Biology

Lesson 7 Topic: Cell: Meiosis

Meiosis
- The genetic information we inherit comes from two cells: a sperm and an egg. These cells are produced by a
form of cell division called meiosis.
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation
Heredity & Variation
Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
Variation is the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings
Genes are the units of heredity, and are made up of segments of DNA
Genes are passed to the next generation through reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and eggs)
Chromosome
- Each gene has a specific location called a locus on a certain chromosome.
- Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes.
- One set of chromosomes is inherited from each parent.
- 46 chromosomes in an individual, 23 from mother, and 23 from father.
- First 22 is called autosome, while the last pair is sex chromosome.
Prophase I
- The chromosomes condense and become visible in the microscope.
- The nuclear envelope disappears and the spindle becomes organized.
Metaphase I
- Paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell, with each chromosome attached to spindle
fibers from opposite poles of the cell
Anaphase I
- Members of each homologous pair separate from each other and move toward opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase I
- Production of 2 haploid cells
Prophase II
- The unpaired chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids joined by a centromere.
Metaphase II
- The 23 unpaired chromosomes are at the equator of the cell, with spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell
attached to their centromeres.
Anaphase II
- The centromeres of each chromosome divide for the first time. The 46 chromatids become chromosomes and
move to opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II
- The chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope re-forms, and the process of meiosis is complete.

Lesson 8 Topic: Transport Mechanism (Part 1)

Characteristics of a Plasma Membrane
- Phospholipids are abundant in Plasma Membrane
- Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Fluid Mosaic Model
- A membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of various proteins embedded in it
Components of Cell Membrane:
Phospholipid Bilayer
- It imposes a barrier to permeability.
Transmembrane Proteins
- These proteins have a variety of functions, including transport and communication across the membrane.
Interior protein network
- Membranes are structurally supported by intracellular proteins that reinforce the membrane’s shape.
Cell-surface markers
- Membrane sections assemble in the endoplasmic reticulum, to the Golgi apparatus and then are transported to
the plasma membrane.

Lesson 9 Topic: Transport Mechanism (Part 2)

Protein: Multi-functional Components
Key functions
1. Transporter
- Membranes are selective allowing certain solutes to enter and leave the cell.
2. Enzymes
- Carry out many chemical reactions on the interior surface of the plasma membrane.
3. Cell Surface Receptors
- Sensitive to chemical messages, which are detected by receptor protein on their surfaces.
4. Cell identity Markers
- Identify them to other cell
5. Cell to Cell adhesion of Protein
- To glue them together
6. Attachment to Cytoskeleton
- Anchored to the cytoskeleton by linking proteins.
Structural features of membrane proteins relate to function
- These diverse functions arise from the diverse structures of these proteins yet they also have common
structural features related to their role as membrane proteins.
A. The anchoring of proteins in the bilayer
- Some membrane proteins are attached to the surface of the membrane special molecules that associate
strongly with phospholipids.
- The anchoring molecules are modified lipids that have
1. Nonpolar regions that insert into the internal portion of the lipid bilayer.
2. Chemical bonding domains that link directly to proteins.
B. Transmembrane Domains
- These domain are composed of hydrophobic amino acids usually arranged into α helice.
C. Pores
- This forms a polar environment in the interior of the β sheets spanning the membrane.
Passive Transport Across the Membrane
- Many substances can move in and out of the cell without the cell’s having to expend energy. This type of
movement is termed passive transport.
A. Transport can occur by simple diffusion
- Molecules and ions dissolved in water are in constant random motion.
B. Proteins allow membrane diffusion to be selective - This process of diffusion is called Facilitated Diffusion.
C. Facilitated diffusion of ions through channels
- Because of their charge, ions interact well with polar molecules such as water.

Lesson 10 Topic: Transport Mechanism (Part 3)

Osmosis: Net diffusion of water from area of high concentration to achieve balance.
Hypertonic Solution
- Water moves out of the cell, causing the cell to shrink.
Hypotonic Solution
- Water moves in of the cell causing the cell to burst.
Isotonic Solution
 - The same (or equal) osmotic pressure and same water potential.
Maintaining Osmotic Balance
- Organisms have developed many strategies for solving the dilemma posed by being hypertonic to their
environment and therefore having a steady influx of water by osmosis:
A. Extrusion
- Paramecium - uses vacuoles to remove water inside them.
B. Turgor Pressure
- Most plant cells are hypertonic to their immediate environment, containing a high
concentration of solutes in their central vacuoles.
C. Isosmotic Regulation
- Some organisms that live in the ocean adjust their internal concentration of solutes to match that of the
surrounding sea water.
Active Transport Across Membranes
- Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis are passive transport processes that move materials down
their concentration gradients.
A. Active Transport uses energy to move materials against a concentration gradient
B. The Sodium - Potassium Runs Directly on ATP
C. Coupled transport uses ATP indirectly

