control of accuracy of all operations which affect the strength or
consistency of concrete: batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing.

I rice husk ash A waste product of rice. It can be highly pozzolanic and may be used
as a partial replacement of Portland cement or lime. See Section 7.2.3.

I rich niix A concrete mix with a low aggregatekement ratio.

sand Fine material resulting from natural break-down of rock. Often fine
I aggregate is called ‘sand’ - which means particles passing a 0.06mm
sieve.

I saturuled surface dry (ssd) Condition where aggregate is saturated on the inside but dry on the
outside. Therefore it neither absorbs water nor adds water to the
concrete mix.
I sedinicwtary rocks Rocks which form when sediments of sand, mud or organic material
are laid down and harden.
I segegtrtion Separation of the constituents of fresh concrete, usually during
transport, placing or compacting.
I setting The stiffening of a cemendwater mix upon hydration.

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settlement Concrete settlement over reinforcing bars or coarse aggregate tends to
I
occur in hot weather, with wet mixes and with poor mixing and
compaction. I
sheltering Using a separate structure to provide some form of protection to the
new structure. I
silica *me A grey powder, which results from the manufacture of silicon and
ferrosilicon alloy. It is pozzolanic and is used in the partial
replacementof Portland cement. See Section 7.2.1 and Table 4.3. I
silicaceous

silt
A rock in which one of the primary minerals is silica.
I
Material finer than sand but coarser than clay, that is, from 0.002 to
0.06mm. It feels gritty between the fingers, but the particles are
difficult to see. Often a contaminant of aggregates and water. I
slump

sodium oxide equivalent

See Section 8.7.1.

Expressed as Na2 0 + 0.658 K20

I
soundness See Sections 3.2.5 and 4.1.2. I
specific gravity The weight per unit volume of a substance compared with the weight
of the same volume of water at a given temperature. See Section
3.2.3.
I
standurd deviation Defined as the square root of the average of the squares of the
deviations of all the values. It measures the spread of the values, and
I
is used in quality control. See Section 8.3.2.

sulphule A contaminant of concrete constituents, which may also attack the I

finished structure. See Sections 8.2.3 and 8.2.5.

sulphute-resisting cement A cement with a low tricalcium aluminate (C3A) content, which I
reduces sulphate attack.

superplasticising admixture Admixture that provides for a very high concrete workability. Can be
used to reduce water content whilst maintaining workability. See
I
tanking
Table 6.1.

Waterproofing the concrete.

I
tensile strength The resistance expressed in force per unit area of a structural
material at failure in a tension test.
I
thernitrl conductivity A measure of a material's ability to conduct or transfer heat. A
material which is not conductive is called an insulator.
I
thernrr rl expansion See Section 3.2.7. I
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I trial mix Trial concrete mixes are made using calculated or estimated
proportions of each constituent. The properties of these mixes are
checked and adjustments made to the mix proportions until a

I tricalcium aluminate
satisfactory mix design is reached.

A constituent of cement. See Section 4.1.7.

I water absorption See Section 3.2.6.

I waterkement ratio The amount of water compared with the amount of cement per unit
weight. A crucial factor in the mix design it is one of the primary
factors which determines the strength and durability of a concrete.

I water reducing admixture Seeplasticising admixture.

weathering See Section 3.2.4.

I workability The ease with which a concrete can be placed and compacted. Can be
measured by the slump test. See slump test, Section 8.7.2.
I
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