Lesson 11 Topic: Transport Mechanism (Part 4)

Bulk Transport
Exocytosis
- Exo (Outside)
- Cytosis (Transport Mechanism)
- Transport mechanism outside Ex.
- Nerve cells use exocytosis to release neurotransmitters that signal other neurons or muscle cell
- When plant cells are making cell walls, exocytosis delivers some of the necessary proteins and carbohydrates
Endocytosis
- Endo (Inside)
- Cytosis (Transport Mechanism)
- Transport mechanism inside
Types of Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
- Cell engulfing by pseudopodia (false feet)
Pinocytosis
- A cell continually “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicle
Receptor mediated
- Enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, even though those substances may not be very
concentrated in the extracellular fluid.

Lesson 12 Topic: Structures and functions of Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates
- Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
Sugar
- Sugars are among the most important energy storage molecules, and they exist in several different forms.
Monosaccharides
- Are simple sugars containing as few as three carbon atoms, but those that play the central role in energy
storage.
Polysaccharides
- Are longer polymers made up of monosaccharides that have been joined through dehydration reactions.
Example of Polysaccharide
Starch - a storage polysaccharide, consists entirely of α-glucose molecules linked in long chains.
Cellulose - a structural polysaccharide, also consists of glucose molecules linked in chains.
Chitin - the structural material found in arthropods and many fungi, is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, a substituted
version of glucose.

Nucleic Acids
- Allows genetic information to be preserved during cell division and during the reproduction of organisms.
- Two main varieties of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 A. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- Genetic information is stored in DNA.
- Organisms use sequences of nucleotides in DNA to encode the information specifying the amino acid
sequence of their proteins.
- DNA molecules in organisms exist as two chains wrapped about each other in a long linear molecules in
eukaryotes, and circular molecules in most prokaryotes.
B. Ribonucleic Acid
- Short lived copies of DNA are stored in RNA.
- It carries information and is also responsible for protein synthesis.
- As a carrier of information, the form of rna called messenger RNA (mRNA) consists of transcribed single-
stranded copies of portions of the DNA.
Proteins
- Polymers of Amino Acids
- There are 20 amino acids and each amino acid is categorized into 5 chemical classes according to their R-
group.
Functions of Proteins A. Enzymes catalysis
- Facilitate specific chemical reactions
B. Defense
- Recognize foreign microbes
C. Transport
- Transport Ions
D. Support
- Keratin in the hair make the hair strong
E. Motion
- For movement
F. Regulation
- Proteins receive information, acting as cell-surface receptors.
G. Storage
- Calcium and iron are stored in the body by binding as ions to storage proteins.
Classification of Amino Acids
A. Non Polar Amino Acid
- Hydrophobic
B. Polar Amino Acid
- Hydrophilic
C. Charged Amino Acid
- For regulatory and structural
D. Aromatic Amino Acid
- For Neurologic Function
E. Amino Acid with Special Function
LIPIDS
- Hydrophobic Molecules
- Lipids are insoluble in water because they have a proportion of nonpolar C–H bonds.
Example of Lipids:
- Triglyceride - for energy storage
- Phospholipids - encloses the cell membrane
- Prostaglandin - chemical messengers for pain
- Steroid - for membrane and hormones

UCSP
Lesson 7 Topic: identity and Personality Formation
Personality vs. Identity
- Personality is something you were born with.
- It's a matter of nature (genetics) and nurture (development), where personality defines how you think
(cognition), how you feel (emotions) and how you act (behavior).
Identity
- Special identities are created through our beliefs and attitudes, so they are constructed later in our
developmental stage, and they are multidimensional.
In other words, Personality is the body you have, and Identity is the clothes you wear.
Determinants of Personality Formation
- Panopio (1994) suggested some determinants which influence the personality formation of the individual.
1. Biological Inheritance
- Transmission from parents to offspring through the mechanisms of genes
2. Geographic Environment
- It pertains to the places, climate, topography, and natural resources.
3. Cultural Environment
- A guide for the individual by providing one with models.
Personality is shaped according to and depending on one’s culture and subculture.
4. Social Environment
- Refers to the various groups and social interactions going on in the groups of which one is a member
according to Panopio (1994).

Lesson 8 Topic: Humanization and Homonization

Since the time Charles Darwin published his book, On the Origin of Species, in 1859 a revolutionary idea had swept the
scientific community.
Homonizaton
- For humans, history started at Hominization, or Evolutionary development of human characteristics that made
hominids (organisms belonging in the Homo genus) distinct from their primate ancestors.
A. Homo Habilis
- Known as ;handyman’ is a species of the genusHomo.
B. Homo Erectus
- He made a fire and knew how to control it. Homo erectus was carnivorous. They were cave dwellers.
C. Homo Sapiens (Neanderthalensis & Sapiens)
- They were carnivores & omnivores. The tools from the era indicate they were hunters.
Humanization
- Improving the humans’ everyday living
A. Preindustrial Societies
- Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines, societies were small, rural, and
dependent largely on local resources.
1. Hunter-Gatherer
- These groups were based around kinship or tribes. They hunted wild animals and foraged for
uncultivated plants for food.
2. Pastoral Society
- They rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival.
3. Horticultural Society
- Horticultural societies formed in areas where conditions allowed them to grow stable crops.
4. Agricultural Society
- Agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival.
- “Dawn of civilization” 5. Feudal Society
- Hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection.
 B. Industrial Society
- What made this period remarkable was the number of new inventions that influenced people’s daily
lives.
- Masses of people were moving to new environments and often found themselves faced with
horrendous conditions of filth, overcrowding, and poverty.
C. Postindustrial or Information Societies
- Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are recent development.
- Information societies are based on the production of information and services.

Lesson 9 Topic: Socialization, Statuses, and Roles

Culture has a deep permanent effect on the individual, especially if the culture has been imbibed since his/her
childhood.
What is Socialization?
- The Social process through which we develop our personalities through which we develop our personalities and
human potential and learn about our society and culture.
A. Primary Socialization
- Your first experiences with language, values, beliefs, behavior, and norms of your society
1. Anticipatory socialization
- The Social process where people learn to take on the values and standards of groups
that they plan to join.
2. Gender Socialization
- Learning with Psychological and Social traits associated with a person’s sex.
3. Race Socialization
- It is the process through which children learn the behavior, values, and attitudes
associated with racial groups.
4. Class Socialization
- It reaches the norms, values, traits and behavior you develop based on the social class
you’re in.
B. Secondary Socialization
- The process through which children become socialized outside the home within society at large. This often
start with school
Statuses and Roles
- In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we have a status and a role to fulfill.
Status is our relative social position within a group,
While a Role is the part our society expects us to play in a given status.
1. Achieved Statuses
- Are ones that are acquired by doing something.
2. Ascribed Statuses
- Are the result of being born into a particular family or being born.

Lesson 10 Topic: Agents of Socialization

Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds.
This learning takes place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus
both formal and informal social institutions.
Social Group Agents
- Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. People first learn to use the tangible objects
of material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.
 1. Family
- Family is the first agent of socialization. The family teach a child what he or she needs to know.
2. Peer Groups
- A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests.
Institutional Agents
- The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization.
1. School
- Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behavior like practicing
teamwork, following schedule, and using textbooks.
2. Work
- Although socialized into their culture since birth, workers require new socialization into a workplace, in
terms of both material culture and non-material culture. Different jobs require different types of
socialization.
3. Religion
- Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. These places teach participants how to
interact with the religion’s material culture.
4. Government
- To be defined as an “adult” usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes
legally responsible for him- or herself.
5. Mass Media
- Media greatly influences social norms.
- People learn about objects of material culture,as well as non material culture what is true, what is
important, and what is expected.

Lesson 11 Topic: Social Processes

Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust and readjust and establish relationships
and patterns of behaviour which are again modified through social interactions.
A. Enculturation
- This process is the way in which we obtain and transmit culture.one of the basic social processes that
happen within a family is Enculturation.
B. Acculturation
- Acculturation is the process in which a person adapts to the influence of another culture by borrowing
many of its aspects.
C. Assimilation
- In assimilation, an individual learns a new culture, tending to lose entirely his/her previously held
cultural identity.
D. Cooperation
- A form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together for a common end or purpose.
It is a central feature of social life.
E. Differentiation
- Differentiation is the process of designating each member of a society with particular functions and
roles intended for the society to achieve stability and order.
F. Amalgamation
- Cultural amalgamation is a term that refers to two or more cultures blending together to create a new
unique culture.
G. Stratification
- Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers
based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.
 H. Conflict
- As the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or other. As a process, it is the
antithesis of cooperation.
I. competition
- Competition is the struggle between two or more persons or groups that can be translated to
innovation in the long run.
- In the words of Biezanze, “competition is the striving of two or more persons for the same goal which is
limited so that all cannot share it.

Lesson 12 Topic: Political/Leadership Structures and Social Control

All societies impose social control on their citizens to some degree. They monitor and regulate behavior formally and
informally.
Political and Leaderships Structures
- A political organization or political organization involves itself in the political process, including political parties,
non-governmental organizations, advocacy groups and special interest groups.
A. Bands
- Smallest and most primitive.
- They Live autonomously of small kin which hones their Hunting and Gathering is their typical way of life.
- A band is the smallest unit of political organization, consisting of only a few families and no formal
leadership positions.
B. Tribes
- Bigger than bands and are primarily food producers. Give greater value to agriculture and husbandry
than hunting and gathering.
- Social order is maintained through a kinship and family system led by a community head.
- It is held together by common culture or religion.
C. Chiefdoms
- Already have a form of social and political structure characterized by a community leader. Dependent
upon the judgment of the chief.
- Economic activities among chiefdoms are more advanced and successful.
- It is based on Power, and is a hierarchy.
D. States
- A “states” is an institution that holds sovereignty over its citizens. It is both the land within the borders
of that sovereignty, and the government that represents it.
- State is a community of persons. It is a human political institution.
- Its people and territories are protected by its own military. - Without a population there can be no
State.
Social Control
- Sociologists define social control as the way that the norms, rules, laws and structures of society regulate human
behavior.
- without it, chaos and confusion would reign.
1. Informal Social Control
- Involves conformity to the norms and values of society as well as adoption of a belief system learned
through the process of socialization.
2. Formal Social Control
- City, state, and federal agencies such as the police or the military enforce formal social control.
Conformity
- Conformity involves changing your behaviors in order to “fit in” or “go along” with the people around you.
- Conformity involves giving in to group pressure.

ORCOMM
Lesson 7 Topic: Functions of Communication
Five Functions of Communication 1. Regulation/Control
- Control the behavior of human beings.
- Regulate the nature and amount of activities humans engage in.
Commands
- Grammatically known as imperatives
Rhetorical Questions
- Questions that influence human behavior
Statements
- Grammatically known as declaratives
2. Social Interaction
- Human beings develop and maintain bonds, intimacy, relations and associations.
3. Motivation
- It refers to a person using language to express desires, needs, wants, likes, and dislikes, inclinations,
choices, and aspirations.
4. Information
- Giving information: usually comes in the form of statements of facts (declaratives) and sometimes in
terms of rhetorical questions.
5. Emotional Expression
- Humans always need to express their emotions both verbally and non verbally.

Lesson 8 Topic: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication
- It is the use of words to convey a message.
- It can be regarded as efficient and successful if the receiver can easily process the message delivered by the
sender.
Aspect to be Considered in Verbal Communication
1. Appropriateness
- The use of suitable language form applicable to the nature of the events or context of situation.
Formal Communications
- Used in formal, ceremonial or dignified gatherings.
- Exchange of information is controlled, well-thought out, and prepared.
- Conforms to certain rules and conventions as defined by the goals and values of particular groups or
organizations.
Types of Formal Communication
- Meetings - Speeches
- Formal - Conferences
- One-on-ones - Presentations
- Interviews
Informal Communication
- It is characterized by free, casual and spontaneous exchange between two or more
persons.
- Unrestrained by rules and conventions. - Occurs in everyday life.
Types of Informal Communication
 - Casual Conversation - Gossips - Tales - Inter-relational Activities - Family social communication
2. Brevity
- Can be achieved by using more direct and clear words and avoiding beating around the bush.
3. Clarity
- Using simple yet exact words that directly express your thoughts and emotion.
4. Ethics
- Moral standards that need to be considered when delivering a message.
- As a speaker one of the prerequisites that you need to do is to know your audience first.
5. Vividness
- Words that make the conversation or exchange of information lively and vibrant.
Nonverbal Communication
- A collaboration of movements that does not require any spoken words in order to convey a message.
1. Bodily Kinesthetic
- Head Movements, Eye Movement, Facial Expression, Sitting, Standing, Walking, Hand Gestures
2. Attitude and/or behavior to specific situations 3. Manner of Dressing 4. Tone of Voice
Importance of Nonverbal Communication
- Makes the message more meaningful.
- Expresses messages without the use of words.
- Makes the audience more enthusiastic.
- Defines the kind of speaker one is. - Makes one a dynamic speaker. -Gives confidence to the speaker -
Adds color to a speech.
- Connects the speaker to the audience.
- Gives the speaker a variety of ways to deliver his/her message.

Lesson 9 Topic: Types of Speech Context

Types of Speech Context
1. Intrapersonal
- Focused on one person, where the speaker acts both as the sender and as the receiver of the message.
- The message i s made up of thoughts and feelings while the medium is the brain that processes what
you think and feel. (Hybels & Weaver, 2012. p.16).
- Talking to yourself.
2. Interpersonal
- Involves talking to one or a limited number of people.
- Adjust your speech to suit the character and personality of the person or people you talk to.
Types of Interpersonal Communication
A. Dyad - interpersonal communication that is between two people. - Focusing one-on-one.
B. Small Group - Communication is between three or more people.
- The possibility of clarification and feedback is lessened because there is more than one person to adjust
to.
C. Public - Communication that enables you to send or deliver a message before a crowd. - The message can be
transmitted for informative or persuasive purposes. - Public speaking.
D. Mass Communication - Communication through television, radio. Newspaper, magazines, books, billboards, the
internet, and other types of media.

Lesson 10 Topic: Types of Speech

Types of Speech According to Purpose
A. Informative or Expository Speech
- Mainly performed for the purpose of educating the audience on new or relevant pieces of information
on a particular topic.
 - “Lets somebody know” those in the audience by presenting them with reliable information on any
subject matter.
- Ex: Lecture of a teacher
Speech Topic:
1. Speeches About Object
- Are about things that are tangible and recognized through sight, hearing, taste, or touch.
Example Topic: what to look for when getting the latest computer system?
2. Speeches About Events
- Are about happenings or occurrences, both past and present. Example Topic: The primary
Causes of World War II
3. Speeches About Concepts
- Are About ideas, philosophies, hypotheses, arguments, etc. Example Topics: > The bible,
>Christmas in the Philippines
4. Speeches About Processes
- Are about how something is made, how something works. Example Topics: How to
administer the final exam fo the blind
B. Persuasive Speech
- It is given solely for the purpose of convincing the audience to agree with the speaker’s opinion on
a particular topic. Example: Speech of a lawyer
1. Those that deal with questions of facts
Example: Does President Duterte love to kill drug lords?
2. Those that deal with question of value
Example: Do people have the right to choose to die with dignity?
3. Those that deal with questions of policy
Example: Should human beings be allowed to use other animals as objects of sport and entertainment?
C. Entertainment Speech
- It aims to share laughter and enjoyment to the audience through witty and humorous lines.
Example: Speech of Comedian
Types of Speech According to Delivery A. Manuscript
- It is the word-for-word iteration of a written message using visual aids.
Advantages:
- Accurate replication of the written words
- Guided speech Disadvantage:
- Dull and unappealing arrangement of presentation
- Lack spectators link and attachment
B. Memorized Speech
- It is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.
Advantages:
- Accurate repetition of the printed words from memory
- Comfortable to move around the stage Disadvantage:
- Presenters might end up speaking in a monotone pattern.
- The presenter might have a hard time memorizing his/her script and cannot manage his/her stage fright.
C. Extemporaneous Speech
- It is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, - Spoken in a controversial
manner using brief notes.
Advantages:
- Helps you look confident and secured
- Connects the audiences Disadvantage:
 - May not have ample time to prepare arrange and go over
D. Impromptu Speech
- It is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation and is for people knowledgeable about
the subject.
Advantages:
- Spontaneous or natural speaking
- More focused and brief Disadvantage:
- Unplanned or natural speaking
- Tendency to be disorganized
- Needs connection with the audience
- Nerve-racking for inexperience trainees and learners

Lesson 11 Topic: Types of Speech Styles

The way we communicate varies depending on a lot of factors such as the speech context, speech purpose, and
speech delivery.
The form of language that the speaker uses which [sic] is characterized by the degree of formality is known as
speech style (Martin Joos, 1976:156).
Speech Styles
- Patterns of speaking characterized by distinctive pronunciation, vocabulary, intent, participants, and
grammatical structures.
Martin Joos
- He claimed the existence of five of styles in the following order: Intimate, Casual, Consultative, Formal and
Frozen
- According to Joos, It is common for humans in a communicative situation to easily move from one style to the
one next to it, but not to the one not near to it.
- It is also possible, according to him, to make use of two styles at the same time when engaging in artful speech
such as preaching.
Types of Speech Styles 1. Intimate
- This style is used between people who have very close relationships.
- They share a lot of experiences and have a lot of experiential knowledge in common
- Ex. Family members, best/close friends, and couples
People speaking with an intimate style:
- Don’t care about grammar or pronunciation.
- May give meaning to certain works that only they know.
- Do not plan or monitor their speech and may in fact employ a lot of sentence fragments and broken
speech.
2. Casual
- An informal communication between groups and peers who have something to share and have shared
background information but do not have close relations - Ex. Classmates
People speaking with an intimate style:
- Use a lot of trendy words and phrases and speak in incomplete or elided sentences.
- Use slang
- Don’t need to be careful about pronunciation, grammar, or choice of words.
- Assume that his or her listener knows a lot about what is considered public information
3. Consultative
- used in semi formal and standard communication.
- The speaker constantly observes the listener’s verbal and nonverbal cue for feedback as to whether the
speaker seems to be giving too little or too much information.
 - Ex. Teacher and Student
People speaking with an intimate style:
- Pronounces words well, chooses words carefully, and speaks in complete sentences to minimize
misunderstanding.
- Does not plan much of what he or she will say. - Provides a lot of background information.
4. Formal
- It is a one-way straightforward speech.
- It is called upon when speaking in formal settings no matter how the participants are related to each
other.
- Ex. state of the nation address
Characteristics of Formal Style
a. Requires careful attention to producing well-formed sentences and to coherent, very logically-organized speech.
b. Use of a lot of Latinisms - sentence structures that are very similar to latin but not considered natural English.
People speaking with an intimate style:
- Plans the speech or utterances well in advance.
- Do not gauge how much background information or her listener knows.
- Provides all the background information that he or she thinks the listener needs.
5. Frozen
- It is the most formal communicative style that is usually used during solemn ceremonies and events.
- Its emphasis is on its role - for creatively deriving ideas on the part of the reader (or listener when the
text is spoken).
- Ex. Pledges
Lesson 12 Topic: Types of Speech Acts
Communication happens effectively when the message is passed clearly; it becomes useful and meaningful when
both the sender and the receiver understand the idea being put across.
Speech Acts
- These are acts done by saying them.
- Performed when a person offers an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal.
John Austin (1962)
- He is a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory. - He coined the term
“speech act” in his book How to Do Things with Words.
Three Types of Speech Acts 1. Locutionary Act
- This is simply the speaking part of the speech act.
- This act happens with the utterances of a sound, a word or even a phrase as a natural unit of speech.
Consider the following:
- It has sense.
- It has the same meaning to both the speaker and the listener.
- Utterances give rise to shared meaning when it is adjusted by the speaker for the listener.
Example of Locutionary Act
- “Wow!” (When someone is amazed)
- “Hello!” (Greeting Someone)
- “Get out!” (A strong command)
2. Illocutionary Act
- This is the acting part of the speech act - the very action done by saying something.
Saying something with the intention of:
- Stating an opinion, confirming or denying something;
- Making a prediction, a promise, a request; - Issuing an order or a decision; or - Giving advice or
permission.
Example of Illocutionary Acts:
- It’s more fun in the Philippines. (Opinion) - I’ll help you clean the house tomorrow. (Promise) - Get my
things in the office. (Order)
3. Perlocutionary Act
- It refers to the consequent effect of what was said. This is based on the particular context in which the speech
act was mentioned.
The response may not necessarily be physical or verbal and elicited by:
- Inspiring or insulting
- persuading/convincing; or
- deterring/ scaring
Example of Perlocutionary Act -“We can do this and win as one!” (Inspiring)
- “It is crucial that we give all our collective efforts to fight against this pandemic.
We must start working together.” (Persuading)
- “Smoking destroys your health, certain as it brings diseases, it kills - you, your loved ones, and others!”
(Deterring)
John Searle (1976)
- He is a professor from the University of California, Berkeley.
- In his book A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts, he further categorizes illocutionary acts into five distinct
categories.
Searle’s Classification of Speech Act 1. Assertive
- Commit the speaker to the truthfulness of a condition or situation.
Some examples of an assertive act:
Suggesting, putting, forward, swearing, boasting, and concluding
2. Directive
- Attempts by the speaker to make the listener do something Some examples of an
directive act:
Asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, and begging
3. Commissive
- Commit the speaker to a future action.
Some examples of an assertive act:
Promising, planning, vowing, and betting.
4. expressive
- Shows a speaker’s attitude toward a situation.
Some examples of an assertive act:
Thanking, apologizing, welcoming and deploring
5. declarative
- Make something true by saying it (constantive) or make the speaker do something by saying
it (performative) Some examples of an assertive act:
Blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentences and excommunicating

DRRR
Lesson 7 Topic: Volcano Hazards
Volcano
- It is described as a vent and opening on the earth’s surface and ejects molten rocks, gases, and ashes.
How are Volcanoes Formed
1) The planet Earth is composed of four layers: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.
 2) The two outermost layers, the crust and the (outermost) mantle are composed of puzzle-like sections called
Tectonic Plates.
3) The edge of these tectonic plates are called Plate Boundaries.
4) This occurs when one plate moves below another in a process called Subduction.
5) Subduction causes molten rocks to move up the surface.
6) Magma which rises is now called Lava. It will cool, solidify, and form the volcanic arc.
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
- These volcanoes produce low viscosity, runny lava, which flows far from the source. It has gentle slopes
Stratovolcanoes
- These volcanoes produce viscous, sticky lava, which does not flow easily. It has relatively steep slope.
Calderas
- These volcanoes occur when a volcano erupts violently, resulting to its collapse.
Active Volcanoes
- Are volcanoes which erupted at least once in the last 10,000 years.
Dormants Volcanoes
- Are volcanoes which has not erupted in the last 10,000 years. Extinct Volcanoes
- Are volcanoes which has not erupted in the last 10,000 years and is not expected in the foreseeable
future.

Lesson 8 Topic: Volcanic Disaster Readiness

Signs of an impending Volcanoes
1) Visible changes in the characteristics of a volcano
a) Volume and temperature of gas composition
b) Volcanic Smoke
c) Volcanic Quakes
2) Deformation of the ground due to magma intrusion
a) Frequency of landslide
b) Frequency of rockfalls
c) Dying vegetation around the volcano
3) Changes in bodies of water
a) Increased temperature of water wells
b) Increased temperature in lakes and rivers
c) Noticeable alterations in the chemical content of bodies of water
Tools for Recognizing Volcanic Hazards\ 1) Permanent Danger
Zones (PDZ)
- PHIVOLCS (Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) assigned Permanent Danger Zones
pertains to four to six kilometers radius from the summit of a volcano.
Alert Levels
This provides the following:
- Levels ranging from 0 - 5
- A measurable indicator of the current situation of an impending volcanic eruption.
- Provides a trigger to the public to take immediate action.
ALERT LEVEL 0: No Alert
ALERT LEVEL 1: Abnormality Observed
ALERT LEVEL 2: There is an increasing unrest
ALERT LEVEL 3: There is an increasing tendency towards eruption.
ALERT LEVEL 4: Hazardous Eruption is imminent
ALERT LEVEL 5: Volcanic Eruption is Happening
Volcanic Hazards are activities that may harm the subsystem on Earth such as biosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere.

Lava Flow
- Occurs when magma from underneath the earth flows on the surface as lava.
Pyroclastic Flow and Surges
- Occurs when rock materials, hot gases, and ash flow that can burn and suffocate people.
Gas Emissions
- Occurs when minor amounts of nitrogen, methane, and helium from magma and lava are blown by wind.
Ash Fall
- Are small pieces of rocks, minerals, and fragments blown by a volcanic eruptions.
Lahar
- Are mudflows which are combination of volcanic debris and floods.
Lesson 9 Topic: Other Geologic Hazards
Besides EARTHQUAKE and VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, there are other Geologic Hazards. They can be into two:
1) Sudden Geologic Hazards 2) Slow or Gradual Geologic Hazards
Sudden Geologic Hazards
- Sudden geologic hazards are hazards occurring on the Earth’s surface that happen very quickly with little or now
warning at all they are usually:
1) Small-scale (Low Exposure)
2) Low-severity (Low Vulnerability/Sensibility)
3) Localized (Community-based)
4) They usually take the form of landslides)
They are usually triggered. Possible triggers are:
1) Heavy Rainfall
2) Any action on unstable soil located in elevated areas such as hills and mountains
Landslide
- Landslide refers to all types of surface movement, particularly downhill movements of soil and rock due to
gravity.
Landslides are classified based on the depth of the landslide materials and its movement.
Types of Landslide Based on Depth
Shallow Landslides
- This occurs when the sliding surface ranges from a few decimeters to a few meters of soil rock.
Deep-Seated Landslide
- This occurs when the sliding surface has depths of more than 10 meters.
Types of Landslide Based on Movement
Fall
- This occurs when soil rock abruptly detach from a highly elevated, steep slope or cliff (about 45 to 90 degrees).
Topple
- This occurs when the button part of a geologic feature is not solid enough to support the mass above, resulting
to the upper part toppling down.
Slide
- This occurs when the upper portion of a geologic feature is separated from its downslope bottom part.
Spread
- This occurs when the top portion of a geologic feature moves or spreads into a weaker lower portion, usually
because of liquefaction.
Flow
- This is a phenomenon where displaced rocks (rock flow), debris (debris flow), or soil (Earth flow) “flows”
continuously due to slopes or presence of water.
Lesson 10 Topic: Other Geologic Disaster Readiness
Slow or Gradual Geologic Hazards
Slow or Gradual hazards take years, decades, or even centuries, to form and become a danger to a community. They
are two examples of Gradual Hazards:
1) Subsidence
2) Alluvial Fan
SUBSIDENCE
- It is movement of a surface as it shifts downward respective to a reference such as sea-level. It involves the
following:
1) Slightly soluble rocks
2) Percolating Water
3) Water Tables
4) Cave Roof
Subsidence also aids in the creation of SINKHOLES through the process of Suffosion.
SUFFOSION occurs when loose soil, loess, or any non-cohesive material is placed on top of a fissured and joint-filled
limestone substratum.
ALLUVIAL FANS
- A triangle-shaped accumulation of gravel, sand, and even smaller fragments of sediments, such silt, is known as
an alluvial fan.
Signs of Impending Geologic Hazards 1. Infrastructure Signs
a) Offset Fence Lines
b) Bulges or Elevation changes on sidewalks or pavements
c) Popping, creaking, or snapping noises from houses
d) Tilting and cracking of concrete floors
e) Broken water lines and underground utilities
f) Sticking doors and windows and cracks in houses
Ground Signs
a) Ground and surface solid cracks
b) Unusual bulges or elevation changes on the ground
c) Sunken or down-dropped roads
Ground Signs
a) Springs seeping and wet or saturated ground
b) Rapid increase or decrease in stream-water levels

Lesson 11 Topic: Hydrometeorological Hazards

Hydrometeorology
- Is the study of natural phenomena of the following origins:
1. Atmospheric
2. Hydrospheric
3. Oceanographic
Its involves the following phenomenon:
1. Typhoons
2. Droughts
3. Desertification
4. Tropical Depression
It overlaps with other sciences such as:
1. Climatology
2. Oceanography
3. Cloud Physics
4. Hydrology
Climatology
- Is the study of the earth’s climate, which stretches over a longer period of time.
Oceanography
- Delves into the dynamics of ocean’s waters as an ecosystem and all the organisms co-existing in an ocean
environment.
Cloud Physics
- Is focused on the formation, growth, and all the processes occurring within clouds.
Hydrology
- Is the discipline encompassing the study of water cycle processes, distribution of water in oceans, water quality,
and even water sustainability.
Hydrometeorological Weather Systems (HMS)
- These are forces produced by interacting and interdependent phenomena of hydrospheric, atmospheric, and
oceanographic origins.
- These HMSs can lead to disasters as they produce many hazards.
Tropical Cyclone (Bagyo)
- It is a rapidly rotating system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed atmospheric circulation, strong
winds, and thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls.
Southwest Monsoon (Habagat)
- It is composed of moisture-laden winds and rains and comes in the form of heavy rains, strong winds, and
flooding.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
- It is a low pressure area with high humidity which forms a band of clouds across the equator. It is the result of
northeasterly and southeasterly winds.

Source Nature Hazards

Pacific Ocean, West Thunderstorms,

BAGYO Philippine Sea Events Strong winds, Heavy
rains

HABAGAT Hot, moist wind from Season Strong winds, Heavy

Southwest Asia rains

AMIHAN Icy winds from North Season Little no rain

Asia

Convergence of
ITCZ Northeasterly and Event/Season Heavy rains
Southeasterly winds

Lesson `12 Topic: Hydrometeorological Disaster Readiness

Types of Hydrometeorological Hazards
Lightning
- It is a bolt of electricity, often blue-white in color, which travels from cloud to cloud, or from cloud to the surface
of the earth.
Hail
-It is a form of precipitation which comes as balls or irregular lumps of ice. It is a common occurrence on top of
mountain ranges in the Philippines.
Tornado
- It is a violently rotating funnel-shaped cloud which descends from a thundercloud to the ground.
Strong Winds
- These are winds brought upon by tropical cyclones, and may be an onset of tornadoes.
Flood
- This refers to large amount of water covering a typically dry land area, heavy rains and tropical cyclones.
Flash Flood
- This occurs when heavy rains or sudden release from dams cause streams to become raging rivers due to sudden
rush of water from an elevated area.
Storm Surge
- This occurs when large waves are created because of rising waters caused by low pressure areas.
Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan
Typhoon Haiyan
Death Toll: 6,300
Missing: 1,062
Injured: 28,688
Economic Losses: Php 728 Billion (13% of Philippine Annual Budget)
- Most of the death and destruction associated with Typhoon Haiyan are caused by 25.6 feet high Storm Surges.
Safety Tips during Hydrometeorological Hazards
General Tips
1) Stay updated on hydrometeorological hazards.
a) Watch the news
b) Listen to the radio
c) Look at updates in social media
2) Stay alert and be on the lookout for possible floodings,tornadoes, and surges
.
During Thunderstorms
1) Seek safe shelter.
2) Stay away from corded phones, windows, and doors.
3) Avoid anything connected to plumbing, electrical wires
4) Unplug all electrical equipment before the thunderstorm occurs.
During Tornado or Strong Winds 1) Stay indoors.
2) Stay out of auditoriums, gymnasiums, and other similar structures.
3) If caught outside and have no time to escape, lie flat in the nearest ditch or ravine. 4) When inside a car, go
outside and find a sturdy structures as shelter.
Before Flood and Storm Surge
1) Find out and be informed of your community’s evacuation plan.
2) Know possible emergency enters.
3) Prepare a list of emergency contact numbers in case of severe storms and heavy floodings.
4) Prepare first aid kit and emergency provisions.
5) Clear debris blocking or clogging your gutters and downspouts.